1Land Use Zoning forIntegrated Coastal ZoneManagement

Md. Shahadat Hossain and C. Kwei Lin

ITCZM Monograph No. 3 Series 2001

Remote Sensing, GIS and RRA Approach inCoxs Bazar Coast, Bangladesh

2Land Use Zoning for Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement

Remote Sensing, GIS and RRA Approach in Coxs Bazar Coast,Bangladesh

Md. Shahadat Hossain and C. Kwei Lin

The Integrated Tropical Coastal ZoneManagement at AIT is an area of specializationunder the Schools of Environment, Resourcesand Development and Civil Engineering. Thisinterdisciplinary field aims to develop humanresources for coastal zone management in theAsia and the Pacific regions where the coastalareas encompass a diverse array of resourcesand ecosystems with intense human activities.

ITCZM MONOGRAPH SERIES

The series contains an extract based on theM.Sc. theses to reach the public.

Integrated Tropical Coastal Zone Management,School of Environment, Resources andDevelopment, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O.Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120Thailand

Md. Shahadat Hossain and C. Kwei Lin, 2001.Land Use Zoning for Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement: Remote Sensing, GIS and RRAApproach in Coxs Bazar Coast, Bangladesh.ITCZM Monograph No. 3, 25pp.

Contents Introduction 3 Zonation in Coastal Zone Management 3 An ICZM Framework for Coxs Bazar Coast 4 Overview of the Coxs Bazar Coastal Zone 6

Location and area 6Climate 6Hydrology 7Physical processes at the coast 7The Chakaria Sunderban mangrove forest 8

Social Situation and Resource Utilization 9Occupation- daily activities and seasonality 9Socio-economic condition of the coastal community 10Stakeholders 11

Land Suitability Pattern and Conflict 12Suitability and Conflict 12Existing land use pattern 13Land use zoning 14

Land Suitability Analysis 14Mangrove Afforestation 14Shrimp Farming 16Salt Production 18Coastal Tourism 21

Annex 22 References 25 Acknowledgements 25

3Introduction

The Coxs Bazar coastal zone has a greatimportance since pre-historic times for itsabundance in natural resources. The localcommunities have been haphazardly utilizingthese resources, resulting in completedestruction of some of them (e.g. ChakariaSunderban mangrove forest), some beingover-utilized (e.g. coastal shrimp farming,natural fish stock) while some other resourcesremain under-utilized (e.g. molluscs,seaweeds). Due to lack of appropriateguidelines for natural resource conservationand utilization, land use conflicts occur andthe coastal zone turned into areas of majorconflicts.

Evaluation of existing natural resources isessential for future development. Land/resource use zoning is needed on the basis ofsuitable criteria for different activities or mixesof activities such as mangrove afforestation,shrimp farming, salt production, coastaltourism and human settlement for sustainableresource utilization, their conservation andconflict reduction. A main approach here hasbeen to record and assess land suitabilityclassification, to identify land use conflictsconsidering current land use pattern for landuse zoning, and the socio-economic conditionof the coastal community. It is suggested thatthe zoning approach can maximizeproductivity and improve the socio-economicconditions of the people as well as maintainthe ecological balance in the coastal region.The use of remote sensing and GIS techniquesare helpful tools to evaluate the existingresources as well as social, economic andenvironmental condition of the area.

The Earth Summit in Rio in June 1992 wasvery noticeably oriented towardsempowerment through participation and

emphasis shifted significantly from thetraditional top-down perspective on policyimplementation, to one of bottom-uppeople-led development. It was recognized thatsustainable development would require thetraining and education of all levels of society,where indigenous people and theircommunities have a vital role in environmentalmanagement and development because oftheir knowledge and traditional practices.

However, Coxs Bazar has not succeeded ininvolving its communities in coastal resourcemanagement. A participatory approach tocoastal resource planning can consider thelong-term interests of the host community, onwhom most of the activities depend. Thisapproach is based on the assumption thatcoastal management programs will be moresuccessful if local people are involved inplanning and implementing coastal policies andprograms. Involvement of local people in themanagement practice would give them asense to awareness of the resources andensure their continued livelihood and economicwell being. In this way, the coastal zone linksecology with economics, sociology andpolitics, promoting policies and practices whichdiscourage further degradation, establishpriorities, provide incentives for improvementand provide sufficient resources for localpeople so that they manage themselveswillingly.

Zonation in Coastal Zone ManagementCoastal natural resources in the Coxs Bazarcoast are land, water, fisheries andmangroves, which have been used for multipurposes and have strongly influencedsocio-economic development. With theexception of the Coxs Bazar town, which isdominated by service employment in the formof consumer services and tourism, economicactivities along the coast are based on the

4An ICZM Framework for Coxs Bazar CoastIt is clear that the coastal zone of Coxs Bazarhas suffered from a large number ofmanagement-related problems that haveproduced poor economic returns andextensive environmental damage. Many of theproblems caused could have been avoided ifgood management practices had beenfollowed. An excellent, comprehensive accountof ways to improve coastal zone utilization isprovided in theframework thatdeals with somei m p o r t a n tprocesses involvedin the Coxs Bazarcoastal zone (backcover).

For integratedcoastal management, plans have to beformulated, guidelines have to be created, andrules have to be written, implemented, andenforced by the government. A lead agency ororganization with full authority on IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICZM) should benominated/established including Departmentof Water Resources, Environment & Forests,Fisheries & Livestock, Shipping, LocalGovernment and Rural Development, LandRevenue, Tourism, and other government andnon-government organizations, forenvironment-friendly coastal resourceutilization. The ICZM agency should also be ableto recommend measures to mitigate or preventdamage or enhance resource use and wouldinclude experts in the fields of environment,fisheries, aquaculture, coastal resourcemanagement, tourism, socio-economics,waste management and/or other relevant fields.

primary sector: shrimp culture, saltproduction, fishing and agriculture.

Managing complex systems requires anintegrated approach capable of bringingtogether the multiple, interwoven, overlappinginterests of the coastal area in a coordinatedand rational manner, harnessing coastalresources for optimum social and economicbenefit for present and future generationswithout prejudicing the resource base itself andmaintaining the ecological processes. Thespatial development has clearly indicated thesuitability classes of the Coxs Bazar coastalzone for different uses. On the basis of thesuitability classes, land use zoning needs tobe made for better production, conservationand to maintain environmental balance. Theinterdependence of activities and resources inthe coastal area suggests that the sectoralapproach to coastal area management can notachieve satisfactory results. An effectivemanagement of the coastal and marineresources should be based not only on ananalysis of individual activities and theirimpacts, but also on the combined effects ofsectoral activities on each other and on coastalresources.

