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Introduc)on    There are easily recognizable linguistic differences that appear in any classroom in the nation, however, most commonly, African American students have the most difficulty with their native dialects in a classroom learning environment (Blake & Sickle, 2001; Champion, Rosa-Lugo, Rivers, & McCabe, 2010; Craig & Washington, 2004). The language transition an urban student must then undergo is termed as dialect shifting (Terry, Connor, Thomas-Tate & Love, 2010). In written and verbal communication forms, African American students in highly populated areas are not performing as well in reading and writing when compared to other racial/ethnic groups as proven in national reports (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2011). Reflective of standardized or high-stakes testing, research shows how there is a perceived achievement gap amongst African American students that begins at the elementary level and continues to widen as these students move to higher grade levels (NCES, 2011).

As African American children are introduced to the educational experience, they must quickly adapt to what is termed as ‘dialect shifting’ not only as a survival tactic in the schooling system, but also as a valuable means to become versatile in the culture of language. Fogel and Ehri (2006) note that the dominant group in education is considered to be white-middle class children who are readily equipped for speech, reading, or written tasks because assessments are formatted in their language contexts. In recognition of these language differences that exist in the classroom, students of color need to be taught how to dialect shift as a means to not only participate in the classroom, but also as a way to demonstrate their academic p ro f i c i ency on s t anda rd i zed assessments.

Dialect   as   a   Factor   in   Academic  Achievement

A growing concern is the language contexts in which assessments, performance indicators, and overall curriculum measures have been formulated and their relationship to the achievement levels of African American students. Linguistically biased instruction is one factor that has affected the academic success of students in the early grade levels. African American children, through their native dialect need reiteration on phonological awareness and vocabulary development in order to bridge the disconnect that exists between print and

speech forms (Terry et al., 2010). The most critical time for students to learn this skill would be in the primary grade levels for speech and oral reading (Craig & Washington, 2004). Another study concludes that standardized assessments are not useful instruments in identifying the oral reading proficiency of urban African American students with varying levels of African American English (Champion et al., 2010).

Na)onal  Policies

Language acquisition and literacy development policies vary amongst the states; however, most argue that Classroom English is the only appropriate communication and standard form for al l s tudents regardless of ethnic/racial composition. This perspective of ‘Standard English’ speaks to the enormity of the problem that every other language form or dialect is substandard.

The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) spurred national educational agendas that later led to policies that sought to advance the literacy levels of students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Reading First was among one of first initiatives that focused on establishing reading programs for students in kindergarten through 3rd grade to ensure that students were reading on grade level by the end of grade 3. Early Reading First was the second initiative that attempted to support early language and literacy development for students from low-income families through professional development and teacher education. Even Start, a federal initiative that targeted low-income parents and their children began in 2003 as a follow up to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). The program was designed to assist children in reaching their full learning potential by bridging the home and school as a learning partnership. The last initiative under NCLB, Improving Literacy through School Libraries increased access of current library materials for schools who had high percentages of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and also provided certified library media specialists at these schools.

While the primary focus of these policies have been increasing the literacy levels of students in the primary grades, little to no attention has been given on the factor of dialectal difference as an indicator of student literacy levels. Seemingly, the greatest benefactors of these initiatives have been adults and children who are defined as English

language learners or having limited English proficiency. In many cases, African American adults and their children do not fall into this category because their native and communal dialects stem from the English language.

Findings

This policy report uses the Condition of Education 2011: Indicator 11 Reading Achievement Gaps (NCES, 2011) to examine the rates at which 4th grade students averaged by their reading performance in terms of race/ethnic groups and school characteristics.

With the national average reading score for 4th grade students in 2005 being 219, African American students’ averages ranged below nineteen points; compared to their white counterparts who performed ten points higher than the national average (see Figure 1). Again in 2007, African American students fell below average by eighteen points, and in 2009, data concluded a continual under the national average by sixteen points for African American students.

This information demonstrates how reading assessments may be skewed in language contexts. Students who speak and write in their native dialects and are not familiar with the skill of dialect shifting may be experiencing greater difficulty in understanding and performing standardized assessments (Terry et al. 2010).

Figure  1:Average  Reading  Scale   Scores  for  4th  graders  by  race/ethnicity

Research has attributed African American dialects to be greater from students who are from low socioeconomic backgrounds (Terry et al., 2010). To demonstrate the nature of literacy achievement for African American students, data collected shows the percentage of students in school who are eligible for free or reduced lunch and their reading achievement ratings.

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Lakia ScottUniversity of North Carolina at Charlotte

Examining  the  Implications  of  NCLB  in  African  American  Early  Literacy  Achievement:  

Recommendations  for  Educators

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NCLB Policy cont.

