land, livelihoods and housing programme 2015-18

Faculty of Natural Resources and Spatial Sciences Integrated Land Management Institute (ILMI)

Land, livelihoods and housing Programme 2015-18 Working Paper

April 2017 Integrated Land Management Institute (ILMI) 13 Storch Street Private Bag 13388 Windhoek Namibia T: +264 61 207 2483 F: +264 61 207 9483 E: [email protected] W: ilmi.nust.na

Working Paper No. 6

The Flexible Land Tenure System in the

Context of the Sustainable Development Goals

Åse Christensen

Department of Land and Property Sciences Namibia University of Science and Technology

ABSTRACTThepurposeofthisstudyistoinvestigatewhethertheFlexibleLandTenureSystem(FLTS)inNamibiaisinlinewiththeFit-For-Purpose(FFP)landadministrationapproachwhichisdevelopedinordertoimplementtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)atnationalandlocallevelindevelopingcountriesbyprovidingtenuresecuritytopoorpeopleandcreatingcountry-widelandrecordationsystems.TheFFPapproachisbasedonaMinimumViableProductfocusingonthespecificlocaltenuresecurityneeds,flexibilityonsurveyaccuracy,legalandinstitutionalframeworksandanincrementalimprovementasafoundationforfurtherdevelopment.ThestudyisbasedonaliteraturestudyoftheSDGs,theFFPapproachandtheFLTSinNamibia.Theliteraturestudyisbasedoncontemporarytheoriesonlandadministrationandhowaccesstotenuresecuritycancontributetopovertyalleviation.ThestudyindicatesthatcertainelementsoftheFLTSarecomplyingwiththecharacteristicsoftheFFPapproachandthushaspotentialtocontributetofulfillingtheSDGsinNamibia.Thereishoweveraneedforfurtherin-depthacademicresearch.Keywords:SustainableDevelopmentGoals,Fit-For-PurposeLandAdministration,SecureLandTenureinNamibia,FlexibleLandTenureSysteminNamibia.

ÅseChristensenNamibiaUniversityofScienceandTechnology

[email protected]

© 2017 ILMI – Integrated Land Management Institute ISBN: 978-99916-55-63-5 ILMI is a research centre at the Faculty of Natural Resources and Spatial Sciences (FNRSS) at the Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST). Views expressed by the authors are not to be attributed to any of these institutions. Please visit our website for details on ILMI’s publications policy. ilmi.nust.na

CHRISTENSEN The Flexible Land Tenure System in the Context of the SDGs

ILMI Working Paper No. 6 1

1.IntroductionThepresentworkingpaperisworkinprogressandbasedonaliteraturereviewconductedinregardtothedevelopmentofaPh.D.proposalandisanelaborationofanextendedabstractsubmitted to the Institutional Research Week at Namibia University of Science andTechnology inNovember2016.Thepurposeof thisworkingpaper is tobrieflyexplainandcreate the link between the current global development agenda as stipulated in theSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andtheoveralltenuresecuritycontextinNamibiaandfurtherassociateittotheFlexibleLandTenureSystem(FLTS)asdevelopedinNamibiaandstipulated in the Flexible Land Tenure Act (FLTA). The study is based on contemporaryinternational theorieson landadministration,povertyalleviationandtenuresecuritywhichhave replaced the “conventional” land administration paradigm introduced in many Sub-Saharan African countries during the colonial period. The “conventional” approach wascentred on traditional Western style land registration and cadastral mapping which hasproofednot tobe “conducive to localconditionsandcapacities”andmostoften favours theelite only,while being biased against the poor and low-incomepeople (Simbizi, Bennett,&Zevenbergen,2016,p.19).Theparadigmshiftisthusconsideredtobemoreappropriateforlow-income and informal settlerswho aremost often excluded from the conventional landregistrationsystems.The conventional land registration systems are considered inappropriate and unaffordablefor the vast majority of the World’s population due to high registration costs, it’s timeconsumingandslowanddonotaddresstheglobalmajority’sneedinregardtotheprovisionof tenuresecurity.Enemark,McLaren,&Lemmenestimate that itwill takeseveraldecades,andmorelikelycenturies,toestablishlandadministrationsystemsindevelopingcountriesinorder "to achieve anywhere near full global coverage" (2015, p. 7). Furthermore, whenconsidering the current global rapid urbanisation rate and expansion of slum areas, socialpolarisationandenvironmentalchallengesetc.theconventionalregistrationsystemsarenotabletoprovidecountrywidedataandinformationneededwithinareasonabletimeframeandat affordable cost. The Fit-For-Purpose Land Administration Guiding Principles arespecifically developed to address the implementation of the SDGs in national and localcontexts in developing countries as well as in developed countries with incomplete landregistration and administration systems. The FFP approach is based on experience fromprojectsinRwanda,EthiopiaandKyrgyzstan(Enemarketal.,2015,p.116).It is now well recognised that secure tenure and property rights are fundamental for thereductionofpovertyandtounderpineconomicdevelopment,socialinclusion,andsustainabledevelopment. It isrecentlyclearlystipulatedbyEnemark,McLaren,&Lemmen,(2015,p.7)that “solutions to theglobal land issuesrelate toalleviationofpoverty, social inclusionandstability,investmentsandeconomicdevelopment,andenvironmentalprotectionandnaturalresourcemanagement.”TheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals (MDGs)weresetting theglobalagenda from 2000 to 2015with the overall agenda of reducing poverty and improve poorpeople’slife.AlthoughtheMDGsdidnotspecificallymentionland(Enemark,2016,p.4)someof theMDGswere indirectlyrelatedthereto.TheMDGswerereplacedbytheSDGsby2016andsettheinternationaldevelopmentagendaforthenext15years.TheSDGshaveanumberof goals and targets that are directly related to poverty alleviation, land, tenure security,urban development, land governance etc. which makes it interesting and necessary toinvestigatetheSDGsinaNamibiancontext.



Namibiaobtainedindependencein1990afterwhichtheindigenouspeoplewereallowedtosettleanywhereinthecountry.Thiscausedmanypeopletomigratetourbanareasandsincethen the urban population has increased on an annual basis. This has provided for thedevelopmentofapolicyframeworkthatoutlinestheoveralllong-termnationaldevelopmentagenda.ThedevelopmentframeworkisstatedintheNamibiaVision2030(Vision2030)andfurther concretised in a number of national development plans. The Mass HousingDevelopmentInitiativewassettledin2013andin2016theHarambeeProsperityPlan(HPP)was developed along with the initiation of an implementation plan for the Massive UrbanLandServicingProject(MULSP).ThevariousplansandprojectsindicatethatsignificantfocusandattentionhasbeenpaidtonationaldevelopmentissuessinceIndependence.However,inregardtolandissuesattentionhaspreviouslymainlybeenconcerningrurallandreformandresettlement of previously disadvantaged citizens despite the fact that since Independenceruraltourbanmigrationhasincreasedsignificantly.AccordingtothemostrecentPopulationandHousingCensusReportfrom201242%ofthepopulationlivesinurbanareascomparedto 2001where around 33% lived in urban areas (Namibia Statistics Agency, 2012, p. 38).During recent yearsmore attention is paid to urban land issues, including the provision oftenuresecuritytourbaninformalsettlers.TheincreasedurbanisationandtenureinsecuritytoindigenouspeoplecausedthedevelopmentoftheFlexibleLandTenureSysteminthemid-nineteen nineties. Nevertheless, the Flexible Land Tenure Act (FLTA) was only enacted in2012and the regulationsare stillpending.TheFLTS is specificallydesigned to cater to theprovision of tenure security to urban low-income and informal settlers. Thus, thisworkingpaper briefly describes the relation between the international agenda as stipulated in theSDGsandtheFLTSinNamibia.