The present work at Coxs Bazar coast hasidentified the zones suitable for mangroveafforestation, coastal shrimp farming, saltproduction and coastal tourism. Thestakeholders such as aquaculturist, saltfarmer, national and private tour operator,local people, respective governmentdepartments, non-government organizationsas well as local, national and internationalexperts knowledge have been considered inthis zoning process. The objectives have beendefined clearly and the required criteria fordifferent coastal uses have been consideredduring remote sensing and GIS analysis. Whatis allowed and what is not allowed is clear inthis zoning, and developers can plan

CZM agency Public awareness Community participation Zoning Economic viability and Social acceptabilityTime-sharing

accordingly. But no zone can be perfect for along period, as the coast is a changingenvironment and conditions may change.

5It would also include local public/private sectorrepresentatives, so that the work will trulyaddress local needs.

Public awareness along the coast is a pre-requisite for proper management of marine andcoastal resources. Initially, a multifacetedapproach, combining printed materials,audiovisual presentations and face-to-faceinteraction, is probably the best way to start aneducation program. Depending on the targetaudience and budget, a variety of additionaloptions can be employed:mass media (i.e.press, television, radio), exhibitions, tours,training/workshops, supply of promotionalmaterials i.e. T-shirt and informal recreationalactivities with an education focus.

Successful coastal zone management requiresthe participation of local people, governmentauthorities, non-government organizations,researchers and investors. The coastalcommunity must be involved in the decision,planning and management processesespecially for matters that affect them directly.This participatory approach will reduceconflicts with the local communities that areessential for long-term monitoring, and thecommunity should receive appropriatefeedback regarding the outcomes arising fromtheir efforts.

Zoning may be used either as a source ofinformation for potential developers, or as aplanning and regulating tool, in which differentzones are identified and characterized asmeeting certain objectives. Zoning of land andwater for certain types of development mayhelp in controlling environmental deterioration,and in avoiding adverse social andenvironmental interactions. Zoning is animportant and powerful tool for coastalplanners and has a wide range of specificapplications and uses. Where zones aredelineated on the basis of site suitability, they

can be used:

as a basis for the communication and exchange of ideas about certain development work; to encourage development in the most suitable areas; to define areas which may benefit from infrastructure schemes specificly aimed at promoting the development and related activities; to provide a focus for research or monitoring on development issues as environmental capacity; to define environmental capacity in relation to multiple uses; to develop area-based certification or quality; as a basis for sectoral EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) or CBA (Cost Benefit Analysis) related to a particular area.

Selection of suitable sites, methods, andspecies should take into account bothemployment opportunities for fishermen andlocal demands for species that are notprovided by capture fisheries. Economicviability and social acceptability of the existingaquaculture practices may be further promotedthrough increased horizontal and verticalintegration within local economics. Aquaculturemay stimulate acceptance and support bystakeholders of other local activities if theaquaculture planning has taken sufficientnotice of changes in patterns of land andwater use and waste disposal, use ofagricultural by-products, promotion of localmarketing systems, and promotion of locallybased processing facilities.

Another method of increasing productionwithout opening up new ponds is time-sharingbetween salt production and aquaculture. It isfeasible to use salt ponds for shrimp culture inthe monsoon period when high rainfall makessolar salt production uneconomical along CoxsBazar coast.

6ClimateThe Coxs Bazar coastal zone features atropical maritime climate. The two major airstreams affecting the coast are the southwestmonsoon, with winds from southwesterndirection and the northeast monsoon, withwinds from northeast direction. The southwestmonsoon commences in April and lasts tillOctober, which brings air of high humidity from

Figure 1. Geographical location of the Coxs Bazar

N

0 5 10

Km

21045

21030

Bay of Bengal

91045

Coxs Bazar

BANGLADESH

Bay of Bengal

Overview of the Coxs Bazar Coastal Zone

Location and AreaCoxs Bazar district is situated on thesoutheastern coast of Bangladesh along thenortheastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. Thegeographical location is between latitude2030 and 22 N and longitude 9145 and9215 E. The Chittagong Hill Tracts andMyanmar to the east, Bay of Bengal to thewest, Chittagong to the north and Bay ofBengal and Myanmar coast to the southsurround the Coxs Bazar district. The districthas 7 Thanas (sub-district) of which thepresent study covered 2 Thanas (Figure 1)namely Chakaria and Coxs Bazar Sadar. Thecoast is rich in both renewable and non-renew-able natural resources.

The main economically important coastalresources are fisheries, aquaculture, salt,mangrove forest, land, water and culturalheritage. Due to reduced river flow in thewinter, the surface water systems suffer fromsaline water intrusion, making the resourceunsuitable for agricultural and domestic uses.The ground water aquifers in the coastal areaare under growing stress of salinizationresulting from over-exploitation. Sea level riseand low river flows would substantiallycontribute to that stress. Winter agriculture inthe coastal areas is dependent on groundwater. Rural water supply almost entirelydepends on fresh water sources.

Considerable areas of the coast have beenafforested with mangrove since 1966 with theaim of developing dense mangrove forest aswell as a green belt along the coast. The mostnatural and dynamic features include beachand dunes and both develop parallel to thecoast. A long sandy beach of about 145 kmruns from Coxs Bazar to Badar Mokam. Thisstretch offers good tourism and recreationalopportunities.

7the Indian Ocean, creating clockwisecirculation in the Bay of Bengal and the areareceives high rainfall. The northeast monsoonwind blows from the mountain/hill areas, andcoastal water forms an anti-clockwisecirculation, which begins in November andlasts until next March, the period of the dryseason (Annex 1). The dry season can besub-divided into a cooler dry season fromNovember to February with low temperaturefoggy weather and a hot dry season from Marchto May with high temperature and evaporationand periodic thundershowers.

