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LABOUR MARKET AND SERVICE SKILLS ASSESSMENT IN SELECTED LOCATIONS

ANNEXES - ETHIOPIA

Prepared by Altai Consulting for IOM | Ethiopia – January 2019

Funded by the European Union

Labour Market and Service Skills Assessment 2

Altai Consulting January 2019

© IOM

January 2019

Unless specified otherwise, all pictures in this report are credited to Altai Consulting

This document was produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union.

The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well‐being of migrants.



ANNEXES - TABLE OF CONTENTS ANNEXES - TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... 3

FIGURES .................................................................................................................................... 4

1. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 5 1.1. Overview ........................................................................................................................ 5 1.2. Research Approach ....................................................................................................... 6

Research Questions ................................................................................................ 6 1.3. Fieldwork Implementation .............................................................................................. 9

Team structure ......................................................................................................... 9 Monitoring ................................................................................................................ 9 Validity Criteria ......................................................................................................... 9 Codes of Conduct .................................................................................................. 10

1.4. Quantitative Supply-Side Survey: Returnees................................................................ 10 Sampling Frame .................................................................................................... 10 Outcome ................................................................................................................ 11

1.5. Quantitative Demand-Side Survey: Businesses ........................................................... 12 Sampling Design .................................................................................................... 12 Outcome ................................................................................................................ 12

1.6. Qualitative Interviews ................................................................................................... 13 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) .............................................................................. 13 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) .......................................................................... 15 Paired Interviews (PIs) ........................................................................................... 17

1.7. Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 17 Overview ................................................................................................................ 17 Reintegration Scores ............................................................................................. 17 Index of Skills Mismatch ........................................................................................ 21

2. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................ 22 2.1. Labour Laws and Employment Policies ........................................................................ 22 2.2. Policy on Returnees ..................................................................................................... 23

3. ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS ON REINTEGRATION SCORES ........................................... 25 3.1. Factors Affecting Reintegration .................................................................................... 25 3.2. Interaction Across Dimensions of Reintegration ........................................................... 28

4. LITERATURE ................................................................................................................. 30



FIGURES Figure 1. Map of study locations............................................................................................................... 6

Figure 2. Reintegration scores by gender ............................................................................................... 25

Figure 3. Reintegration scores by age group .......................................................................................... 26

Figure 4. Reintegration scores by migration route .................................................................................. 27

Figure 5. Reintegration scores by time spent abroad .............................................................................. 27

TABLES Table 1: Overview of the Research Approach .......................................................................................... 5

Table 2. Research questions.................................................................................................................... 6

Table 3. Distribution of Total Population and Estimated Population of Returnees across Targeted Locations in Ethiopia....................................................................................................................................... 11

Table 4. Number of interviewed returnees by location ............................................................................ 11

Table 5. Number of businesses interviewed per location ........................................................................ 12

Table 6. List of key informants interviewed ............................................................................................. 13

Table 7. Calculation of economic reintegration scores ............................................................................ 17

Table 8. Calculation of social reintegration scores .................................................................................. 18

Table 9. Calculation of psychosocial reintegration scores ....................................................................... 18

Table 10. Calculation of composite reintegration scores ......................................................................... 19



1. METHODOLOGY

1.1. OVERVIEW With the goal of identifying effective means of reintegrating returnees, a mixed-methods methodology was used to assess both the demand and supply sides of the Somali labour market. This research exercise comprised two complimentary approaches:

1. A quantitative survey of returnees and businesses, and; 2. A set of qualitative interviews with returnees, businesses, training institutions and members of local

communities including elders and the youth.

An overview of the methods used for each is presented in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Overview of the Research Approach

Modules Approach & Methodology

Quantitative Supply-Side Survey Questionnaire administered to 400 returnees to identify their profiles, education, skills, employment status and reintegration challenges.

Quantitative Demand-Side Survey Questionnaire administered to 120 businesses to identify their characteristics, challenges, prospects, hiring practices and perceptions of returnees.

Key Informant Interviews (KII) 34 KIIs to identify key macro-level challenges to the reintegration of returnees, as well as policy gaps.

Focus Group Discussions (FGD)

12 FGDs, comprising 6-8 participants, with TVET institutes, businesses, community leaders and youth, to understand the perceptions of returnees that different market players have, and to identify the challenges that TVETs are facing.

Qualitative Paired Interviews (PIs) Open-ended questionnaire administered to 32 returnees to get qualitative inputs on their migration history and reintegration challenges.

Research took place in four regions across Ethiopia: Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR), and Tigray. These locations were identified in collabouration with IOM and chosen purposively for the following reasons:

� Their number of returnees: Oromia, Amhara and SNNPR account for a high proportion of the returnees coming back to Ethiopia, while Tigray hosts a smaller number of returnees.

� The availability of information: Tigray and Amhara observe a high programme intensity with substantial information available, while returnees’ situation in Oromia are less documented.



� Sector diversity: All four regions account for different main economic sectors, hence diverse labour market implications for returnees.

Within each region, one woreda (administrative division) was chosen as the focal point of the demand side survey. These woredas were also purposively selected for being areas of high return and are displayed in the map below (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of study locations

1.2. RESEARCH APPROACH

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The objective of this project was to identify practical, operational responses to the reintegration needs of returnees, while enhancing their employability. To achieve those objectives, Altai structured its research around seven key questions, divided into sub-questions, listed in the table below:

Table 2. Research questions

Research questions: Sustainable Reintegration of Returnees into the Labour Market



1) Labour Market Characteristics: What are the main characteristics of the labour market in Ethiopia?

a) Which sectors support the economic growth? b) What are the general characteristics of the business environment? c) How are recent labour market trends characterized? d) How are government institutions steering job creation?