2 TheGlobalAgendaTheMDGsunderpinnedandencouragedglobalawarenessandweremeasuresof“importantsocial priorities worldwide” that could be used to promote political accountability andimprovedperformancevia thecreationof incentives tonationalgovernments in theoverallreductionofpoverty(Sachs,2012,p.2206).Forexample,Goal7,Target11stated“By2020,tohave achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100million slumdwellers”(UN-Habitat,2003,p.2).Goal3onpromotinggenderequalityandempoweringwomenwerealso linkedto tenuresecurityandpropertyrights (Enemark,2016,p.4).Globally theMDGswerenotfullyachievedbytheendof2015which,accordingtoSachs,areduetooperationalfailures in both the implementing countries as well as the donor countries that have notfulfilled promises on development assistance (Sachs, 2012, p. 2206). Despite theincompletenessinachievingthegoals,therewaswidespreadconsensustocontinuethefightagainst poverty beyond 2015 and this lead to the development and agreement on theSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Sincearound2010 theglobaldevelopmentagenda increased focusoncurrent internationalchallengessuchasclimatechange,includingnaturaldisasters,waterandfoodinsecurityandenvironmental degradation (United Nations, 2015b, p. 61). In addition, high urbanisationrates have become common and cause significant negative impacts on climate change(Enemark,2016,p.4)whichhavebeenconsideredinthedevelopmentoftheSDGs.TheSDGs,whichwerefinallyagreeduponinSeptember2015,havereplacedtheMDGs.TheSDGsareaset of 17 Goals and 169 associated targets to be implemented at a local level by the UN



member states during the next 15 years (United Nations, 2015a, paras 2–3). The overallpurpose of the SDGs is to “end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all”(United Nations, 2016). The 17 SDGs are illustrated in figure 1 below. The successfulimplementation of the SDGs is reliant on the active contribution by many differentparticipants, including government institutions at national and local level, NGOs, corporatebusiness, educational institutions, as well as private individuals (United Nations, 2016).Namibia,asamemberoftheUnitedNations,waspartofthedevelopmentoftheMDGsaswellastheSDGsandhasthuscommittedtoworktowardstheachievementofthetwosetsofgoals.Ingeneral,theentiresetofMDGsandSDGsaresupportedandreinforcedbyaccesstoland,whichconstitutesthefoundationfordevelopmentinallaspects.TheMDGsandSDGsarenon-bindingagreements,andactasasetof“softlaws”guidingmoralandpracticalcommitmentsby the member states (Sachs, 2012). However, the MDGs and the SDGs have also beencriticisedfornotsufficientlyconsultingwithandinvolvingthelow-incomegroupsbutratherbeingtoocentredontheroleofinternationalagenciesandnationalgovernments.Moreover,ithas been suggested that more attention should have been paid to the support of localdemocraticprocessesandtodevelopcapacityamongstthelocalresidentsandempowerthemduring thedevelopmentof the goals (Satterthwaite, 2003,p. 182). Lackofmeasurabilityofsuccessor failure isanothercriticalpoint thathasbeensubject tocriticism forsomeof thetargetsoutlinedintheSDGs(Pichel,2015).A number of the SDGs include goals and targets with direct reference to land and tenuresecurity.Forexample,Goal1callsforendingpovertyinallforms,target4shapesequalrightsformenandwomeninregardtoaccesstobasicservices,ownershipandcontroloverlandandproperty.Goal2target3statesthedoublingofagriculturalproductivityby,forexample,moreequalaccesstoland.Goal5target5aformstheundertakingofreformstoprovideequalrightsto ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services andinheritance. Goal 11 target 1 outlines access to adequate, safe and affordable housing andbasic services for all and the upgrade of slums. Target 3 is on inclusive, sustainable andparticipatory sustainableurbanisation, and target11 ison supporting linksbetweenurban,peri-urban and rural areas by improved planning, inclusion, climate change and disasters.Goal 15 is on sustainable management of forests, combating desertification and landdegradationandGoal16callsforreducingcorruption,developmentofeffective,accountableand transparent institutions, inclusive and participatory decision-making, public access toinformation,andthestrengtheningofinstitutions(UnitedNations,2016).



Figure1:illustratesthesetof17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)thatareagreeduponbytheworldleaderswiththeoverallpurposetoendpoverty,protecttheplanet,andensureprosperityforall.Source:(UnitedNations,2016).Fromalandtenureperspective,issuessuchastenuresecurity,equalaccesstoland,andgoodgovernance in landadministrationareprerequisitestoreachtheSDGs(ColumbiaCenteronSustainableInvestment[CIESIN]/SustainableDevelopmentSolutionsNetwork[SDSN],2016;Enemark, 2016; USAid, 2015). Capacity assessment, institutional development, anddevelopment of human resources are essential tools in this regard. More specifically, theprovision of geographical information, secure tenure systems, as well as systems for landmanagement,landvaluation,anddevelopmentoflandarekeyissuesintheefforttoreachtheMGDs(Enemark,2007,p.1)andSDGs.Internationalrecognisedorganisationswithinthelandsectorhavedevelopedtheso-calledFit-For-PurposeLandAdministrationGuidingPrinciplesastohowtheSDGscanbeimplementedinnationalandlocalcontextsandwhichisdescribedinthefollowingsection.

3 Fit-For-PurposeLandAdministrationThe development of the SDGs indicates a newway of dealingwith the global developmentagenda to improve the lives of people, particularly in developing countries. Good landgovernanceisconsideredcrucialfortheachievementofthenewglobaldevelopmentagendaand has caused the development of the so-called Fit-For-Purpose Land AdministrationGuiding Principles (FFP). The FFP are jointly developed by the Global Land Tool Network(GLTN),UN-HabitatandKadasterasaresponsetothecurrentglobalsustainabledevelopmentagenda,asoutlinedintheSDGs.TheFFPGuidingPrinciplesarematerialisedinthepublicationFit-For-PurposeLandAdministrationGuidingPrinciplesbyEnemark,McLarenandLemmenanddescribehowtheSDGscanbeimplementedatapracticallevelwhilestillconsideringthenationalandlocalcontextineachcountry.In2014TheInternationalFederationofSurveyors(FIG) together with the World Bank (WB) published a booklet on Fit-For-Purpose LandAdministration,whichisthefirsttimetheapproachisdescribedandthusconsideredastheinitiation of the concept. Therefore, the below description of the FFP approach is mainlybasedonthetwosaidpublications.