HydrologyThe two major river systems in the area areMatamuhuri and the Baghkhali Rivers, whichflow from east to west (Figure 2). These riversoriginating from the Chittagong Hill Tracts andMyanmar swell rapidly and flow in spate for afew days at the time after heavy pre-monsoonor monsoon rainfalls in the Chittagong HillTracts. Many canals such as, Big Matamuhuri,Small Matamuhuri, Desmia, Pakua, Bhola,Pachacoral, Tetong, Varuakhali, and Fulchariare also important waterways. Besides these,the Moheshkhali and the Kutubdia Channelsas well as the Bay of Bengal are also situatedin this coast. There are numerous tributariesand micro-channels criss-crossing the coast,particularly the Chakaria Thana. The rivers andcanals are influenced by tides and suitablefor navigation. The tidal water can reach about50 km inland and plays an important role in thewater supply for shrimp farming and saltproduction in the Coxs Bazar coastal zone.The mangrove in tidal floodplains comprisesan accreted mud flat of low ridges, inter-ridgedepressions and shallow basins. Innumerabletidal creeks intersect the landscape. Thehighly porous soils on the hills and high valleysserve as aquifers to store rainwater enablingcontinuous seepage supply to feed the streamsduring the dry season.

MatamuhuriRiver

Baghkhali River

Figure 2. River systems of the study area at CoxsBazar coast

Physical processes at the coastIn Coxs Bazar coast tides are semi-diurnal withtwo high and two low waters during a lunar day.Tidal behaviour varies along the coast in termsof magnitude but not of pattern. The tidal rangeat the Cox Bazar coast is strong, ranging from0.07 m at neap tide to 4.42 m at spring tide atBaghkhali river. The main, large scalecirculation in the marine water of Bangladeshis of clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation, bothcreated by the wind. The current velocityvaries from 4.5 to 5.5 knots during spring tideduring the summer monsoon, and 2.3 to 3.9knots during neap tide. Waves running up thecoast often throw large numbers of organismson to the beach, where they die. Wave heightvaries from 0 to 9 meters.

8The Chakaria Sunderban mangrove forestThe main block of natural mangrove forest inCoxs Bazar coast, the historical ChakariaSunderbans occupied the low-lying salineswamp at the mouth of the Matamuhuri delta.The swamp consisted of innumerablelow-lying islands, which were mostlysubmerged at high tide.

The present field observations as well as thesatellite image (Landsat TM) (Figure 3)revealed that the forest has been completelydestroyed (Figure 4). Responsible factorsfor the destruction of the mangrove forests arethe removal of forest products for fuel, highpressure of grazing, haphazard fishing, humansettlement, salt production and, probably theworst one, is shrimp farming. In addition, thefishermen used to build dams in the mouth ofthe creeks and thereby disrupted the tidalinundation causing water stagnation. Due tothe hydrological changes, seedlings in stagnantwater failed to survive, which seriously affectedthe recovery of the lost stock [1]. Suchinterference coupled with the government

MoheshkhaliIsland

KutubdiaIsland

ChittagongHill Tracts

Coxs BazarSadar

ChakariaSunderban

Chittagong

Myanmar

Bay of Bengal

Figure 3. Landsat TM image showing the study area(Coxs Bazar coast)

policy of converting the reserve mangroveforest into shrimp farms and human settlementled to the drastic depletion of the mangrove.

Figure 4. Historical changes of Chakaria Sunderban mangrove forest in Coxs Bazar coast for100 years time scale

Mangrovestatus

1903 1929 1952-1975 1977-1988 2001Time

ReservedMangroveforest

Allowedhumansettlement

Humansettlementexpanded

Shrimp andsaltencroachment

The entiremangroveforest alteredin shrimpfarms withminor salt bedand humansettlement

Activity

Avicennia spp.

Sonneratia apetata

Excoecaria agollocha

Shrimp farm Salt bed Human settlementHeritera fomes

Porteresia coarctata or Myrostachya wightiana

9Social Situation and Resource Utilization

Occupation- Daily Activities andSeasonalityThe major activities of the people are shrimpfarming, agriculture, fishing, salt production,both as daily labour and owner of suchbusinesses. One person may be engaged intwo or more different occupations, i.e. shrimpculture, salt-making and agriculture. Some ofthe occupations are seasonal, so a person cantake up different activities in one year. Amongthe business people, most are engaged inhotels and restaurants, selling of handicraftsand gift items for tourists, and supplying fish,shrimp and salt.

The daily activities of men involve intensivelabour for income generation for the family,while womens activities are family-oriented(Figure 5). Most of the men work in

agricultural fields, salt beds and shrimp farmsas daily labour. They are also engaged in woodcutting, taking care of cattle and trading in thelocal market. During the fishing period(September to March), fishermen stay 3-7 daysat sea depending on the success of the catch.Some of them are engaged in making fishingcrafts and gears. The women in coastalcommunities do not participate directly inincome-generating activities. They generallylook after their families. The daily chore ofchildcare, collecting water, fuel, cooking,chicken and duck rearing, homesteadgardening, sewing clothes, making handicraftsand occasional enterprises to increase familyincome is a heavy burden. All these effort areunrecognized and unpaid for. In the CoxsBazar coast most of the respondents wereMuslims and they offer prayers five times a day.These prayers are offered at around dawn(Fazar), at noon (Johore), mid afternoon (Asar),

24

12

1806

FazarJohoreAsarMagribEsha

Prayers

MorningAfternoon

Sleeping

Field works LunchDinner

Breakfast

Trading inLocal market

Eating

MEN24

12

1806

FazarJohoreAsarMagribEsha

Prayers

MorningAfternoonEvening

Sleeping

House works

LunchDinner

Breakfast

Cooking& eating

WOMEN

Figure 5.Daily activity charts of men and women along Coxs Bazar coast of Bangladesh

00 hrs

00 hrs

00 hrs

00 hrs 00 hrs

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Socio-Economic Condition of the CoastalCommunityField visits and group interviews providedsome ideas about the socio-economiccondition of the local people. Most had beenliving there for generations. The typicalaverage household size consists of 7 to 8members in the Coxs Bazar coast, and thehouses set up were usually inhabited by thehusband and wife, children, brothers, sistersand parents. The area is densely populatedwith 687 people per square kilometer as of1998 estimations. More than 90% of the peopleare Muslims, very few are Hindus whileRhykans are dominant among the tribalgroups. Increased population is one of the mainfactors that caused the depletion of naturalresources i.e., mangrove destruction, overexploitation of fisheries resources, etc.

The local people are depending largely on thecoastal natural resources for their living, i.e.,fishing, farming, agriculture, and trading. All ofthese factors lead to destruction of the coastalnatural resources to meet peoples demands.

after sunset (Magrib) and evening (Esha). Wildshrimp fry collection, which used to be themajor income generating activity, has beenreduced greatly due to the recent developmentof hatchery industries along the Coxs Bazarcoast. As a result very few men and childrenwere found to collect wild shrimp fry from therivers, canals, creeks and coastal waters. Aseasonal calendar is helpful for documentingregular cyclical periods (i.e. seasonal) andsignificant events that occur during a year andinfluence the life of the community. It providesa general picture of important environmentaland socio-economic changes during the year(inner back cover, up).