2) Demand of Labour: What are the challenges and opportunities for returnees?

a) Which sectors hold the most potential for returnees, both in terms of volume and personal evolution?

b) What are the skills demanded by hiring firms and how they can be obtained? c) Can the public sector endorse a role in the reintegration of returnees? d) What is the absorption capacity of the agricultural sector in rural areas, and how can we

expand it? e) How can self-employment provide a durable alternative for unemployed returnees, in the

specific contexts of the targeted locations? f) To what extent are returnees affected by underemployment, and what are the causes? g) What is the share of informal employment, and what are the opportunities for returnees

within informal markets?

3) Profiles and Socio-Economic Conditions of Returnees: Who are the returnees, what was their socio-economic background before leaving, and what is their socio-economic situation since they have returned?

a) What was the returnees’ socio-economic background before leaving? What were the main reasons of leaving and the conditions of departure?

b) What are the main characteristics of their experience abroad? What are the conditions of return?

c) What are the returnees’ socio-economic situations since they have returned? Are returnees employed?

d) What is the level of education of returnees? e) How does the migration history affect the returnees’ ability to find a job?

4) Drivers of Economic Reintegration: To what extent education and skills affect the economic reintegration of returnees?



a) What are the challenges returnees face to access education and trainings? b) What are the skills that returnees possess and to what extent are they able to market

those skills? What productive assets do they possess? c) What are the challenges they face for their skills/education to be recognized? d) What is the level of the skill mismatch between demand and supply of labour from

returnees? e) What is the level of the expectations mismatch (notably in terms of salary) between supply

and demand from returnees, and from the youth in general? f) What other market frictions are preventing returnees from accessing the labour market? g) What are overall the main drivers of economic reintegration?

5) Recruitment, Training and Linkages with Businesses: How are hiring processes characterized and what is the role and impact of TVET institutions to improve returnees’ access to the job market?

a) How do TVET institutions operate? To what extent do they respond to the skills mismatch?

b) What types of eligibility criteria do TVET institutions use? What are their absorption capacity?

c) How are TVET institutions currently linked to businesses? How are they linked to financial institutions? Are any partnerships between TVET institutions and the community being implemented? If not, what kind of opportunities are there? What model shows the best results?

d) What is the role of the private sector in providing trainings? To what extent young employees / returnees are able to benefit from on the job trainings / apprenticeships programmes?

e) What kind of hiring processes are used by firms? What are the different types of formal and informal hiring practices, which are most popular, and how can returnees gain access to them? Which initiatives could improve hiring processes?

f) What type of dissemination strategies employers use to advertise for jobs? Are returnees able to access them?

6) Sustainable Reintegration: How does psychosocial reintegration affect the returnees’ ability to access the labour market, and how can community-level economic reintegration initiatives address this challenge?

a) How does psychosocial reintegration impact the returnees’ ability to find a job? b) Which types of community-level reintegration initiatives are the most effective to promote

sustainable reintegration of returnees, and how can we improve them? c) How can individual approaches and community-level initiatives interact and complement

each other to produce durable economic reintegration solutions for returnees?



7) Unlocking Access to the Labour Market: How can we address reintegration challenges faced by returnees? How does labour supply can meet labour demand?

a) What are the key market opportunities returnees and TVET institutions should focus on, and what are the key skills they should acquire to access those opportunities?

b) What financing mechanisms are available / can be developed for delivering of large-scale trainings and financing of promising self-employment initiatives?

c) What synergies among relevant stakeholders should be investigated to enhance economic opportunities for returnees?

1.3. FIELDWORK IMPLEMENTATION

TEAM STRUCTURE In Ethiopia, was implemented by Altai’s local partner, Laterite. A team of 15 enumerators led by a fieldwork supervisor was recruited and deployed to implement a phone survey of returnees. A phone survey was used since returnees were spread throughout the regions. Each enumerator was assigned a target of 8-10 interviews per day. For the business survey, a team of 8 enumerators was deployed in 4 teams (one per study region) to carry out face-to-face interviews.

MONITORING The use of tablets allowed data to be monitored daily, ensuring quality while allowing adjustments to be made as needed. A set of quality assurance mechanisms was used throughout the project delivery. Daily project progress was followed thanks to the upload of questionnaires onto the SurveyCTO server at the end of every day. The research team used Stata scripts to monitor the quality of the data on an on-going basis and ensure all relevant feedback was appropriately communicated on a daily basis to the field teams. This ensured a high quality of research output. The near real-time data inspection enabled Altai to compare enumerators’ performances and to take immediate corrective actions, e.g. additional guidelines and training for the enumerators who were seen to underperform. Comparing the completeness of answers also served to identify suspicious patterns. Fieldwork supervisors also closely monitored enumerators and were able to closely monitor data collection and ensure that interview guidelines were being followed.

VALIDITY CRITERIA All interviews were checked against a set of validity criteria to ensure the quality of the data collected:

� The duration of the interview was be monitored. Interviews that were far shorter than the mean duration were subject to further review. If answers were found to be inconsistent, the interview was discarded and replaced.

� Random sound bites were collected within the questionnaire (through SurveyCTO Random Audio Audit feature, which randomly records sound bites during the interview). In order for an interview to be deemed valid, these must have included respondent and Enumerator voices. If not, the



interview was invalidated and discarded. This criterion was be assumed to hold if the specific interview did not have to be checked.

CODES OF CONDUCT Altai follows international codes of conduct: a) enumerators gained informed consent from each respondent taking part in the research, b) respondents had the right to withdraw from the research at any time, c) researchers were transparent as to the subject and purpose of data collection and d) anonymity of answers was ensured as all data is unidentifiable to third parties.

1.4. QUANTITATIVE SUPPLY-SIDE SURVEY: RETURNEES The supply-side interviews with returnees looked into the following themes:

� Respondent profile: Sex, age, family situation, financial situation, level of education, vulnerability. � Experience of migration: Previous migration experiences, push factors, (intended and final)

destination, length of stay abroad, types and level of support received, income and employment abroad, remittances sent, freedom of movement, extent of social integration.