Various scholars and international organisations have for many years suggestedimplementing consolidated property systems that provide the foundation for sustainabledevelopmentandlandmanagementsincetheyarecrucialinordertoaddressdifferentneedsamongst different groups of people (Chitonge & Mfune, 2015; Durand-Lasserve, 2006;Enemark et al., 2015; FIG, 1999; FIG & UN, 1996; Kohli, 2014; Payne, 2001; Tebbal &Augustinus,2003).Likewise,in2012,theFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)publishedthe Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of land, fisheries andforestsinthecontextofnationalfoodsecurity.Theseguidelinesacknowledgetenuresecurityandequitablerightstoland,fisheriesandforestsasafoundationforsustainabledevelopment,alleviationofpovertyandhunger,foodsecurity,environmentalprotection,housingsecurity,andsocialstability(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),2012).TheFFPapproachisarelativenewconceptandsofarverylimitedliteratureispublishedonitalbeititispartlybasedonexistingknowledgeachievedduringresearchconductedduringthepast 10-20 years although the specific FFP concept is encompassing a more holistic andthoroughapproach.TheFFPapproachisbasicallyaboutbuildingcountrywidelandadministrationsystemswhileatthesametimeprovidingtenuresecurityforallwithinashorttimeframe,inanincrementalmanner,andataffordablecosts. It isdescribedas“agamechangerfordevelopingcountriesandoffersaviable,practicalsolutiontoquicklyandaffordablyprovidesecurityoftenureforallandtoenablecontroltheuseofallland”(Enemarketal.,2015,p.8).Theauthorsfurtherstatethatunresolvedlandissuesprovidesanincreasednumberoflandconflictsandcausesalackofinvestmentandeconomicdevelopmentinmanydevelopingcountries(p.9).TheFFPconceptisthusdevelopedwiththepurposetoenablefortheimplementationoftheSDGsandidentifies three key characteristics that should be considered in this regard. Thecharacteristicsareasfollows:

Focus on purpose: Prior to designing a land tenure system the purpose of it should bedetermined and focus should be on the expected outcome of the system, i.e. providing tenuresecurity for all, and, secondly; how can it best be achieved. It should be designed in the bestpossible way to fit the specific purpose so that it provides “as little as possible – as much asnecessary”(Enemarketal.,2015,p.9&pp.33-34).

Regardless of the purpose of the land tenure system it will require some kind of spatialframework, in the form ofmapping of the area, to ensure its proper operationalization.Whendesigning and establishing the spatial framework the focus should also be on the purpose andissuessuchastherequirementsforidentificationoflandparcelsmustbedetermined(Enemarketal.,2015,pp.33–34).Inmanyinstancesitmaybesufficienttoapplyageneralboundaryapproachratherthanafixedboundaryapproach.Generalboundariesrequiresnoaccuratelandsurveyingoftheboundarieswhoseapproximatelineisallthatappearsinthelandregistrationsystemandnoon the ground adjudication of the boundaries is required (Dale & McLaughlin, 2003, p. 50).Generalboundariesareusuallyshownonalarge-scaletopographicmap.Thisiscontrarytofixedboundaries which require determination of the precise boundary between parcels and usuallyinvolvesalicensedlandsurveyor(Williamson,Enemark,Wallace,&Rajabifard,2010,p.360).



Flexibility:Landtenuresystemsshouldbeflexibleenoughtoaccommodatethecurrentsocietalneedswhichwill likelychangeovertime.Theflexibilityshouldconcernboththefunctionof thesystemaswellasthelocation;hencethesurveyaccuracy(spatialframework)aswellasthelegaland institutional frameworks shall be flexible in order to address the various types of tenuresecurityexistinginaspecificcountry,includinge.g.socialorcustomarytenure,privateownershipand leasehold tenure.The flexibility should also apply to the recordingand thus allow forbothlegal and natural persons, including a family, a tribe, a community, etc. to be registered as theholderofaright(Enemarketal.,2015,p.34).

Incremental improvement: Land tenure systems should be designed to provide initial tenuresecurityinlinewithcurrentrequirementsinaspecificcountryyetcarefullybalancingthecosts,accuracy,andtimeinvolved:aso-called“MinimumViableProduct”(MVP)isrecommended.Atthesametimethesystemshouldstillprovidefortheopportunitytoincrementallyimprovethelevelof tenure security, in the formof upgrading to a higher level, if orwhen social and legal needsariseandeconomicopportunitiesemerge(Enemarketal.,2015,p.34).ThedesignofaFFPlandadministration system should therefore encompass the entire range of the continuum of landrightsinthespecificcountry.

3.1 Fit-For-PurposeConceptTheFFP concept ismadeupof threedifferent yet fundamental components,which are thelegal and regulatory, the spatial, and the institutional frameworks, respectively. Please seefigure 2 below for an illustration of the three components of the FFP concept. The threecomponents are mutually dependant and “interrelated and form a conceptual nexus”(Enemark et al., 2015, p. 35), hence the components “need to be carefully coordinated toensurethattheframeworksaremutuallyreinforcing”(Enemarketal.,2015,p.35).Thethreecharacteristics described above (the focus on purpose, flexibility and incrementalimprovement) should be considered and critically analysed for each of the fundamentalcomponentswhendesigninganddevelopingaFFPlandadministrationsystemsoastoensuresufficient space and flexibility to accommodate the entire range of present tenure securityneeds and available financial resources and it must also be applicable within “differentgeographical,judicial,andadministrativecontexts”(Enemarketal.,2015,pp.34&35).It is crucial that theFFPcharacteristics concerning focuson thepurpose, the flexibilityandtheincremental improvementoftheFFPapproachareincorporatedinthenationalpolicies,landlawsandtheregulatoryframework(thelegalandregulatoryframework)andhencewillbeimplementedandappliedbytherelevantinstitutions.Certainly,inorderfortheinvolvedinstitutionstoprovidetransparencyandcosteffectiveservicestoallcitizenstherewillbeaneedforcontinuouscapacitydevelopmentattechnicallevelaswellason-goingenhancementofhumanresources.