Transect analysis was clearly focused on theexisting land use pattern, particularly of theChakaria area (Figure 6). The transectassisted in concentrating discussions onspecific zones and the activities carried outthere, and identified some key problems.Among the advantages of transect analysis isthe simple portrayal of the resources presentand the associated economic, social andenvironmental issues in spatial terms [2].

Figure 6. Transect analysis showing present land use pattern of the Coxs Bazar coast, Chakaria area

11

About 55% of the people in the study area areilliterate, which is related to natural resourcedestruction. Education creates awarenessamong the people about the important issuesof the society i.e., population pressure,overexploitation of natural resources,degradation of the natural environment,carrying capacity of the environment, etc.

About 20 to 25 years ago local people ofChakaria were dependent upon the mangroveforest. Many household necessities, such asfirewood, housing materials, boat makingmaterials, herbal plants for traditionalmedicines, honey, and other minor productswere provided by the Chakaria Sunderbanmangrove forest. The area was a very goodhabitat for different types of birds, mammals,reptiles, amphibians, etc. People used to catchfishes and shrimps from the water bodiesinside the mangrove forest. Deforestation ofChakaria Sunderban has affected the socio-economic conditions of more than 90% of thelocal community of the Chakaria region (innerback cover, below).

The villagers have been using mud stoves forcooking food (Figure 7). They collect some fuelwood from the forest, nearby hills and alongroadsides. But most of them (above 90%) buy

fuel wood from the market. Presently fuel woodprice ranges from Tk. 200 to Tk. 250 per 100Kg, which was previously (20-25 years ago)Tk. 25 to Tk 50 only. The price increment hasbadly affected the social life of the localcommunity.

Some villagers have lost their agricultural landdue to shrimp farm establishment, which alsohas significant impact on the socio-economicconditions. About 50% of the local people havechanged their previous occupation in theattempt to increase income. Shrimp farmingis the main cause of changing occupation.Other reasons are directly related todeforestation. Fishermen have lost theirfishing grounds and have been forced to seeksome other occupation to earn a living. Asimilar story can be related to woodcutters.Peasants are facing a lot of trouble inmaintaining their cattle and buffaloes.

StakeholdersStakeholders are important because they cansupport and sustain a particular resource.They could be potential partners or threats inmanaging and developing coastal resources.The stakeholder analysis generates insightsinto the characteristics of coastal land/resourceuser groups and their relationships. Theprimary stakeholders of coastal land/resourceutilization in the Coxs Bazar coast arefishermen, shrimp farmers, salt producers,agriculturists and tour operators (Figure 8).Other examples of stakeholders includegovernment agencies, private/businessorganizations, non-academic organizations,academic or research organizations, religious/cultural groups and donors.

A Venn diagram was used for illustrating thenature of interactions and relationshipsbetween different land/resource user groups.Figure 7. Mud stoves of three chambers and one

chamber are used for cooking food in the CoxsBazar coast

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Land Suitability Pattern and Conflict

Suitability and ConflictThe land suitability maps for mangroveafforestation, shrimp farming and salt bedswere overlaid together to distinguish thecombined land suitability categories as well asland use conflicts (Figure 9). The most suitablearea for individual land uses i.e., salt bed,shrimp farm and mangrove afforestation wasfound as 5230.72 ha, 3122.46 ha and 1193.04ha, where the moderately suitable area was649.98 ha, 1163.61 ha and 1474.65 ha,respectively (Table 1). The land use conflictsamong salt, shrimp and mangrove are notprominent because only 0.36 ha was foundsuitable for these three activities. On the otherhand 6.03 ha was found suitable for shrimpand salt, 674.46 ha for mangrove and salt, and34.65 ha for mangrove and shrimp, whichindicate

The Venn diagram commonly uses circles torepresent groups, where the size of the circleis related to its influence to the whole and theposition of a circle relative to other circlesshows relationships. The position of the circlesrelative to a boundary distinguishes internal andexternal groups.

As an example, compromise may be neededamong fisheries, mangrove, agriculture,tourism, salt production and public works wherethese sectors are all attempting to use thecoastal zone simultaneously. Both fisheriesand tourism depend to a large extent on a highlevel of environmental quality, particularlycoastal water quality. Both sectors are affectedby pollutants, wildlife habitat loss and mangroveforest destruction. In another example,fisheries may require port services similar tothose on which tourism depends, aninfrastructure system that supplies water,sanitation, transportation andtelecommunication. Therefore, planning forboth should be integrated with that fortransportation and public works sectors.

Fishermen Shrimp farmerMiddleman

Trader

ProcessorIce mill

Exporter

Dryer Hatcheryowner

Wild frycollector

COASTAL COMMUNITYAND OUTSIDER

Salt producerTour operatorFarmer

Feedsupplier

Hotel andRestaurant

Supermarket

Handicrafts,clothes,

coral, shell

Middleman

Saltmiller

Trader

Rice

Seasonalvegetable

Domesticanimals Trader

Figure 8. Venn diagram showing relationships amongdifferent stakeholders of coastal land/resourceutilization in Coxs Bazar

Figure 9. The major categories of land suitabilityand land use conflicts along the Coxs Bazar coast

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conflicts mainly between mangrove and saltas well as mangrove and shrimp. Themoderately suitable area for mangrove and saltwas 249.12 ha and 21.33 ha for mangrove andshrimp, which also indicates land use conflictsalong the coast.

The existing land use map (Figure 10) revealedthat most of the suitable areas for mangroveafforestation are currently being used forshrimp and salt production. The present studysuggest that the suitable areas parallel to theMoheshkhali Channel have to be used formangrove afforestation to maintainenvironmental balance as well as to develop agreen belt along the coast, which will act as aprotective barrier against the periodic stormsurges of the Bay of Bengal to save lives andproperty. On the other hand, the inner-sideareas need to be used for shrimp and saltproduction on a time-sharing basis that isessential to increase the economic conditionsof the coastal community. Existing Land Use Pattern

The land use map (Figure 10) of the study area[3, 4] was compared with the resulting landsuitability map and the potentialities of thecategories were analyzed. The result showsthat most of the areas of existing shrimpfarming, salt bed and coastal tourismactivities were developed within the suitablearea of the present study. As these activitiesare being practiced traditionally along the coastfor quite a long period, the local people utilizetheir experience on the local environment andthe knowledge gathered from researchers inselecting suitable areas. As a consequence,most of the results of the present studycoincide with the existing land use pattern. Butthe most suitable area for mangroveafforestation is being under-utilized and saltproduction area utilization is almost optimum,where the suitable area for shrimp farming istremendously over-utilized causing intrusion ofsaltwater because of peoples interest inshrimp farming other than other activities.