� Conditions of return: Decision to return, willingness to return, type, level and perceived appropriateness of reintegration assistance, ability to bring back assets or resources, concerns prior to returning.

� Current occupation: Income, employment (current status, satisfaction), land and assets ownership, ability to meet the family’s needs, coping mechanisms.

� Knowledge and perceptions of the job market: Skills and productive assets possessed, skills acquired before the migration journey, skills acquired during the migration journey, perceived skills needed, expectations, access to job offers, perceived role of informal networks, challenges to find a job.

� Involvement within the community: Acceptance from community members, involvement in social activities, social status, perceptions from friends and family.

� Perceptions of respondent’s own reintegration: Access to education, access to skills training, safety and security, perception of current and future obstacles, perceptions of re-migration alternatives.

SAMPLING FRAME Two datasets were used to constitute the sampling frame. The first dataset included data on returnees from all countries but Saudi Arabia since 2014. The second dataset included all the data available on returnees specifically from Saudi Arabia. Precisely, the first dataset included more than 13,000 returns between 2014 and 2017, from the following countries: Yemen, Djibouti, Malawi, Zambia, Sudan, Somalia, Tanzania, Kenya, Egypt, Libya, Indonesia, Mozambique, Costa Rica, Iraq and Nigeria. The second dataset included more than 130,000 returnees only from Saudi Arabia, for the year 2013/2014.

The overall sampling frame therefore included data from both sources. However, because of the different sizes of each dataset, the two sources were not merged to constitute one single dataset. Indeed, doing so would have substantially over-represent the returnees from Saudi Arabia in the sample, as a large share of them were documented in the second dataset, while a much smaller share of all other returnees



were recorded in the first dataset. Instead, Altai’s Research Team decided to split the sampling frame into the two datasets, with the number of returnees to be selected from each type of provenience (Saudi Arabia vs all other countries) being unequally shared among the two datasets – 10 per cent of the final sample was to be drawn from the KSA dataset, and the remaining 90 per cent from the other dataset. This split was deemed appropriate to include a greater diversity of migration experiences.

The number of sampled returnees within each region was proportional to the share of each region within the dataset, both for the KSA database and the other countries database. Returnees for which no phone number was available were excluded from the sampling frame.

The below table summarizes the overall sampling frame:

Table 3. Distribution of Total Population and Estimated Population of Returnees across Targeted Locations in Ethiopia

Location Share of returnees within the KSA dataset

Target number from KSA dataset

Share of returnees from “other countries” dataset

Target number from “other countries” dataset

Tigray 23% 9 9% 32

Amhara 43% 17 29% 105

Oromia 28% 11 42% 151

SNNPR 6% 3 20% 72

Total 10% 40 90% 360

OUTCOME The target number of interviews was conducted in each of the study locations. The table below presents the number of returnees interviewed per region.

Table 4. Number of interviewed returnees by location

Location # of interviewed returnees

Amhara 122

Tigray 41

Oromia 162

SNNPR 75

TOTAL 400



1.5. QUANTITATIVE DEMAND-SIDE SURVEY: BUSINESSES In each region, 30 businesses were interviewed for a total sample of 120 businesses. Data collection took place in one woreda per region as it would not have been possible to travel to several woredas within the scope of the project. Time and budgetary constraints similarly limited the sample size within each surveyed woreda.

The demand-side interviews with firms looked into:

� Firm’s characteristics: Sector, type of business, size, annual sales. � Workforce composition: Sex/age composition, education and experience of employees, share of

returnees, future expected hiring needs, cost of labour, working conditions. � Skills: Skills valued and required, difficulties to find those skills in the pool of candidates, existing

opportunities for internal / on the job trainings (or intentions to offer them in the future), apprenticeships.

� Competition: Main competitors, long-term strategy, expected evolution of the sector, expected future investments, opportunities for franchises.

� Access to Finance: Access to formal financial institutions, knowledge and access to microfinance institutions.

� Hiring processes: What do recruitment processes look like, what are the selection criteria to hire staff, use of formal and informal channels.

� Perceptions of returnees: Perceptions of applications from returnees, perceptions of employed returnees, integration of returnees within the firm, potential evolution within the firm.

SAMPLING DESIGN To achieve a sample of both formal and informal businesses, a purposive sampling strategy was used. Through triangulation of information of various stakeholders, including the local chamber of commerce, a diverse list of businesses was created in each location. This ensured that the goal of including businesses of different sizes across various sectors was met. Firms fully owned by the government were not eligible to be interviewed.

The respondents were either the business owner or a top manager, to ensure that accurate information on future prospects within their sector, as well as on potential developments of the firm and expected future hiring needs, was collected.

OUTCOME The fieldwork for the demand-side survey was carried out simultaneously with the supply-side survey. The target number of interviews was met in all study locations.

Table 5. Number of businesses interviewed per location

Location # of interviewed businesses

Amhara 30



Oromia 30

SNNPR 30

Tigray 30

OVERALL 120

1.6. QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS

KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS (KIIS) To complement the quantitative survey, Key Informant Interviews were conducted with local stakeholders. KIIs were used to gather more macro-level data on the current challenges faced by returnees, as well as with operational challenges faced by project implementing agencies. Below is the list of the 34 key informants that were interviewed.