Figure2illustratesthethreefundamentalcomponentsintheFit-For-PurposeLandAdministrationconcept.Source:(Enemark,2016,p.10;Enemarketal.,2015,p.35).Design and development of a FFP land administration system will in many developingcountries call for reforms of the current spatial, legal and regulatory, and institutionalframeworksandwill inmany instancesalso require significantdevelopmentof theexistingcapacitywithinthelandsector.Each framework within the concept must be flexible enough “to meet the actual needs oftoday and can be incrementally improved over time in response to societal needs andavailablefinancialresources”(Enemarketal.,2015,p.34).Pleaseseefigure2abovetogetanoverviewofthethreedifferentframeworksintheFFPlandadministrationconceptandfigure3 below for the four key principles linked to each framework. The three frameworks aredescribedbelow.Spatial framework: The spatial framework is a spatial representation of “theway land isoccupiedandused”(Enemarketal.,2015,p.35).Itshouldbeincompliancewiththespecificneeds ineachcountry inorder tounderpin therequirements forregistrationof thevarioustypesoftenuresecurityaswellasthemanagementofthe landuseandrightsallocatedandtheexistingnaturalresources.Thescaleandaccuracyofthedataandinformationcapturedinthespatialframeworkwilldifferduetofluctuatingneedsbutmustinallcircumstancesbeup-to-dateandshouldbeaccessibletotherelevantinstitutionstoensureintegrated,transparent,user-friendly and appropriate management (Enemark et al., 2015, p. 35). The spatial



framework should be using a fast, affordable, and participatory approach in order toacceleratetheprocessofrecordinglandrights.Large-scalemapping(satelliteand/oraerialimages) is considered sufficient and appropriate for determining the vastmajority of landrightsboundaries.Inareaswithhighvaluelandandpropertiesconventional landsurveyingtechniquescanbeapplied.Theuseof large-scalemappingwillsignificantlyreducethecostsand time compared to the use of conventional land surveying. The approach is consideredadequate to suit the requirements for basic land administration functions such as servicedelivery,administrationofnaturalresourcesandlanduse,aswellaslandtaxation(Enemarket al., 2015, pp. 37 & 42). During recent years technological development has causedsignificantreductionofthecostsfori.e.aerialimagesbytheuseofdronesandwhichinmanycaseswillprovideasufficient levelofdetails fordeterminationofboundariesaswellas formappingpurposes.Legalandregulatoryframework:Thelegalandregulatoryframeworkshouldaccommodateallthedifferentexistingtenuretypesandthusbeflexible,simpleanddesignedspecificallytocaterforthesocietalneedsinaparticularcountry.Alltheexistingtenuresystemsshouldbeenshrined in the legal and regulatory framework, which should be appropriate fordecentralised administration and recordation. The human rights should be applied, andspecial attention should be given to gender equality despite local customs and tradition(Enemarketal.,2015,p.37&pp.59–64).Institutional framework: The institutional framework should be designed for theadministration of land rights and comply with the principles of good governance. Thisencompasses transparency, legitimacy, accountability, equitability, and integrity. It calls forproper national land policies along with appropriate and conducive acts, laws, andregulations. In order to capture the full range of tenure forms the institutional frameworkshouldsupportthecontinuumoflandrights(Enemarketal.,2015,pp.37&104).

KEYPRINCIPLES

Spatialframework

Legalframework

Institutionalframework

• Visible(physical)boundariesratherthanfixedboundaries;

• Aerial/satelliteimageryratherthanfieldsurveys;

• Accuracyrelatestothepurposeratherthantechnicalstandards;

• Demandsforupdatingandopportunitiesforupgradingandon-goingimprovement.

• Aflexibleframeworkdesignedalongadministrativeratherthanjudiciallines;

• Acontinuumoftenureratherthanjustindividualownership;

• Flexiblerecordationratherthanonlyoneregister;

• Ensuringgenderequityforlandandpropertyrights.

• Goodlandgovernanceratherthanbureaucraticbarriers;

• Integratedinstitutionalframeworkratherthansectorialsilos;

• FlexibleICTapproachratherthanhigh-endtechnologysolutions;

• Transparentlandinformationwitheasyandaffordableaccessforall.

Figure3illustratesthethreeframeworksembeddedintheFFPLandAdministrationconceptandoutlinesthefourmainprinciplesofeachofthethreeframeworks.Source:(Enemarketal.,2015,p.36).



TheFFPapproachhasbeensuccessfully implemented inRwanda,Kyrgyzstan,andEthiopia,wherecountrywidelandadministrationsolutionshavebeenappliedwithinshorttimeframesandataffordablecost(Enemarketal.,2015,p.11).Withinaperiodoffiveyears,allprivateland in Rwanda was registered by applying a first-time systematic registration approachbasedongeneralboundaries(Simbizietal.,2016,p.11)“withtheaimofcreatingacompletepublicrecordof landholdings”(Biraroetal.,2015,p.10).AccordingtoEnemark,around10millionparcelswere,overafiveyearperiod,demarcated,adjudicatedandregisteredatacostofaroundUSD6perparcel(Enemark,2016,p.12).In order to investigate whether the FLTS in Namibia has the potential to contribute tofulfillingtheSDGsitisimportanttounderstandtheoverallcontextoflandandtenuresecurityinthecountry;hencethisisdescribedinthefollowingsection.

4 SecureLandTenureinNamibiaAfterIndependencein1990,theindigenouspopulationinNamibiawasallowedtoownrealpropertyandlandandsettleanywhereforthefirsttime.Thiscausedpeopletoflocktotownsand cities where they settled on un-used land in peri-urban areas; thus began informalsettlementinNamibia.Stilltoday,thevastmajorityofmiddleandlow-incomepeoplecannotafford purchasing and registering land and immoveable property in the freehold landregistrationsystem.Accordingtoastudyin2011bytheBankofNamibiatheyconcludedthatmorethan73%ofNamibiansareexcludedfromaccesstocreditandtherefore“cannotaffordto buy urban land and housing” (National Planning Commission (NPC), 2017). In 2013Namibia was ranked number four of countries with the highest increase in house prices“making it increasingly difficult for low and middle income groups to acquire housing”(National Planning Commission, 2017). TheNPC further states that the inequality betweenthedemand for and the supply of serviced land; high land, construction and land servicingcostsareexcludingmanypeoplefromacquiringformallandandpropertyrights.Fromalocalauthority perspective informal settlements causes “that the towns develop outside theircontrolandoftenonsitesdifficulttoservice”(Christensen,Werner,&Højgaard,1999,p.1).Land in Namibia is classified in three categories of which urban and rural land can beclassified;stateland,communallandandcommercialland(LegalAssistanceCentre,2009,p.1). State land is thepropertyof the state andall land that isnototherwise lawfullyownedbelongs to the state. It is used for nature conversation, game parks, agricultural researchfarmsandmilitarybasesandalsoincludesurbanlandownedbylocalauthorities.Statelandconstitutes around 16%of the total geographical area of the country (UN-Habitat, 2005 ascitedinJakobsen&Christensen,2007,p.130).Commerciallandcanbeprivatelyownedurbanland within proclaimed boundaries or rural commercial farmland or freehold agriculturalland (Legal Assistance Centre, 2005 as cited in Jakobsen & Christensen, 2007, p. 130).Commerciallandconstitutescirca44%oftheentireNamibiangeographicalarea(UN-Habitat,2005ascitedinJakobsen&Christensen,2007,p.130).Communallandincludesalllandusedbythe indigenousNamibiancommunitiesbut isownedbythestate,whoheld it intrust forthe indigenouscommunities.Communal landconstitutesabout40%ofNamibia’s total landarea.