Figure 10. Land use map of the Coxs Bazar coast

Table 1. The major categories of land suitability andland use conflicts in the Coxs Bazar coast (3=mostsuitable, 2=moderately suitable, 1=not suitable and0=absence of activity)

Mangrove Shrimp Salt Area (ha)0 0 2 649.980 0 3 5130.720 2 0 1163.610 3 0 3122.460 3 3 6.032 0 0 1474.652 0 2 249.122 2 0 21.333 0 0 1193.043 0 3 674.463 3 0 34.653 3 3 0.360 0 1 268.290 1 0 231.031 0 0 1056.151 1 1 0.09

14

Land Suitability Analysis

Mangrove AfforestationThe Coxs Bazar coast consists of fluvial andtidal geomorphological deposits created fromweathered materials from the nearby lands,towering cliffs and mountainous hills andultimately carried by the Matamuhuri river, theBaghkhali river, the Rezu Khal river andnumerous small tributaries and canals. Thisfactor helps in the formation of a newlyaccreted coastal landscape (locally calledChar), which gives an opportunity formangrove afforestation. The worlds biggestmangrove plantations have been establishedalong the coastal belt and offshore islands ofBangladesh. The planted mangrove areas inBangladesh have been gradually expandingand thus Bangladesh has become a pioneercountry in the management of plantedmangrove forest.

The spatial development has clearly indicatedthe location and extent of the accreted mudflat in the Coxs Bazar coast. The diagnosticfactors considered for suitability assessmentfor mangrove plantation are soil type, tidal area,soil pH, soil salinity and land use pattern. Theland suitability map was prepared to identifythe suitable area for mangrove plantation(Figure 11). The suitable area of 1,929.06 hawas found to be located in the inter-tidal zoneof Pokhali, Chaufoldandhi, Badarkhali,Magnama and Rajakhali union. Most of the areais in the stable mudflat along the coast. Soilseries of the area are Chakaria, Kutubdia,Badarkhali and Muhuri with silty-loam texture.The moderately suitable area of 1,895.13 halies in Pekua, Bheola Manikchar, PaschimBarabheola, Purbo Barabheola and Khuruskulunion. The unsuitable area of 1,524.24 ha isscattered mainly in Bharuakhali, Khuntakhali,Dulahazra and Chiringa union due to beingoutside the intertidal zone as well as multipleland use pattern.

Land Use ZoningThe present study suggests that the landshould be divided into different zones on thebasis of suitability, i.e. most suitable,moderately suitable and unsuitable, for multipleuses. Zoning can be time-shared, i.e. shrimpfarming during monsoon months (May toOctober), and salt production during summermonths (November to April). The zoningapproach provides important information forpotential developers/investors to identifysuitable zones for the optimal allocation ofresources and minimization of conflicts amongusers. This will minimize the unplannedhorizontal expansion of any activity, particularlyshrimp farming or salt production andmaximize productivity of smaller areas throughvertical integration using modern scientifictechniques. This will eventually improve thesocio-economic conditions of the people andmaintain the ecological balance in the coastalregion.

Land use type Presentfinding

Existing land use (Reference)

MangroveafforestationSuitable 1929.06Moderate suitable 1895.13Not suitable 1524.24

718.49(Coastal Afforestation Division)

Shrimp farmSuitable 3274.74Moderate suitable 1256.40Not suitable 237.42

15,987.74(District Fishery Office)

Salt productionSuitable 6230.16Moderate suitable 906.48Not suitable 343.17

8153.27(Bangladesh Small andCottage Industries Corporation)

Table 2. Present result and the existing landuse pattern in the Coxs Bazar coast

On the other hand, there is informalmanagement for land use zoning with respectto time-sharing i.e.; most of the salt beds areused for extensive shrimp culture with very lowstocking density (5,000 to 10,000 postlarvae/ha) during monsoon months (June-November).For this reason the shrimp farming area hasbeen over-estimated by the District FisheryOffice relative to the present finding (Table 2).

15

Timing of plantation depends on seedlingperiod of the mangrove species. Avicenniaseeds are collected from the previously plantedforest during first 15 days of September anddirectly sown into the coastal land whereSonneratia seeds are collected from May toSeptember and reared in the nursery grounds.The seedlings are then planted in the coastalarea during calm weather. Maintenance is donefor the next three years [5]. Survival rate ofmangrove afforestation in the Coxs Bazarcoast varies from 10% to 90%. In the first yearseedling survival rate is about 10% and in thesecond year it varies between 80 to 90%. Thenewly planted seedlings are usually destroyedby siltation and wave action. In undisturbedcondition yearly growth varies from 1-2 feet inthe 1st year and 5-6 feet in the 3rd year. A

Mostly Avicennia species (Figure 12) and some Sonneratiaspecies have been planted in Coxs Bazar coast, as boththese species are euryhaline. Salinity of the Coxs Bazarcoastal water is usually 30-35, but it decreases to 20during May to September due to heavy raining bysouthwest monsoon. On the other hand, the soil particlesare coarse, which is suitable for better aeration and rootsystem development of mangrove species. Three kinds ofAvicennia species have been planted along the coastalzone of which Avicennia officinalis is the tallest with 20-25m, where Avicennia alba and Avicennia marina grow up to10-15 m. Rhizophora species like tea-bush with 1-2 m in20 years along the coastal area of Bangladesh. TheSonneratia species are selected for the area of highaccretion because this species has the peculiarcharacteristic of developing the root system at thechanging silt levels.

Figure 12. Mangrove plantation in the Coxs Bazarcoast

considerable area of planted mangrove foresthas been destroyed due to natural calamity aswell as salt and shrimp farm encroachmentalong the Coxs Bazar coast.

Figure 11. Land suitability map for mangroveafforestation in the Coxs Bazar coast

16

Shrimp FarmingMost of the shrimp farms in the Coxs Bazarcoast have been established after the-mid1980s because of large demand and high priceof shrimp in the international market.Government leases the coastal land for shrimpfarming (Table 3) for a period of 10 years. Thefarmers have been practicing extensive ortraditional farming with a production rate of 230kg/ha (Table 4). The destruction of mangrovesin the Chakaria area had no apparent effect onthe shrimp yield. However, there has been noanalysis of the amount and cost of alternativeartificial inputs into the system such as feed,fertilizer, lime, drugs, human resources andother factors. These costs are usually high,while the natural inputs into the mangrove arefree of cost.