Table 6. List of key informants interviewed

Position Organization Location

Head of TVET Strategy Department Addis Ababa Technique and Vocational Training Office Addis Ababa

Branch Manager Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ACSI) Amhara

Head of Office Bedeno Woreda Labour and Social Affairs Oromia

Manager Bedeno Woreda TVET Office Oromia

Office Manager Bedeno Woreda Urban Job Opportunity Creation and Food Security Office Oromia

Chief Accountant Dedebit Micro Finance Tigray

Senior Intervention Manager Enterprise Partners Addis Ababa

Chief executive Ethiopian Diaspora Association Addis Ababa

Expert Ethiopian Investment Commission Addis Ababa

Team Leader in Small and Medium Enterprise Development

Federal Micro and Small Industries Development Agency Addis Ababa

Senior Expert Federal Microfinance Institution Addis Ababa

Expert Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs Addis Ababa

TVET Quality Assurance Officer Federal Technique and Vocational Education and Training Agency Addis Ababa



Enterprise Development Expert Federal Urban job Creation and Food Security Agency Addis Ababa

Vice Head of Office Habru TVET Office Amhara

Market Needs and Post Training Engagement Expert Habru Woreda Job Opportunity Creation and Food Security Office Amhara

Team Leader Habru Woreda Labour and Social Affairs Amhara

Expert Habru Woreda TVET Office: Case Team of Job Creation Office Amhara

Vice Dean Hossaena Poly Technique College SNNPR

Team Leader Industrial Park Development Cooperation Addis Ababa

Chief Technical Officer International Labour Organization Addis Ababa

Team Leader Limu Wereda Youth and Sport Bureau, Rural Job/Employment Opportunity Creation Division

SNNPR

Head of Office Limu Woreda Labour and Social Affairs SNNPR

Head of Enterprise Development Limu Woreda Urban Job Opportunity Creation and Food Security Office SNNPR

Deputy Head of Office Mehoni Woreda Labour and Social Affairs Tigray

Director Mekoni Skill Development Centre Tigray

Office Manager Mekoni Woreda Job Opportunity Creation and Food Security Office Tigray

Rural Job Creation and Food Security Expert Ministry of Agriculture Addis Ababa

Team Leader Ministry of Economy Addis Ababa

Expert Ministry of Housing and Urban Development Addis Ababa

Expert within the Department of Youth Awareness, Creation and Movement Ministry of Youth and Sport Addis Ababa

Office Manager OMO Microfinance Institution SNNPR

Office Manager Oromia Credit and Saving Share Company Oromia

Social Development Expert/ Senior Economist/ Microfinance and access to markets expert World Bank Group Addis Ababa



FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGDS)

Overview Focus Group Discussions were used to:

(i) Collect updated information on the perceptions different market players have of returnees, including businesses and community elders, (ii) Assess the access of the youth in general to the labour market, and (iii) Father inputs on the performance of training platforms and their linkages to hiring businesses.

The FGDs allowed the perspectives of three different groups of stakeholders to be heard:

� FGD Type 1: Private companies of different sizes � FGD Type 2: Representatives of TVET institutes, and returnees who went through such

programmes. � FGD Type 3: Community elders and youth representatives within communities comprising a high

proportion of returnees. Participants were identified in consultation with implementing partners, with Altai’s local network and with the help of Key Informants. Each FGD comprised of 6-8 respondents and lasted around two hours. They were recorded and later transcribed to English.

One FGD of each type was conducted in each of the main study locations for a total of 12 FGDs.

FGDs with businesses and public-sector actors The objective of the first type of FGDs was to understand the businesses’ point of view regarding returnees, identify where in the recruitment processes help is needed to assist returnees, and gather enough information to anticipate future developments in each location of interest. Specifically, the discussions looked into:

� Background of the company/public department: Main characteristics, size of the structure in terms of human resources, future prospects.

� Sector environment and opportunities: Which sectors are especially growing in each location of interest, how do respondents perceive development in the near future.

� Perceptions of job applications from returnees: How differently do respondents perceive applications of returnees from other applications, and how do they assess them.

� Required skills: What are the main skills required by respondents, which ones are the most difficult to find, which skills they have found with the returnees they worked with, existing opportunities for internal / on the job trainings (or intentions to offer them in the future), apprenticeships, evolution within the company.

� Employment methods, recruitment processes and challenges to recruit: How do the respondents advertise for positions, according to what criteria do they hire new staff, what does the recruitment process look like, and what is the role of informal networks in this process.

� Employment of returnees: How many respondents employ returnees, what are the countries of provenience of the returnees they hire and which countries of provenience (if any) are valued the most / the least by businesses, what do they assess as the main assets and weaknesses of returnees and what do they think will help increase their level of employment.



� Linkages with TVET institutes: How well are respondents linked to TVET institutes, and how satisfied are they with the skills taught.

FGDs with TVET institutes and trained returnees The objective of the second type of FGDs was to understand in detail what are the strengths and weaknesses of TVET institutes and to identify the level of satisfaction of returnees with regards to the types of trainings offered. Specifically, the discussions looked into:

� Background of the TVET institute: Main characteristics, size of the structure in terms of human resources, number of beneficiaries.

� Content of the trainings: Which skills are taught, what kind of sectors they are targeting, how long each type of training lasts before completion, what are the costs of enrolment if applicable.

� Linkages with businesses and self-employment programmes: How well are the respondents linked to businesses and/or self-employment programmes / agribusiness activities, are there any firms offering apprenticeships programmes and how well are the TVETs linked to those.

� Satisfaction of returnees: How satisfied are the returnees with the trainings, what skills are they the most satisfied with, what skills are they the least satisfied with, what kind of trainings would they like to be offered.

� Impact: Employment opportunities for the trained returnees and perceptions of their impact. � Future prospects: How can we improve training programmes to enable all returnees to access

the labour market.

FGDs with community elders and youth representatives The objective of the third type of FGDs was to understand the perceptions of the community with regards to returnees. Specifically, the discussions looked into:

� Background on migration within the community: Are many people migrating, for what purpose, what is especially pushing young people to move, where do they usually leave for, and how successful are those experiences.

� Background on return patterns within the community: How substantial are the return flows, what are the push factors of return, and what is the impact of those returns on the community.

� Welcoming returnees: What is the general perception of the community regarding returnees, how do they personally feel about them.

� Interactions between returnees and the community: Are returnees involved in social activities and if so, in what way (do they work together, or develop joint income generating activities together).

� Re-migration: Do they observe a phenomenon of re-migration within the community, if so to what extent (and to where), and for what reasons.