Namibiacurrentlyhas fourdifferent formal land tenuresystemsaddressingdifferentneedsand interests. These apply in different areas of the country. The systems are the DeedsRegistration System, the Deeds Registration of Rehoboth, the Communal Land RegistrationSystem(CLRS)andtheFlexibleLandTenureSystem(FLTS).Commercial land is registered in the Deeds Registration System, which was establishedaround 1905 during the German colonial period to cater to thewhite settlers. The systemconsists of a farm register and a commercial land register. Namibia became a BritishprotectorateunderSouthAfricanmandate in1915which caused the conversionof all landformerlyheldbytheGermanadministrationintoCrownland/statelandofSouthAfrica(UN-Habitat,2005,pp.29–30)whomaintainedthesystemuntil independencein1990.Propertyregistered in the deeds systemmust be surveyed by a professional land surveyor and thetransaction (fromseller tobuyer) is recorded in the systemandconsideredasproofof theownership. The system also captures leasehold agreements valid for periods exceeding 10yearsoncommercialandcommunalland(LegalAssistanceCentre,2009,p.2).TheDeedsRegistrationSystemofRehobothwasestablishedin1976toprovidepeopleintheRehobothGebietwithtenuresecurity.Thesystemwasestablishedtomainlycatertotheso-calledBasterethnicgroup(BeukesascitedinSasman,2013)inregardtotheimplementationof home rule in the Rehoboth Bantustan (Christensen et al., 1999, p. 12). The Rehobothregistration systemhas similarities to theDeedsRegistration System although simpler andcheaperproceduresof transactionsareapplied(Jakobsen&Christensen,2007,p.106).TheDeedsRegistriesActNo.14of2015hasbeenpassedbyParliamentbutsincetheregulationsare still pending it has not yet entered into force. This new act suggests that the DeedsRegistrationofRehobothshouldbemergedwithandbecomepartoftheDeedsRegistrationSystemoncethe2015Actisenteringintoforceandthesystemisthereforenotdescribedinfurtherdetailinthispaper.The registrationof communal land rightswas commencedafter the enactmentof the2002Communal Land Reform Act. The recording of rights is captured in the Communal LandRegistration System (CLRS) and entails identification of the land rights holder as well asmapping of the plot (Werner & Bayer, 2016, p. 1). Registration ismandatory and still on-going; recent figures indicate that around 84% of the communal land rights have beenregisteredsofar(Shapwanale,2017,p.5).Ownershipof landisnotpermittedincommunalareas; hence communal land can neither be bought nor sold. Land rights allocated oncommunal land are customary land rights and rights of leasehold (Government of theRepublic of Namibia, 2002, para. 19). Leasehold rights can be for agricultural use or otherpurposes and rights valid for more than 10 years should be registered in the DeedsRegistration System (Werner & Bayer, 2016, p. 12). A customary land right is a usufructallocatedforaspecificperiodoftime.Until2002theallocationoflandincommunalareaswasexclusively dealt with by the traditional authorities and no formal recordswere kept. Theenactment of the Communal Land Reform Act in 2002 provided for the establishment ofcommunallandboardstocontroltheallocationandcancellationofcustomarylandrightsbychiefsandtraditionalauthorities.Furthermore,thecommunallandboardsareresponsiblefortheregistrationofcustomarylandrightsandtransfers,cancellations,andallocations.Theroleofchiefsandtraditionalauthoritiesisstilltoallocateandcancelcustomarylandrightsafterwhichthelandboardmustratifybeforelegaleffectismade(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2002,para.24).



TheFLTSwasdevelopedinNamibiabetween1992and1998bythethenMinistryofLands,ResettlementandRehabilitation(presentdaytheMinistryofLandReform)asanalternativetothefreeholdsystem.Itis“flexibleandthereforesimplerandmoreaccessibletothebroadcommunity”(Christensenetal.,1999,p. iv).Thesystemisspecificallydevelopedtoaddressupgrading and formalisation of urban informal settlements and new urban settlements forlow-income people. The FLTS provides for a step-wise formalisation of land tenure and iscomprisedofastartertitle,landholdtitleandthecommonfreeholdtitle.Upgradingcantakeplaceiforwhenneedarisesandeconomicaffordabilityallows.TheFLTSisthefocalpointofthispaperandisdescribedinmoredetailinchapter5below.The different tenure systems provide different levels of tenure security with the DeedsRegistrationSystem(aso-calledfreeholdsystem)providingownershiptolandandproperty,andtheCommunalLandRegistrationSystemprovidesarightofuse foraspecificperiodoftime while the FLTS provides an initial level of tenure security protecting people againsteviction without compensation. The FLTS is specifically designed to cater for urban low-income and informal settlers and thus complement the other tenure systems in achievingcountrywide tenure security for all, albeit at different levels within the continuum of landrights.Likewise,inorderfortheNamibiangovernmenttofulfilitsHarambeeProsperityPlanandVision2030regardingtheachievementofalivingstandardcorrespondingtodevelopedcountriesforallNamibiansby2030,theupgradingandformalisationofinformalsettlementsisconsiderednecessary.Thiscallsforsomethingextraordinarytobedonewhenconsideringtheexpectedpopulationgrowth(Jakobsen&Christensen,2007,p.194)andforthatpurposetheFLTSmaybeausefulalternativetotheexistingtenuresystems.Thiscallsforadescriptionof the FLTS in order to understand whether it provides the basic foundation for a FFPapproach and thus a proper foundation for contributing to poverty alleviation and theachievementoftheSDGs.