The diagnostic factors considered for suitabilityassessment for establishing shrimp farms areslope, elevation, soil texture, soil pH, organicmatter, tidal area and disease problems. Theland suitability map has been prepared toidentify the suitable area for shrimp farming(Figure 13).

The most suitable area of 3,224.74 ha wasfound to be located in Purba Barabheola,Paschim Barabheola, Sahar bil, BheolaManikchar and the western part of Dulahazraunion, which is mainly identical to themangrove-cleared region of the ChakariaSunderban and characterized by many canals,micro-channels and tributaries of theMatamuhuri river. A small portion is located inMagnama and Badarkhali union. The area isoccupied by the Matamuhuri tidal flood plainwith a rather gentle slope. The major soil seriesare Kutubdia, Chiringa and Chakaria with

Figure 13. Land suitability map for shrimp farmestablishment in the Coxs Bazar coast

Leasing year No. of cases Area (ha)1985-86 181 1,739.651986-87 186 1,306.061987-88 663 2,569.131988-89 1 4.051989-90 5 20.241990-91 1 12.961991-92 1 12.151994-95 1 20.241995-96 126 650.252000-01 278 *809.72Leased to Dept. of Fisheries 2,834.00Total 1,443 9,978.45

*Proposal under consideration for leasing

Table 3. Year-wise land leasing for shrimp farmingin Coxs Bazar coast (Source: Department of LandRevenue, Coxs Bazar, 2001)

Name of thana Number of farms Area (ha) Production (Kg/ha)Coxs Bazar Sadar 236 3,435.00Chakaria 1,048 12,552.74Moheshkhali 309 9,664.20Ramu 22 62.69Ukhia 105 1,011.34Teknaf 44 2,275.05Kutubdia 20 130.06Total 1784 29,131.08

230

Table 4. Thana-wise shrimp farming area and pro-duction in Coxs Bazar coast (source: District Fish-ery Office, Coxs Bazar, 2001)

17

sandy-loam texture and regular tidalinundation. Land use of the adjacent area ismainly extensive shrimp farms with minorsolar salt beds and human settlements (Figure14).

The moderately suitable area of 1,256.40 halies in Pekua, Barbakia, Chiringa, Khutakhali,Chofuldandi and Khuruskul union. Most of thearea in this category are located along therivers, canals and tributaries with slight tomoderate slope. The Baghkhali river andadjacent canal was contaminated with diseasedue to shrimp farm wastes from previouslypracticed intensive and semi-intensive systemsas well as sewage and municipal wastesdisposal from the Coxs Bazar town. Theunsuitable area of 237.42 ha was scatteredthroughout the study area with medium slopeand somewhat elevated land. The land is somedistance from the coast and depends on smallcanals for water supply and hence faces theproblem of water availability. It is surroundedby a hilly area, which does not support anyincome generating activities for the people andincrease expenditure for all sorts ofinfrastructure development. Shrimp farmdevelopment is if electricity, road network andinfrastructure are provided, which means morecapital investment.

Figure 15. Abandoned shrimp farm has been usedfor polyculture in Coxs Bazar coast

Figure 14. Extensive shrimp farm and humansettlement in Coxs Bazar coast

Some large farms like Grameen Foundation,Beximco Fisheries, Meghna Shrimp Farm,Aquaculture Farms Limited and AllawalaScientific Shrimp Farms practiced semi-intensive and intensive methods during the early1990s mainly in the Khuruskul area. Khan etal. [6] obtained 3739-4903 kg/ha from intensiveculture of Penaeus monodon in earthen pondsat Coxs Bazar. The sudden outbreak ofdiseases in 1994 led to the bankruptcy of someintensive farms in Khuruskul area. Thediseases were caused by pollution, as ponddischarge has gone into the Bagkhali river withpoor flushing. The major pollutants wereorganic wastes and nutrients (nitrogen andphosphorus). Fertilizers, cleaning chemicals(e.g. bleach) and antibiotics were also used.The proponents of intensive aquaculturefacilities in the Coxs Bazar coastal zoneshould provide an analysis of the quantity ofpollutants to be discharged and their effectson water quality. Presently the Khuruskul areais not suitable for shrimp farming due todisease problems. As a result polyculture ofcatfish, carp, sex reversed tilapia andMacrobrachium rosenbergii have beenpracticed in the area (Figure 15).

During the group interview one farmer

18

Salt ProductionThe diagnostic factors considered forsuitability assessments for establishing saltfarms are soil texture, tidal area and land usepattern. The land suitability map has beenprepared to identify the suitable area for saltproduction (Figure 16.

The suitable area of 6,230.16 ha was found tobe located in Pokhali, Chafuldandi, Khuntakhali,Badarkhali, Magnama and Rajakhali unions withthe availability of tidal water, and the existingland use includes salt bed and some bare land.The moderately suitable area of 906.48 ha liesin Paschim Barabheola and Purba Barabheola

union while the unsuitable area of 343.17 ha isscattered in Chiringa, Dulahazra and Patalimachuakhali unions. The area of thesesuitability classes has been used for otheractivities, particularly for shrimp farming.

The salt beds are leveled and compacted byusing a roller (Figure 17) at the onset of the dry

Figure 17. Roller for leveling and compacting

mentioned that crop rotation and diversificationof crops would naturally improve theenvironmental condition by eliminating theharmful virus due to the absence of requiredhost (here Penaeus monodon), and heexpected that the area will be favourable forshrimp farming within 2-3 years.

The road communication infrastructure is welldeveloped in the Coxs Bazar coast relative toother coastal areas of Bangladesh. Some partsof the coast have already introducedelectricity to facilitate the aquaculture activities.Presently about 45 hatcheries have beenestablished in the Coxs Bazar region, whichare able to produce 5000X106 Penaeusmonodon fry/year, more than the nationaldemand (3000-4000X106). This will positivelyprotect the wild shrimp fry as well aszooplankton and other smaller marineorganisms, which will increase the naturalstock of the coastal and marine fisheries.Required numbers of processing plants arelocated in Coxs Bazar coast, which is a greathelp for proper processing for the internationalmarket. About 10,000 shrimp/fish farmers areworking in the Coxs Bazar region, where about100,000 people are directly involved.