� Perceptions of assistance projects to returnees: How do they feel about current projects aiming at providing help to returnees, and in what way would they want the community involved in those projects.



PAIRED INTERVIEWS (PIS) In each of the main study locations, 4 paired interviews were conducted to better understand the experience of returnees (16 total – 32 returnees). Whereas FGDs assessed the dynamics of labour market eco-systems and social linkages in the community, PIs used a semi-structured approach to better understand the situation of returnees. Because of the sensitivity of their experience, PIs allowed returnees to engage more intimately in a conversation, in a way that could not have been possible in larger groups, while providing an added value compared to quantitative interviews with detailed, subjective inputs from returnees regarding their challenges and perceptions.

Participants in PIs were drawn from the same sample of returnees that participated in the quantitative survey. Participants were purposively selected from those that consented to a PI to ensure a diversity of experiences was represented. This included both men and women, returnees from different countries, and returnees with varying levels of reintegration. The PIs followed semi-structured, open-ended questions, and specifically looked into the respondent’s profile, migration experience, current work situation, perceptions of own reintegration, as well as their perceptions of reintegration projects when relevant.

1.7. ANALYSIS

OVERVIEW Due to the mixed-methods approach used, both quantitative and qualitative analytical methods were used. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods including regressions, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and chi square tests. Statistical analysis was performed using the Stata software. Qualitative analysis comprised of thematic content analysis and triangulation between sources. This allowed trends to be identified and quantitative findings to be contextualized.

REINTEGRATION SCORES Additionally, reintegration was quantitatively evaluated using reintegration indices developed by Samuel Hall and IOM (2017). A separate score was computed for the economic, social, and psychosocial components of reintegration. A composite reintegration score was also generated. Additionally, past integration scores were calculated using a simplified method due to fewer available components. All scores and components had a minimum value of 0 and a maximum value of 1, with a higher score indicating a higher level of integration. In cases where the returnee answered ‘don’t know’ or ‘refuse to answer’ a value of 0.5 was awarded. Cases with more that 7 such answers were excluded from the analysis. The following four tables describe how these scores were calculated.

Table 7. Calculation of economic reintegration scores

Component Weight (Current) Weight (Past)

Satisfaction with economic situation 0.15 0.38

Food security 0.12 –

Ability to borrow money 0.08 –



Frequency of borrowing 0.10 –

Debt to spending ratio 0.08 –

Perceived access to employment and training 0.13 0.34

Employed (Y/N) 0.10 –

Ownership of productive assets 0.11 0.28

Currently searching for a job (Y/N) 0.13 –

Table 8. Calculation of social reintegration scores


Access to housing 0.10 0.16

Perceived standard of housing 0.12 –

Access to education 0.11 0.18

Children enrolled in school 0.07 –

Access to justice and law enforcement 0.12 0.20

Ownership of ID 0.05 –

Access to public services1 0.08 0.13

Access to healthcare 0.20 0.33

Quality of healthcare 0.15 –

Table 9. Calculation of psychosocial reintegration scores


Participation in social activities 0.12 0.37

1 Simple average of access to documentation (excluded for past), safe drinking water, healthcare, justice, education, and housing.



Ability to rely on personal network 0.05 0.16

Sense of community belonging 0.15 0.47

Sense of physical security 0.10 –

Conflict with family / domestic tensions 0.12 –

Feeling of discrimination in community 0.11 –

Feeling of negative emotions 0.10 –

Desire to receive psychological support 0.10 –

Need to re-migrate 0.15 –

Table 10. Calculation of composite reintegration scores


Satisfaction with economic situation 0.05 0.11

Food security 0.08 –

Ability to borrow money 0.02 –

Frequency of borrowing 0.02 –

Debt to spending ratio 0.04 –

Perceived access to employment and training 0.03 0.07

Employed (Y/N) 0.03 –

Ownership of productive assets 0.03 0.07

Currently searching for a job (Y/N) 0.03 –

Access to housing 0.03 0.07

Perceived standard of housing 0.03 –



Access to education 0.03 0.07

Children enrolled in school 0.02 –

Access to justice and law enforcement 0.04 0.10

Ownership of ID 0.05 –

Access to public services2 0.04 0.10

Access to healthcare 0.06 0.14

Quality of healthcare 0.03 –

Participation in social activities 0.04 0.10

Ability to rely on personal network 0.03 0.07

Sense of community belonging 0.04 0.10

Sense of physical security 0.05 –

Conflict with family / domestic tensions 0.01 –

Feeling of negative emotions 0.04 –

Desire to receive psychological support 0.03 –

Need to re-migrate 0.10 –

Due to the way the scores are constructed, several limits must be acknowledged and kept in mind when interpreting the findings of the study:

� The scores cannot be analyzed in an absolute manner; a threshold of reintegration can only be arbitrary. Each score must be interpreted either i) to compare reintegration levels among returnees, ii) to compare reintegration levels of returnees at different points in time, or iii) to compare reintegration levels of returnees against a control group of non-returnees.

� As for any index, the weights chosen (through a principal component analysis method) are likely to under-represent key variables and over-represent less important variables.

2 Simple average of access to documentation (excluded for past), safe drinking water, healthcare, justice, education, and housing.



� The psychological reintegration index suffers from the difficulty for researchers to measure an individual’s psychological reintegration. The variables chosen to constitute the index (participation in social activities, feeling of negative emotions, etc.) do not have the pretention to be exhaustive: several key psychological factors are unfortunately unobservable or hardly measurable within the constraints of a quantitative survey. This for instance explains why the psychosocial reintegration scores of the returnees interviewed in the survey were relatively high while a high proportion of them are requesting psychological support.