5 FlexibleLandTenureSystemThe Flexible Land Tenure System (FLTS) was developed in Namibia in the mid-nineteennineties to cater to themiddle and low-incomepeoplewhowereexcluded from the formalfreeholdlandtenuresystemthatwas“developedbyandfortheprivilegedfewinthe“white”areas” (Christensen et al., 1999, p. iv). Pilot projects were carried out in Oshakati andWindhoek.Nevertheless,theFlexibleLandTenureAct(FLTA)wasonlypassedbyParliamentin2012and the regulationsare still pending. Initiationof fourpilotprojects isplanned for2017andthefourpilotsitesareOutapi,Windhoek,GobabisandOshakati,respectively.Pleasesee Annexure A; Localities with informal settlements in Namibia which illustrates thedistributionof informal settlements inNamibia aswell as anoutliningof theplannedpilotprojects.Currently there are 279 informal settlements in Namibia. The total urban population isestimatedat885,500persons (42%) in2011,which is an increaseof9%since2001 (NSA,2012,p.xiv).Theurbangrowthrateisestimatedat5.6%perannumandismainlycausedbyrural-to-urbanmigrationofparticularlyyoungpeopleinsearchforeducation,jobs,andbettersocial and economic opportunities. The rapid increase of urban informal settlementsmostoften causes unplanned development with very limited provision of services and tenuresecurityifany.Sinceindependencein1990thepopulationhasincreasedwith695.000(to2.1mill.)andatotalpopulationbetween2.98and3.49millionisenvisagedby2030.Basedonthe



currenturbanisation trend it is foreseen that75%of thepopulationwill be living inurbanareasby2030(NamibiaVision2030,2004,p.48).At thesametime theaveragehouseholdsize is on a decline, which calls for additional land and housing to cater for the peopleconcerned.TheFLTSisspecificallydedicatedtoprovidetenuresecuritytourbanresidentssinceitonlyallowsforimplementationwithintheboundariesofestablishedmunicipalities,towns,villagecouncils,andsettlementareas(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.3).Thus,theFLTS isdesigned toprovide tenuresecurity to low-incomepeopleand informal settlersvia creating alternative forms of tenure that are considered to be cheaper and simpler toadminister (Christensen et al., 1999). Furthermore, it is anticipated that people will beeconomicallyempoweredbymeansoftherightsacquiredviatheFLTS.Morespecifically,theobjectivesoftheFLTAareasfollows:

• “to create alternative forms of land title that are simpler and cheaper to administerthanexistingformsoflandtitle;

• to provide security of title for personswho live in informal settlements orwho areprovidedwithlowincomehousing;

• to empower the persons concerned economically by means of these rights”(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.2).

The FLTS property rights are intended to ensure that all persons with rights to land orimmovablepropertyhaveaccess to thebenefits thatcomewithregistrationof thoserights.The FLTS is a parallel interchangeable property recording system that is intended forimplementation in existing informal settlements and new areas planned for low-incomeresidents. Itprovides for threedifferent typesof tenure; thestarter title, landhold title,andfreehold title, respectively. Starter title and landhold title canbe stepwiseupgraded to “thenext level”andeventually to freeholdtitle ifneedarisesandaffordabilityallows.Theybothprovide an initial tenure security that protects people from forced eviction withoutcompensation. The new title forms entail the right totransfer rights and the landhold title furthermoreallowsformortgagingandestablishmentofservitudes.In this regard it is worth mentioning that the UN-Habitat is considering theFLTSas innovative andoneof the pro-poor land tenure systems in developingcountriesthatprovidesthemostsolidlegalframeworkand foundation for furtherdevelopment (Gitau,2015).Please see figure 3 below for an illustration of theprinciples of the FLTS, which are described in moredetailbelow.Figure3illustratestheprinciplesoftheFlexibleLandTenureSystem(FLTS)andthepossibleroutesforestablishmentofanewsettlementor for upgrading of an informal settlement. The FLTS allows forincremental improvement of tenure security according to peoplesneedandeconomicaffordability.Source:(Christensenetal.,1999).



5.1 Startertitle

This section, alongwith section5.2Landhold title, is almostverbatimreplicationof section3.1 of the book Urban housing crisis in Namibia: A youth perspective contributed by theauthorandpublishedbytheNationalYouthCouncilofNamibia.A starter title provides initial tenure security and is particularly applicable in regard toupgrading of existing informal settlements (Jakobsen & Christensen, 2007). The erf isregisteredasablockerf intheDeedsRegisterandtheschemememberspossesstherighttooccupy an undefined plotwithin the blockerf for perpetuity. However, it does not provideownershiptoaspecificplotwithintheblockparcel.Thestartertitleholderscanagreeuponandestablishinteriorboundaries,whicharehowevernotregisteredintheDeedsRegister.Astartertitleholderisallowedtoerectandoccupyadwellingonablockerfinperpetuityandtotransferallrelatedrightstohis/herheirsortoanyotherpersonaswellastoleasetoanotherperson(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.9(1)(a-e)).Additionally,astartertitleholderhastherighttobeamemberoftheassociationoftheschemeinquestionaswellas to utilise possible services provided to the scheme as a whole. The registration of atransaction is considered as proof of the transaction and any transfer of rights must beinformed to the Land Rights Registrar (LRR) by the transferor and the transferee(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.9(5-7)).Astarter title rightmayonlybeheldbyonepersonexcept forpersonswhoaremarried incommunity of property and no juristic person is allowed to hold a starter title right.Furthermore,nonaturalpersonwhoownsanyimmovablepropertyoralandholdtitlerightinNamibia is allowed to acquire a starter title right of which it is only allowed to hold one(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,paras7–10).Prior to theestablishmentof a starter title scheme the specific landmustbe subdividedorconsolidatedtoensurethelandissituatedononeportionoflandandregisteredassuchintheDeedsRegistry.Furthermore,mortgages,usufructs, fideicommissumorotherrightsmustbecancelledpriortotheestablishmentofascheme.Therelevantauthoritymayalsorequiretheownerofthe land, theassociationortheoccupierstopayanamountofmoneytocoverthecosts relating to the establishment of the scheme (Government of theRepublic ofNamibia,2012,para.11(3)).Alistofpersonswhohavecommittedthemselvestobecomemembersofaschemeshallbesubmitted to theauthority togetherwith theplotnumbers(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.11(4-5)).Therelevantauthorityisfurthermoreallowedtocausetheconductofafeasibilitystudytoinvestigatethefeasibilityanddesirabilityofthecreationofthescheme.Thiscanincludetheconductof i.e.geological,environmentaloranyother scientific study considered relevant to the specific blockerf. Town planning schemesapplicabletotheareaoranyotherrelevant legislationmustalsobeconsideredpriortotheestablishmentofascheme(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.11(6-7)).Theprocessofestablishingastartertitleschemecanbeinitiatedbyoneormoreresidents,orbytherelevantauthorityorthelegalownerofapieceofland(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia, 2012, para. 11(1)). Once the relevant authority has confirmed that a starter titleschemeisdesirablethelocalLRRandtheRegistrarofDeedsmustbeinformedandmakeanendorsementonthetitledeedoftherelevantblockerfregardingtheestablishmentofastartertitlescheme(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.12(1-3)).Theestablishmentofastartertitleschemeisrequiredforeachblockerfandentitlespersonstoacquirestarter