Figure 16. Land suitability map for salt bedestablishment in the Coxs Bazar coast

19

Figure 18. Schematic layout of a typical salt pan by solar evaporation technique in Coxs Bazar coast

Figure 19. Dongin for water supply in salt bed

Figure 20. Echuin for water supply in salt bed

Name of Thana No. ofFarm

Area (ha) Production(m ton)

Production rate(m ton/ha)

Coxs Bazar Sadar 102 2,587.77 58,445 22.59Chakaria 114 5,565.50 116,585 20.95Total 612 8,153.27 17,5030 21.50

Table 5. Salt cultivation area and production in twoThanas at Coxs Bazar coastal district during1999-2000 (source: BSCIC, Coxs Bazar, 2001)

season in November-December so that thebrine solution will not seep into the soil. Eacharea is divided into many salt pans such askacha koda (reservoir), jaat koda (condenser)and bati koda/kaara koda (crystalizer) (Figure18) by low dikes (locally called iles) of mudwith gradually decreasing size but increasingslope for gravitational transfer of condensedwater. Seawater is conducted to the kacha kodathrough ditches connected with the rivers orcanals. If salt pans are lower than high tide,sea water is allowed to flow through gates intothem. Otherwise seawater is lifted from theditches to the pans by manually operated localequipments such as dongin (Figure 19) andechuin (Figure 20).

About 19,670 ha has been used for saltproduction along the Coxs Bazar coast underdifferent administrative units, locally calledThana or Upazila (Sub-district) where thepresent study covers two Thanas (Table 5).Annual average salt production per unit area is21.50 m ton/ha, which is lower than that of othercountries because of short evaporationseason and limited mechanization.

Seawater Jaat koda

Kaara koda Kaara koda

Kaara koda Kaara koda

Kacha koda

Kacha koda

Kacha koda

RESERVOIRAfter 3 days evaporation,salinity becomes 50-55

CONDENSERAfter 1-2 daysevaporation, salinitybecomes 75-85

CRYSTALIZERAfter 3-4 daysevaporation, salinitybecomes 315-330

SALT

216

20

Factors influencing solar salt production in theCoxs Bazar coastExtended muddy shores with flat and gentlesloping are present along the Moheshkhalichannel of the Coxs Bazar coast, especiallyon the delta and flood plains of Matamuhuri andBaghkhali rivers, where most of the salt panshave been built. The coastal soil is mainlysilty-clay-loam that positively influences solarsalt production. The critical factor that affectsthe production of salt is the evaporation rate.Other parameters like temperature, incidentradiation, relative humidity, and wind velocityinfluence the net evaporation of water atdifferent concentrations. A high sunshine rateand air temperature influence the evaporationrate. The hot inland air is beneficial as itimprove evaporation. The lower the relativehumidity the greater the capacity of theevaporating body to take up more water vapour.Wind helps in the removal of air saturated withwater vapour from the surface of theevaporating body and replacing it with freshunsaturated layers of the atmosphere thusincreasing evaporation. However, high windvelocity may blow sand and dust into the saltpans that affect the quality of salt.

The evaporation rate in Coxs Bazar coastvaries slightly with the time of year. Minimumevaporation is in May-July when cloudy skiesof the rainy season are the rule and theaverage wind velocity is near a minimum.Evaporation is generally at a maximum inJanuary to April when temperature is high,skies are clear and the windy season is in fullprogress. The coastal communities have takenfull advantages of this seasonal variation toestablish a salt evaporation industry. Themeteorological parameters are usuallyfavourable for salt production from Novemberto April in the Coxs Bazar coast (Annex 1).

Most of the salt farmers temporarily lease theland for 1 year from landowners or through

middlemen, and very few farmers have theirown land. The farmers sell the raw salt directlyto the traders or some times through themiddlemen at the farm gate or in local hat(market). There are about 60 salt processingmills in Coxs Bazar district, where washing,crushing, iodine mixing, drying and packing aredone. The UNICEF supplies iodine to theBSCIC (Bangladesh Small and CottageIndustries Corporation) and then BSCICprovides to the mill owners for a token price tomake iodide salt. All the concerneddepartments, organizations and associationsare committed to the national government tonever supply the salt in the market withoutiodine mixing. During processing about 25%of the raw salt are wastes, while the remaining75% are crushed and packed as iodide-saltthat is distributed throughout the country mainlyfor human consumption.

The high salinity waste materials aredischarged into the nearby water body, whichdeteriorates the water and soil quality. As aresult numerous species of coastal flora andfauna have been disturbed. About 20 millionpeople are directly or indirectly engaged in saltproduction and trading in Bangladesh. Morethan 95% of these are men engaged inproduction, washing, and trading, where asabout 5% are women engaged in packing.

The farm gate price varies between Tk.80-120/40 kg of salt depending on the quality.The white salt is considered as good quality,while the mud mixed gray salt is consideredas lower quality. After washing, crushing andpacking the market price varies between Tk.8-10 per kg. The farmers take loan from thewealthy persons/middlemen on the conditionof selling salt at lower price. Market fluctuationis another problem and the main cause is theflooding of salt from the neighbouring Myanmarcoast. Myanmar has a huge coastal area alongthe Bay of Bengal, which is mainly used for

21

Coastal TourismThe diagnostic factors considered forsuitability assessment for establishing coastaltourism are beach type, touristaccommodation and transportation facilities.The land suitability map has been prepared toidentify the most suitable area for tourism

Figure 21. Land suitability map for coastal tourismdevelopment in the Coxs Bazar coast

development (Figure 21). The sandy beachwas found to be the most suitable and thesandy-muddy beach was moderately suitablefor coastal tourism development.

The Coxs Bazar is the tourist capital ofBangladesh with miles of golden sands,towering cliffs, surfing waves, rare conchshells, colorful pagodas, Buddhist temples andtribes and delightful seafood. Having the worldslongest unbroken (145 km) sandy beachsloping gently down to the blue waters of theBay of Bengal against the picturesquebackground of a chain of hill covered with deepgreen forests, Coxs Bazar is one of the mostattractive tourist spots in the world.