INDEX OF SKILLS MISMATCH An index of skills mismatch was created to compare the skills of returnees to the needs of businesses. This was done by combining the supply side and demand side quantitative questionnaires. From the demand side, the proportion of businesses finding the skill useful and the proportion of businesses finding the skills rare were equally weighted. From this value, the proportion of returnees having the skill was subtracted. The end result is an index value for each skill ranging from -1 to +1. A negative value indicates an oversupplied skill (supply greater than demand), while a positive value indicates an undersupplied skill (supply does not meet demand). The exact formula is provided below:

INDEX =

[(0.5*Proportion of businesses finding the skill useful) + (0.5*Proportion of businesses finding the skill rare)]

–

Proportion of returnees with the skill



2. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

2.1. LABOUR LAWS AND EMPLOYMENT POLICIES Labour laws are generally enacted through federal legislation. The most important law in this context is the 2003 version of the Labour Proclamation. In addition, labour is regulated by collective agreements, work statutes and some government ordinances, for instance in the field of occupational health and safety (ILO, 2003).

� Labour rights in the Constitution: The general principles of Ethiopian labour rights are anchored in several articles of the Ethiopian Constitution. Among those, Article 16 provides for principles such as the right to security of the person, Article 18 (2) prohibits inhumane treatment and declares the abolishment of slavery and servitude, and Article 18 (3) and (4) legislates against forced and compulsory labour (ILO, 2003).

� Labour Proclamation (2003): The labour law in Ethiopia was established in 1963, with a first version of the Labour Proclamation. The Labour Proclamation was amended in 1975 and 1993, with the current version written in 2003. The 2003 Labour Proclamation represents an important tool for unions and employers to participate in all labour matters (ILO, 2003).

� Minimum wage: Ethiopia does not have a consistent minimum wage mechanism. According to ILO (2017), “currently, there is no consistent minimum wage mechanism in Ethiopia, however some public sector institutions and enterprises have set their own minimum wages”. The public sector, which generally pays higher wages, has a monthly minimum wage of 420 birr ($21); employees in the banking and insurance sector receive a minimum monthly wage of 336 birr ($18). In addition, the ILO “Minimum Wage Fixing Convention” has not as yet been ratified by Ethiopia (ILO, 2017).

Additionally, several frameworks and directives set out the government’s policies on job creation and are important in structuring and orientating the government efforts in its economic development:

� Second Growth and Transformation Plan (2016-2020): The Growth Plan II sets the government priorities - the agricultural sector will remain a priority, and there is a greater emphasis on light manufacturing. These sectors are given emphasis for job creation through loan programmes or waged-employment with greater linkages with industries.

� National Employment Policy and Strategy (2017): The strategy sets priorities and measures to be taken in order to foster employment in the country. While not directly targeted at returnees, these initiatives can benefit them, as described by the quote on the right.

“There is a strategy in rural job creation to give the priority to three vulnerable sub-groups of the youth: disabled people, HIV carriers and returnees. […] Offices of rural job creation established at ‘Woreda’ level provide them with information regarding job opportunities and facilitate training and financial opportunities to help them establish small and medium enterprises.”

— KII with Ministry of Agriculture



� Business and Employment Creation Strategy (2016): The framework outlines a number of initiatives aimed at fostering employment through the creation and expansion of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) (see quote on the right).

� Youth Policy (2004), and subsequent Ethiopian Youth Change and Development Strategy (2017): The national Youth Policy was created and put into effect in 2004 with the aim of enhancing the economic and political participation of the youth, notably through the creation of employment opportunities. Four packages of employment creation were formulated: the rural, urban, pastoral and semi-pastoral employment creation packages. Based on the result of the evaluation of the four packages, another strategy was created in 2017, the Ethiopian Youth Change and Development Strategy, and a resulting package, the youth package, was established. The package allocated 10 million birr as a revolving fund (the Ethiopian Youth Revolving Fund) aimed at assisting the youth through the creation of SMEs. It also gives attention to social change in enhancing the creation of job opportunities. One of these initiatives is to change the work habits and societal attitude about work and entrepreneurship in general and in particular in pastoral and semi pastoral areas. As substantiated during a KII with the Ministry of Youth, the implementation of the package is challenged by a number of factors, including a lack of coordination among stakeholders.

2.2. POLICY ON RETURNEES Until recently, Ethiopia had no comprehensive migration policy or any reintegration policy or strategy. However, migration and return migration increased and the support for the reintegration of returnees became a new area of concern. It was notably the massive forced repatriation of irregular Ethiopian migrants from Saudi Arabia between 2013 and 2014 that prompted the development of a response to support returnees. Indeed, following a decision of the Saudi government to deport irregular migrants, 163,018 Ethiopian migrant workers were expelled between November 2013 and March 2014 (Human Rights Watch, 2015), and this unplanned return of large numbers of Ethiopians created an emergency situation of an unprecedented magnitude.

While national policies on migration, and specifically return, are still limited as the country lacks a comprehensive framework strategy on the issue (Kuschminder and Guay, 2017a), migration is however addressed in three key government proclamations and directives:

� Proclamation No. 909 on Human Trafficking (2015): This proclamation acknowledges the dangers faced by migrants and criminalizes human trafficking and smuggling. It also calls for the establishment of a fund to provide rehabilitation and reintegration assistance to victims of trafficking and vulnerable migrants. The proclamation is currently under review by the government to better align it with the situation in Ethiopia and international conventions and protocols.

� Proclamation No. 923 on Overseas Employment (2016): This proclamation was enacted in response to high levels of abuse and violence perpetrated against overseas Ethiopians, especially female migrant domestic workers in the Middle East, and aims to protect Ethiopian

“People that have a starting capital of between 100,000 and 1.5 million birr are eligible to get the financial benefit from this initiative. Lease financing is also provided by the Development Bank of Ethiopia – for instance, the bank purchases machineries and the SME will be given time to repay the loan. Besides the financial support available for enterprise creation, there is also a technological support available for them.”