Illustrated in Figure 2, 4th grade students from low poverty areas surpass the national reading average whereas those who would be categorized in the upper-middle class and lower-middle class ranges span near the national average. However, students from high poverty areas fall below the national average by 22 points in 2005, 21 points in 2007, and 19 points in 2009 (see Figure 2).

Figure  2:Average  Reading  Scale   Scores  of  4th  graders  by  student  and  school  characteris=cs

Policy  Implica)ons

These findings affirm that the national policies currently in effect that target low socioeconomic classes are demonstrating meager progress as it pertains to the early literacy levels of African American students.

Reading First was a costly, but short-lived fix to the reading achievement ratings for primary grade students. Results of the study found that reading scores had no major changes that the years prior (Toppo, 2008). The Early Reading First program showed more promise with performance ratings for student vocabulary levels increasing, however, the average scores were still

below national averages and are indicative of the economically disadvantaged children having the greatest loss in academics (Johnston, 2010).

Even Start proved to not have significant gain for the student and parent populations it sought out to serve. In fact, the program was criticized for

being synonymous to the Head Start program, but not having the same results to demonstrate improvement or effectiveness (Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, 2011). The last initiative under NCLB (2001) amendments, Improving Literacy through School Libraries, reported that data could not reflect if this initiative had improved test scores at any level (US Department of Education, 2009).

Recommenda)onsVary the reading assessments. With one single test being the primary indicator for academic performance, current school practices over rely on these assessments. Furthermore, in terms of attaining accurate educational information, there is a surge for assessments that will not be discriminatory or negate the cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic factors of the student. This trend also notes the importance of the African American student’s ability to shift their dialect in order to be proven competent on such oral, reading, and written examinations in order to meet grade promotion standards.

Relay cultural relevance to instruction. Teachers need to know as much as possible about the culture that students bring into the classroom to facilitate student learning (Fogel & Ehri, 2006). Teachers also need to be sensitized to the difficulties that dialect-speaking students face in learning new dialect forms in the classroom (Fogel & Ehri, 2006). Student achievement is maximized when students are given an

opportunity to self-correct rather than just being given correct responses by their instructors. To this notion, it makes more sense that an adaptation can occur more naturally and meaningfully when students are cognizant of their own errors.

Teach students how to code-switch. Blake and Sickle (2001) examined how when students increased their ability to code-switch from African American English to Classroom English, academic progress drastically increased. The need to develop content-specific language constructs would help to enable students to pass tests and communicate more dynamically within mainstream society.

Develop an appreciation for dual dialects. In realization to these dialectal differences and the necessity to ‘code switch’ this vernacular in certain situations, Jonsberg (2001) asserts that African American students should be proud of their ‘bilingualism’ such as others who are affluent in other languages. Suggestive measures include teachers have a diverse and respectful attitude about the various historical languages that students bring to the classroom.

Rely on academic interventions. Pittman (2007) found in her research regarding improving the spelling ability for African American Vernacular English speakers, “sounds have to be explicitly taught to students, and students have to be made aware of the way, in which they are pronouncing sounds in their dialect” (p.120). Additionally, there is a need to train educators on the phonological and morphological differences of Standard American English and African American Vernacular English. These differences will help educators to demonstrate differentiated instructional practices that will best serve the needs of the student.

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!References

Aud, S., Hussar, W., Kena, G., Bianco, K., Frohlich, L., Kemp, J., Tahan, K. (2011). The Condition of Education 2011 (NCES 2011-033). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Blake, M. E. & Sickle, M.V. (2001). Helping linguistically diverse students share what they know. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(5), 468-475.

Champion, T.B., Rosa-Lugo, L.I., Rivers, K.O., & McCabe, A. (2010). A preliminary investigation of second- and fourth-grade African American students’ performance on the Gray Oral

Reading Test-Fourth edition. Topics in Language Disorders, 30(2), 145-153.

Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Grade-Related Changes in the Production of African American English. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 47(2), 450-463.

DOI:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/036)

Fogel, H. & Ehri, L.C. (2006). Teaching African American English forms to standard American English-Speaking teachers: Effects on acquisition, attitudes, and responses to student use.

Journal of Teacher Education, 57(5), 464-480.

Johnston, J. (2010, August). Early reading results show substantial improvements in reading skills. Vanderbuilt University. Retrieved from:

http://news.vanderbilt.edu/2010/08/early-results-show-substantial-improvements-in-reading-skills/

Jonsberg, S.D. (2011). What’s (White) teacher to do about Black English? The English Journal, 90(4), 51-53.

Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (2011). Even start facts and figures: Student achievement and school accountability programs. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from:

http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/sasa/esfacts.html.