titlerightsoverthespecificblockerf. Thenoticetobeforwardedtothedeedsregistrarandthe LRR must include the number of the title deed of the blockerf, a list of the heads ofhouseholds residing on the blockerf, and the conditions imposed by the authority. Theinformationisenteredintotheparticularschemeinthestartertitleregister(Governmentofthe Republic of Namibia, 2012, paras 7–8) after an investigation of the compliance withrequirements forbeinga schememember.Once the investigation is completed successfullythepersonsstatedonthe listaretobeconsideredasstartertitleholdersandtheLRRshallissueacertificatetoeachschememember.Authorities inwhose jurisdiction a starter title scheme is createdor anyotherpersonmayagreetoprovideservicestotheschemeasawhole(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012, para. 9(2)) in which case the constitution of the association of the scheme mustdetermine the rights andduties of everyholder in the scheme.The relevant authoritymayimpose conditions upon a starter title scheme in regard to i.e. the nature of buildings andstructuresthatmaybeerectedonablockerf, limitthenumberofpersonstoacquirestartertitlerightsinascheme,andthelayingandmaintenanceofpipesandsewerage,etc.underorovertheblockerf(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.6).Startertitlescanbeupgradedtolandholdtitleorfreeholdtitle.Ifaminimumof75%oftheright holders consent a starter title scheme can be upgraded to landhold title under thecondition of approval by the relevant authority. Right holderswho do notwant upgradingmustbegranteda starter title right ina similar schemeand theauthoritycan thensell theplots to interested persons (Government of the Republic of Namibia, 2012, para. 14). Bothstarter titleand landhold titlecanbeupgradedto full freeholdownership if situatedwithintheareaofanapprovedtownship.Upgradingtofreeholdrequiresthatallrightholdershaveagreedinwritingandtheblockerfmustthenbesurveyedandsubdividedinaccordancewithapplicable laws. A quorum of minimum 75% of the right holders shall agree with theupgradingandtheauthoritymaypayfaircompensationtotheholdersthatdonotagreewiththeupgrading.Theauthoritycanthensell theervento interestedparties.Allcosts forsuchupgrading must be borne by the right holders proportionally to the size of the plot(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.15).

5.2 Landholdtitle

Alandholdtitleholderhasallthesamerightsintheplotasanownerhasinrespectofhis/hererf under common law and may perform all juristic acts as an owner may in respect ofcommon law. Furthermore, a landhold title holder has an undivided share in the commonpropertyand is limitedbypossibleservitudes in favourof theownerofanyotherpropertyover the blockerf (Government of the Republic of Namibia, 2012, para. 10(1)(a-b)). Thelandhold title is equally registered as a blockerf in the Deeds Register. The landhold titleholderobtainstherighttoadefinedplotwithintheblockerfinperpetuityalongwiththerightto transfer the right to another holder, create or cancel a mortgage, right of way, andservitudes relating to provision of basic services (Government of the Republic of Namibia,2012, para. 10(5)). All transactions must be updated and registered in the landhold titleregister.RegistrationofanytransactionofalandholdtitlerightisthesameasthelegaleffectofregistrationinthedeedsregistryandthefailuretoregistertransactionsisalsothesameasfailingtoregisterasimilartransactionintheDeedsRegistry(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.10(8)(a-b)).



Prior to the establishment of a landhold title scheme the specific land must be subdivided orconsolidatedtoensurethelandissituatedononeportionoflandregisteredassuchintheDeedsRegistry as is the case for the starter title schemes. Furthermore, mortgages, usufructs,fideicommissumor other rightsmust be cancelled prior to the establishment of a scheme. Therelevantauthoritymayalsorequiretheowneroftheland,theassociationortheoccupierstopayanamountofmoneytocoverthecostsrelatingtotheestablishmentofthescheme(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.11(3)).Moreover,theplotstoformpartofalandholdtitleschememustbemeasuredbyalandmeasurerandthephysicalboundariesmustbeindicatedontheblockerfandadescriptionoftheplotboundariesalongwiththeplotnumbersallocatedistobe prepared by a landmeasurer. A list of personswho have committed themselves to becomemembersofaschemeshallbesubmittedtotherelevantauthoritytogetherwiththeplotnumbers(Government of the Republic of Namibia, 2012, para. 11(4-5)). The relevant authority isfurthermoreallowedtocause theconductofa feasibilitystudy to investigate the feasibilityanddesirability of the creation of the scheme. This can include the conduct of i.e. geological,environmental or any other scientific study considered relevant to the specific blockerf. Townplanningschemesapplicabletotheareaoranyotherrelevantlegislationmustalsobeconsideredpriortotheestablishmentofascheme(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.11(6-7)).If the resultof theabove investigation ispositiveand the scheme isdesired the schemecanbeapprovedandtheDeedsRegistrarandtheLRRmustbenoticed.TheDeedsRegistrarthenmakesan endorsement of the title deed of the blockerf that a landhold title scheme is established(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.13(1-4)).Inadditiontotheconditionsthatcanbeimposedbytherelevantauthorityonthestartertitleschemestherecanalsoberestrictionssuchasprohibitionoftransfertoanotherpersonbeforeaspecifiedperiodoftimeandwithoutthepermission of the relevant authority (Government of the Republic of Namibia, 2012, para.13(6)(c)).TheabovementionednoticetobesendtotheDeedsRegistrarandtheLRRissimilartotheinformationtoberecordedinthelandholdtitleregisterandincludesthenumberofthetitledeedoftheblockerf,allconditionsimposedbyrelevantauthorities,adescriptionofthephysicalboundaries of the plots and plot numbers allocated, a list of persons who have concludedcontracts including the fullnamesand identitynumbersof theplotholders(Governmentof theRepublic of Namibia, 2012, para. 13(9-10)). Upon successful establishment of a landhold titleschemepersonsreceiveacertificateindicatingthathe/sheistheholderofalandholdright.Interior boundaries are surveyed by a para-professional land measurer and registered in thelandholdtitleregisterasestablishedbytheDeedsRegistrar.Duringso-calledadjudication,wheretheinteriorboundariesareagreedupon,adescriptionoftheboundariesandnumbersallocatedtotheplotsisproducedbythelandmeasurer(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.11(4)(a-b))andthismakesitoutforthelayoutplan.Alandholdtitlecanbeupgradedtofreeholdtitleif/whenallrightholdersintheschemeagreeinwriting on such upgrading. Upgrading requires that the scheme is locatedwithin an approvedtownship and the blockerfmust be surveyed and subdivided in accordancewith the applicablelaws. It can take place if minimum 75% of the landhold title holders agree upon the wish toupgradeandtherelevantauthoritymaycompensatefairlytherightholderswhodonotwanttoupgrade.Insuchincidentstherelevantauthoritymayforitsownaccountsellthevacanterventointerestedpersons.Thecostsrelatedtoupgradingto fullownershipmustbebornebytherightholdersthemselves(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.15(4-6)).ThelaststepintheFLTSisequaltoafreeholdtitlewithintheDeedsRegistry.



The above all indicates on-going reforms of the land registration and tenure approach inNamibia, which is becoming more formalised during recent time. The approach indicatessome similaritieswith theFFPapproachwhich suggests recordationof all land indifferenttenuresystemsspecificallydesignedtoaddressdifferentneedsandpurposesunderdifferentspatial,legalandinstitutionalframeworks.