— KII with Ministry of Economy



workers moving abroad. With migration having been banned between 2013 and 2018, this proclamation should now take effect. By ensuring that Ethiopians migrate to countries with an exchange agreement, and by imposing certain restrictions on workers moving abroad (including setting minimum age of 18, a minimum education level of 8th grade, and contractual obligations for employers abroad), the government aims to reduce the vulnerability of Ethiopians moving abroad. Among other responsibilities, a national coordinating committee is to support “organs engaged in counselling and reintegration activities of returnees”. Details on these activities are not provided in the proclamation.

� Directive on National Reintegration (2018): A directive on national reintegration was adopted in September 2018 with the aim of providing assistance to returnees, with a focus on their economic reintegration. The directive dictates what happens after the returnees’ reception, and what services, opportunities, and jobs are available to them.

Based on these proclamations and other policies, several government agencies are active in supporting returnees. A task force was notably created under the directive on National Reintegration and was given the responsibility of assisting migrants and developing a policy framework. The task force comprises of representatives from the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, the Office of Justice, the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, so as to provide a more organized and coordinated response to the challenges of returnees. Additionally, the Urban Job Creation and Food Security Agency is responsible for all programmes and activities related to the economic reintegration of returnees.

“Through the task force, legal, economic and social issues of returnees are addressed.”

— KII with Ministry of Housing



3. ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS ON REINTEGRATION SCORES

3.1. FACTORS AFFECTING REINTEGRATION In addition to those presented in Section 4.3 of the main report, the impact of various factors on reintegration scores was also analyzed. This section presents the results of this analysis.

Gender Figure 2 below highlights gender differences in reintegration scores. The economic and psychosocial components are significantly higher for men3 while the social component is significantly higher for women4. These differences appear to cancel out as the composite reintegration score does not significantly differ between genders. The higher economic reintegration among men is due to the fact that they are more likely to be employed. Since the sample was not fully representative of the population of returnees, further work would be needed to determine to what extent and why reintegration outcomes vary between men and women.

Figure 2. Reintegration scores by gender

Age As seen in Figure 3 below, there is a slight increase in reintegration scores among older returnees. Linear regressions revealed a significant impact of age on the economic, social, and composite

3 Economic: t (398) = 2.01, 2 tailed p < 0.05; Psychosocial: t (398) = 3.23, 2 tailed p < 0.01

4 Social: t (398) = -2.18, 2 tailed p < 0.05

00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

Economicreintegration

Social reintegration Psychosocialreintegration

Compositereintegration

Male Female



reintegration scores5. This trend is most noticeable for the economic component of reintegration and may be related to the fact that older returnees are likely to have more work experience. However, in all cases the magnitude of the trend was very small.

Figure 3. Reintegration scores by age group

Country of Return

Although returnees faced different challenges depending on which country they migrated to, there is no clear trend between the migration route used and reintegration outcomes. As seen in Figure 4, the reintegration scores do not vary significantly between migration routes. The only significant difference was in the psychosocial score6 as those returning from the east (usually Yemen and Saudi Arabia) or from routes other than the three main ones score slightly higher. Given that the sampling frame was derived from two databases, one of which exclusively contained returnees from Saudi Arabia, there is a possibility that sampling bias influenced these outcomes. In any case, the findings presented in the main report suggest that reintegration outcomes are likely to be influenced by the varying conditions faced by returnees arriving from different countries.

5 Economic (F1, 398 = 13.85, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.03); Social (F1, 398 = 8.27, p < 0.01, R2 = 0.02); Composite (F1, 398 = 8.01, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.02)

6 One-way ANOVA (F3,396 = 3.22, p < 0.05)

00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

under 25 25-34 35-44 45+

Economic reintegration Social reintegrationPsychosocial reintegration Composite reintegration



Figure 4. Reintegration scores by migration route

Time Spent Abroad There is no clear trend between reintegration scores and how long returnees lived abroad before returning to Ethiopia. The fact that no significant trends were observed can be seen in Figure 5. The dip observed beyond 5 years should be considered with caution as only 15 returnees were abroad between 5 and 10 years, while only 7 were for more than 10 years. Qualitatively, it is likely that there is some relation between reintegration and duration of migration experience. For instance, a short migration experience could mean that an unanticipated issue precipitated an early return and that less time was spent benefiting from potentially positive aspects of migration such as gaining education or work experience. For those that were away for many years, it is more likely that they had established a life abroad and were integrated with the local community. Coupled with the fact that their personal network in Ethiopia may have weakened over time, reintegration back into Ethiopian society may be more challenging. On the other hand, these individuals may be older and have more work experience that they can leverage to find better jobs upon returning.

Figure 5. Reintegration scores by time spent abroad

00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

Economicreintegration

Social reintegration Psychosocialreintegration

Compositereintegration

Northern route Eastern route Southern route Other route

00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

1 to 6months

6 monthsto 1 year

1 to 2years

2 to 3years

3 to 5years

5 to 10years

More than10 years

Economic reintegration Social reintegrationPsychosocial reintegration Composite reintegration



3.2. INTERACTION ACROSS DIMENSIONS OF REINTEGRATION Economic, social and psychosocial reintegration dimensions interact in many ways, through reciprocal, non-linear relationships, affecting each other in different ways across the variables that constitute them. Since the sample of returnees built for this study being relatively small in each region, the data cannot reveal causal relationships between the different dimensions of reintegration. However, simple descriptive statistics can still provide information on the relative importance of each dimension.

To illustrate this complex relationship between the three dimensions, the sample was split into three groups for each dimension: group A includes the returnees scoring in the top third, group B the returnees scoring in the second third, and group C the returnees belonging to the last third of the ranking. Groups A, B and C therefore correspond to a relatively high, medium and low level of reintegration. With these three groups, the correlation between economic, social and psychosocial reintegration can be examined.