The beach is good for bathing, sunbathing andswimming (Figure 22). The breath-takingbeauty of the sun setting behind the waves ofthe sea is captivating. Visits to the fascinatingpicnic spot at Himchari, Teknaf, southernmost

salt production. Near the coast they have highhills/cliffs across which it is very difficult andexpensive to supply the salt in their domesticmarket. So, the producers push the saltillegally to the bordering district (Coxs Bazar)of Bangladesh, even at lower price.Over-production sometimes forms anotherproblem for the farmers. If the environmentalparameters are favourable for long periods andthe maximum area is taken into cultivation thefarmers get maximum production, which mayreduce the market price. Some times themiddlemen/traders create artificial crisis ofmoney shortage and stop buying. But thefarmers need to sell the salts even at a lowerprice to maintain their daily common demands.

Figure 22. Coxs Bazar sandy beach is a major touristattraction and source of income for communities

Suitable

Moderately suitable

22

Income

Cyclonicstorm

Rainfall

Agriculture

Fishing

Handicrafts

Coastaltourism

Mangroveafforestation

Saltproduction

Shrimpfarming

DecNovOctSepAugJulJunMayAprMarFebJanActivity

Annex

Average temperature (o c)Month(2000)

Total rainfall(mm)

Rainydays

Maximum Minimum

Rate ofevaporation

mm/day

R/H at1200 UTC

(%)

Bright sunshine (hr)

January 001 02 27.7 15.7 3.09 67 -February 002 02 29.1 17.6 3.72 61 -March 96 04 27.8 21.2 3.59 67 -April 81 08 33.1 24.1 5.32 75 -May 573 22 31.8 23.8 2.82 81 182.6June 841 27 31.8 25.0 2.82 87 127.2July 1,326 24 31.2 24.6 1.98 87 136.5August 914 24 31.3 25.1 3.35 86 180.7September 337 20 30.6 25.0 3.52 86 167.0October 394 14 32.4 24.6 3.62 81 228.6November 16 2 31.8 20.4 2.73 75 296.6December Nil Nil 28.2 15.6 2.49 77 314.1

Annex 1. Month-wise meteorological paramets of Coxs Bazar district (source: BangladeshMeteorological Department, Coxs Bazar)

Annex 2. Seasonal calendar showing different coastal activities in the Coxs Bazar

23

Mangrove Forest Destruction

Coastal pollution4Industrial pollution4Sewage pollution4Oil pollution4Aquaculture wastes

Natural calamity4Flooding4Cyclonic storm

Human settlement4Firewood4Housing material4Fishing gear4Walkway4Herbal plants for

traditional medicine

SaltProduction

Shrimp farming4Pond construction4Dike construction4Canalization

Scarcity offirewood

Loss ofcoastalhabitat

Troubleforcattle &buffalo

Destroybiodiversity4Flora4Fauna

Increaseerosion

Destroyfishingground

Increaseeffects ofcyclonicstorm

Changesedimen-tationpattern

Change shorelineconfiguration

ReduceFisheriesproduction

Increase of socialtension

Impact on Coastal Environment

Decrease of livelihoodCarrying Capacity

EF

FE

CT

SC

AU

SES

PROBLEM

4Job opportunity4Income source

Annex 3. Problem tree analysis for mangrove forest destruction in Coxs Bazar coast

24

Annex 4. An ICZM framework for coastal zone management in Coxs Bazar

Natural resources:4Land4Waterways4Mangroves4Beach4Shrimp/fish

Management issues:4Land/resource use conflict4Population growth4Coastal pollution4Infrastructure development

Coastal processes(Physical and Biological):4Shrimp/fish farming4Mangrove clearing and afforestation4Salt production4Coastal tourism4Fishing4Agriculture4Urban waste disposal

Management Approach

Shrimp farming:4Zoning iArea allocation iTime sharing iCarrying capacity -Environmental CC -Economic CC iEIA4Licensing4Code of conduct

Salt production:4Zoning iArea allocation4Common land distribution4Incentives4Proper valuation of salt4Develop warehouse facility

Mangroveafforestation:4Zoning iArea allocation4Community participation4Homestead nursery development

Coastaltourism:4Zoning iArea allocation iInfrastructure development4Tourist facility iAccommodation iRestaurant iRecreation iSight seeing4Community participation

Management requirement4Horizontal integration

iInter-DepartmentiInter-CounciliInter-Community

4Top down integrationiNational level - Community level

4Bottom up integrationiCommunity level - National level

25

Acknowledgements

Funding by the Royal Danish International Development Assistance(DANIDA) is gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to Dr. HarveyDemaine, Dr. Mitsuharu Tokunaga and Dr. Zakir Hussain for their helpfulsuggestions, the valuable comments and constructive criticisms for theimprovement of the research as well as the manuscript. Special thanksare extended to Dr. Neaz Ahmed Siddiqi, Mr. Istiaq Uddin Ahmed, Mr.Fosiullah, Mr. Md. Anwarul Islam, Dr. Rafiqul Islam, Mr. Anne van Urk, Dr.Riaz Khan, Dr. A. M. Chowdhury and Mr. Zahedul Islam for their assistanceduring data collection. We also extend our thanks to Kathe R. Jensen,Mads Korn and Arlene N. Satapornvanit for their valuable assistance inpublication preparation of this Monograph.

References

1. Siddiqi, N. A, M. Shahidullah and A. K. F.Hoque. 1994. Present status of ChakariaSunderbans-the oldest mangroves in thesub continent. Bangladesh Journal ofForest Science, Vol. 23(1): 26-34 pp.

2. Pido, M.D., Pomeroy, R.S., Carlos, M.B andGarces, L.R., 1996. A handbook for rapidappraisal of fisheries managementsystems (version 1). ICLARM, Manila,Philippines, 85 pp.

3. SRDI, 1996. Land and Soil Resourcesutilization index (in Bangla), Coxs BazarSadar Thana, Coxs Bazar district, SoilResources Development Institute, Ministryof Agriculture, Dhaka.

4. SRDI, 1999. Land and Soil Resourcesutilization index (in Bangla), ChakariaThana, Coxs Bazar district, Soil ResourcesDevelopment Institute, Ministry ofAgriculture, Dhaka.

5. Chowdhury, A.A.M., 1998. Impact of peopleparticipation on coastal forest plantations inthe cyclone-prone Bhola island,Bangladesh. Paper presented in CoastalEnvironmental Improvement in Mangrove/Wetland Ecosystems. 18-23 August 1998,Ranong, Thailand, 156-161 pp.

6. Khan, Y.S.A., Hossain, M.S., Quasem, S.and Islam, K.S., 1997. Adaptation ofInnovated Technology for Intensive Cultureof Shrimp (Penaeus monodon Fabricius,1798) in Bangladesh. Chittagong UniversityStudies Part II; Science, Vol. 21(1): 95-116