5.3 Fit-For-PurposeframeworkembeddedintheFlexibleLandTenureSystem

ThissectionisprovidingabriefoverviewastohowtheFFPlandadministrationframeworkisembeddedintheFLTSandalsoraisesafewchallengesinregardtotheimplementationofthesystem.ThelegalframeworkThe legal framework for the FLTS is enshrined in the FLTA, which was enacted in 2012although the attached regulations are still outstanding and the act has therefore not yetenteredintoforce.Thecommencementofthepilotprojectsispostponeduntilthecompletionoftheregulationsandthefulloperationalizationoftheact.Itisexpectedthattheregulationswillbecompletedandapprovedbythesecondquarterof2017.TheFLTSprovidesforacontinuumoflandrightsduetothefactthatitencompassestwonewformsoftenuresecurityinadditiontotheexistingfreeholdtitle.ActsandregulationsthatareeffectingtheimplementationoftheFLTSarehoweveranissuethatprolongstheprovisionoftenure security. The conduct of feasibility studies, approval by Namibia Planning AdvisoryBoard(NAMPAB)andTownshipsBoard,townplanning,andsurveyingofexteriorboundaries.The FTS underpins the human rights and allows for legal persons, incl.women, youth andelders,toacquiretenuresecurityprovidedtheydonotownimmovablepropertyorpossessesalandholdtitle.TheinstitutionalframeworkThe implementationof theFLTS entails the establishment of a numberof new institutions,including so-called Land Rights Offices, Land Rights Registrar, land measurer, starter andlandhold title registers, etc. It is of utmost importance to ensure the efficiency andeffectiveness of those new institutions aswell as the development of technical and humanresources to successfully manage the FLTS implementation. It also calls for capacitydevelopment within the existing institutions such as the Deeds Office as well as the localauthorities. Theblockerfmust be registered in theDeedsRegistry and the starter title andlandholdtitlesalongwithnamesandIDnumbersofmembersarecapturedinthestarterandlandholdtitleregisters,respectively.AccordingtoLewis,manylocalauthoritiesdonothavecapacity to approve layoutplans forupgrading to landhold title and itmay tonecessary tocontractprivatetownplannersorarchitectstoapprovetheplansoritcouldbedonebytheMinistryofUrbanandRuralDevelopment (MURD) (Lewis,2014,p.4).Valid concernshavebeen raised in regard to the creation of the new institutions and organisations and thecomplexityandcosts in regard to the implementationof theFLTS. It is suggested rather tomake“changesandamendmentstotheexistinginstitutionsandorganisationalstructurestoaddressthecurrentweaknesses”(Bayer,2012)thancreatingnewinstitutions.



ThespatialframeworkThespatialrequirementsforthestarterandlandholdtitlediffersignificantly.Thestartertitleprovides permission to erect a dwelling on an undefined plotwithin the blockerf. Exteriorboundariesoftheblockerfmustbesurveyedbyaprofessionallandsurveyorandregisteredinthe Deeds Registry. Hoverer, there are no formal requirements to the accuracy of interiorboundariesandthusleavesituptothegroupmemberstoadjudicateanddecideuponviaaparticipatory approach. The group members themselves are also supposed to mediate onpossibledisputesarising(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.12(b)).Ontheotherhandalandholdtitleprovidespermissiontooccupyadefinedplotwithintheblockerfand an undivided share in the common property. Exterior boundaries are surveyed by aprofessional land surveyor and interior boundaries are demarcated by a para-professionallandmeasurer.Itisallowedtomortgagealandholdtitleaswellastocreateservitudesfori.e.serviceprovisionandarightofway(GovernmentoftheRepublicofNamibia,2012,para.5).This indicates incremental improvementofthespatial frameworkaswellasacontinuumofaccuracy.

6 ConclusionsanddiscussionThisbrief literaturereviewpresentedabove is creating the linkbetween thecurrentglobaldevelopment agenda as outlined in the SDGs via the application of the FFP LandAdministrationapproachtotheFLTSinNamibia.TheFLTSisanenablerforprovidingtenuresecurity to urban low-income and informal settlers and the purpose of the system is toprovide simpler and cheaper access to land and property for low-income and informalsettlers,andthesystemprovidesfor incremental improvementof tenuresecurityaccordingtopeople’sneedsandaffordability.Thesystemisflexibleinthesensethattenuresecuritycanbeupgradedstepwiseovertimeandthedifferenttypesoftitle;startertitleandlandholdtitle,provideforincreasinglevelsoftenuresecurityaswellastheoptionformortgaging.TheFLTSthusseeks toprovide tenuresecurity fordifferentpurposes, i.e.astarter titlewouldsatisfytheneed forpeople interested inacquiring tenuresecurityonlywhilea landhold title is anoptionforpeopleinterestedinleveragingaloanonthestrengthoftheirproperty.TheFLTSthus contributes to a more holistic approach to land tenure security in Namibia bycomplementing the freehold land registration systemand the Communal LandRegistrationSystemintheachievementofprovidingtenuresecurityforall.TheimplementationoftheFLTSwillputadditionalpressureoninstitutionsthatarealreadystraining todeliver services to cater to the currentneedsand requirements.Thismaybeachallenge and needs specific attention andwill call for considerable capacity developmentwithintheinvolvedinstitutions.Inadditiontothenewinstitutionstobecreatedanumberofexisting key stakeholders play essential roles in regard to the successful implementation,including theMLR,MinistryofUrbanandRuralDevelopment (MURD)and local authoritiesetc.Yetanotherchallengemaybetoestablishandensureaclosecollaborationamongsttheseinstitutions,whichisparamountandshouldideallybeestablishedpriortotheinitiationoftheimplementation.Itwouldbeahindrancefortheimplementationifkeystakeholdersapplyamind-setof “silo” thinkingrather than focusingon theend targetgroupand thepurposeofproviding tenure security for low-income and to empower the persons concerned. Thesepossiblechallengesreinforcetheneedforadditionalresearch.



The preliminary study indicates that there is a clear link between the SDGs, via the FFPapproach,totheFLTSinNamibia.Thismakesitinterestingandnecessarytoconductfurtherin-depthanalysisastowhethertheFLTSis indeed“Fit-For-Purpose” inallaspectsandthuscan contribute to the achievementof theSDGs inNamibia. It is also crucial to consider theapplicabilityof theFLTSinotherSub-SaharanAfricancountriesaswellasotherdevelopingcountries.ThepotentialofFLTSasa foundation for theadministrationandmanagementoffoodandwatersecurity,disastermanagement,climatechanges,andenvironmentalchangesinNamibiashouldalsobe further investigated fromanacademicperspective.Thishowevercallsforfurtheracademicresearch.



AnnexureA LocalitieswithinformalsettlementsinNamibia

Source:(Picard,2016)



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