Pittman, R. (2007) Improving spelling ability among speakers of African American Vernacular English: An intervention based on phonological, morphological, and orthographic

principles. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, United States -- Texas. Retrieved April 20, 2011, from Dissertations & Theses @ Texas A&M System.(Publication No. AAT

3281137).

Terry, N., Connor, C., Thomas-Tate, S., & Love, M. (2010). Examining Relationships Among Dialect Variation, Literacy Skills, and School Context in First Grade. Journal of Speech,

Language & Hearing Research, 53(1), 126-145.

Toppo, G. (2008, May). Study: Bush’s reading first program ineffective. U.S.A. Today. Retrieved from: http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2008-05-01-reading-first_N.htm.

U.S. Departent of Education (2003). Guidance for the William F. Goodling Even Start Family Literacy Programs. Part B of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).

U.S. Department of Education (2009). The second evaluation of the Improving Literacies through School Libraries program. Retrieved from:

http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/other/libraries/libraries09.pdf.

U.S. Department of Education (2011). National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Selected Years 1992-2009 Reading Assessments, NAEP

!

Suggested  Cita,on:  Sco$,  L.M.  (2011).  Examining  the  implica/ons  of  NCLB  in  African  American  early  literacy  achievement:  Recommenda/ons  for  educators  (UNCC  UERPC  Policy  Report,  September,  2011,  No.  1)  Charlo$e,  NC:  University  of  North  Carolina  at  Charlo$e,  College  of  EducaHon,  Urban  EducaHon  Research  and  Policy  CollaboraHve.  

Submission  Guidelines:  The  Urban  EducaHon  Research  and  Policy  CollaboraHve  accepts  manuscripts  for  review  and  publicaHon  consideraHon  for  the  Research  Brief  series.  Submi$ed  manuscripts  should  not  exceed  1,000  words  and  must  conform  to  the  guidelines  outlined  in  the  6th  EdiHon  of  the  Publica/on  Manual  of  the  American  Psychological  Associa/on.  All  manuscripts  will  undergo  a  blind  review  and  refereed  process.  The  review  process  takes  approximately  3-­‐4  weeks.  Manuscripts  can  be  submi$ed  for  review  via  e-­‐mail  to  Dr.  Chance  Lewis  (chance.lewis@uncc.edu).Correspondence  regarding  this  report  may  be  sent  via  e-­‐mail  to:  lsco:33@uncc.edu

!References

Aud, S., Hussar, W., Kena, G., Bianco, K., Frohlich, L., Kemp, J., Tahan, K. (2011). The Condition of Education 2011 (NCES 2011-033). U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Blake, M. E. & Sickle, M.V. (2001). Helping linguistically diverse students share what they know. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(5), 468-475. Champion, T.B., Rosa-Lugo, L.I., Rivers, K.O., & McCabe, A. (2010). A preliminary investigation of second- and fourth-grade African American students’

performance on the Gray Oral Reading Test-Fourth edition. Topics in Language Disorders, 30(2), 145-153. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Grade-Related Changes in the Production of African

American English. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 47(2), 450-463. DOI:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/036)

Fogel, H. & Ehri, L.C. (2006). Teaching African American English forms to standard American English-Speaking teachers: Effects on acquisition, attitudes, and responses to student use. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(5), 464-480.

Johnston, J. (2010, August). Early reading results show substantial improvements in reading skills. Vanderbuilt University. Retrieved from: http://news.vanderbilt.edu/2010/08/early-results-show-substantial-improvements-in-reading-skills/ Jonsberg, S.D. (2011). What’s (White) teacher to do about Black English? The English Journal, 90(4), 51-53.

Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (2011). Even start facts and figures: Student achievement and school accountability programs. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from: http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/sasa/esfacts.html.

Pittman, R. (2007) Improving spelling ability among speakers of African American Vernacular English: An intervention based on phonological, morphological, and orthographic principles. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, United States -- Texas. Retrieved April 20, 2011, from Dissertations & Theses @ Texas A&M System.(Publication No. AAT 3281137).

Terry, N., Connor, C., Thomas-Tate, S., & Love, M. (2010). Examining Relationships Among Dialect Variation, Literacy Skills, and School Context in First Grade. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 53(1), 126-145.

Toppo, G. (2008, May). Study: Bush’s reading first program ineffective. U.S.A. Today. Retrieved from: http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2008-05-01-reading-first_N.htm.

U.S. Department of Education (2003). Guidance for the William F. Goodling Even Start Family Literacy Programs. Part B of the Elementary and Secondary Education

Act (ESEA). U.S. Department of Education (2009). The second evaluation of the Improving Literacies through School Libraries program. Retrieved from:

http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/other/libraries/libraries09.pdf. U.S. Department of Education (2011). National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Selected Years 1992-2009

Reading Assessments, NAEP Data Explorer.

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