� Economic and social reintegration: o According to the quantitative data, among the returnees belonging in Group A for economic

reintegration, 48 per cent are in the highest group for social reintegration, while 29 per cent belong in the middle group, and only 24 per cent in Group C. In contrast, members of Group C for economic reintegration are not in majority included in the worse performing group for social reintegration: 35 per cent are in Group C, 41 per cent in Group B, and 24 per cent in group A. Those findings show that high economic reintegration encourages a better access to social services, while a low level of economic reintegration does not necessarily affect social reintegration negatively. This counter-intuitive result may be due to the role of informal support networks that compensate for the lack of stable income streams.

o Among Group A members for social reintegration, only 24 per cent belong to group C for economic reintegration, while 48 per cent belong to Group A. This suggests that a better access to basic social services, such as health, education or drinking water helps the reintegration in the labour market. However, Group C members for social reintegration are spread almost equally in terms of economic reintegration, with 27 per cent in Group A, 36 per cent in Group B and 35 per cent in Group C. This suggests that a very low relative access to social services does not necessarily hinder economic reintegration: once again, the role of the support network may be the key here, alleviating the challenges of a low level of either dimension of reintegration.

� Economic and psychosocial reintegration: The data suggests a clear, reciprocal correlation between economic and psychosocial reintegration. Among Group A for economic reintegration, 39 per cent belong to Group A for psychosocial reintegration, and vice-versa. This suggests that good informal relationships encourage employment while having a job raises one’s ability to sustain his/her community network. Yet the influence of psychosocial reintegration on economic reintegration is stronger: there is not a significant difference in terms of psychosocial reintegration between returnees belonging to groups A and B within the economic reintegration dimension, while the trend is much clearer if we look at economic scores among the three groups for psychosocial reintegration. This finding highlights the key role that psychosocial reintegration is playing in the reintegration process, and notably in finding a job.

� Social and psychosocial reintegration: The data suggests a non-linear relationship between social and psychosocial reintegration. While the majority of Group A members for each of those two dimensions



belong in Group A of the other one, the distribution among the three groups reveals a discontinuity at Group B. This means, for instance, that among the returnees that feel the most socially integrated, a higher proportion of them belong to the worst group for psychosocial reintegration than to the middle group. This highlights the fact that a higher relative social reintegration does not necessarily lead to a higher psychosocial reintegration. This result emphasizes on the efficiency of specific psychological support, as psychological reintegration seems to positively influence reintegration as a whole, while the effect of economic and social improvements on psychological reintegration is unclear.



4. LITERATURE Altai Consulting, 2017. Voluntary Return and Reintegration: Community-Based Approaches, Report for

IOM, URL: http://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/voluntary_return_and_reintegration.pdf

Baker, A. 2016. Why More Jobs in Ethiopia Could Mean Fewer Refugees in Europe, Time, URL: http://time.com/4504048/refugees-migrants-ethiopia-europe-jobs/

Central Statistical Agency (CSA) and World Bank, 2013. Ethiopia Rural Socioeconomic Survey, URL: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLSMS/Resources/3358986-1233781970982/5800988-1367841456879/9170025-1367841502220/ERSS_Survey_Report.pdf

Embassy of Ethiopia in Belgium, 2017. Industrial parks and the transformation of Ethiopia’s economy, URL: https://ethiopianembassy.be/en/2017/12/05/industrial-parks-and-the-transformation-of-ethiopia-s-economy/

Government of Ethiopia, Youth Policy, URL: https://chilot.me/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/fdre-youth-policy.pdf

Government of Ethiopia, 2009. National Employment Strategy, URL: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/89584/102962/F1789074138/ETH89584.pdf

Government of Ethiopia, 2015. Proclamation No. 909 on Human Trafficking, URL: https://www.lawethiopia.com/index.php/proclamations-by-number/155-federal-legislations-by-number/3271-909

Government of Ethiopia, 2016. Business and Employment Creation Strategy.

Government of Ethiopia, 2016. Growth and Transformation Plan II (2015/16-2019/20), URL: Although manufacturing is currently concentrated in urban centres, the sector is poised to become important throughout the country as factories proliferate throughout the country.

Government of Ethiopia, 2016. Proclamation No. 923 on Overseas Employment, URL: http://www.lawethiopia.com/index.php/proclamations/3294-procamation-no-923

Government of Ethiopia, 2017. Youth Change and Development Strategy.

Government of Ethiopia, 2017. Demographic and Household Survey 2016, URL: https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR328/FR328.pdf

Government of Ethiopia, 2018. Directive on National Reintegration.

GSMA, 2018. The Mobile Economy: Sub-Saharan Africa 2018, URL: https://www.gsma.com/mea/mobile-economy-2017-sub-saharan-africa-2017

Human Rights Watch, 2015. Detained, Beaten, Deported: Saudi abuses against migrants during mass exodus, URL: https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/05/10/detained-beaten-deported/saudi-abuses-against-migrants-during-mass-expulsions

International Labour Organization (ILO), 2003. National Labour Law Profile: Federal Republic of Ethiopia. https://www.ilo.org/ifpdial/information-resources/national-labour-law-profiles/WCMS_158894/lang--en/index.htm



International Labour Organization (ILO), 2009. Ethiopia County Profile, URL: https://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/ent/coop/africa/countries/eastafrica/ethiopia.htm

International Labour Organization (ILO). 2017a. Rapid Market Assessment for Six Sectors. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-addis_ababa/---sro-addis_ababa/documents/publication/wcms_621368.pdf

International Labour Organization (ILO). 2017b. Promote Effective Labour Migration Governance in Ethiopia, URL: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-addis_ababa/---sro-addis_ababa/documents/publication/wcms_569654.pdf

International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2017a. Framework Standard Operating Procedures for Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration.

International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2017b. Towards an Integrated Approach to Reintegration in the Context of Return, URL: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/DMM/AVRR/Towards-an-Integrated-Approach-to-Reintegration.pdf

International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2018. Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration: 2017 Key Highlights, URL: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/DMM/AVRR/avrr-2017-key-highlights.pdf

Kuschminder and Guay, 2017a. Reintegration Background Report, Draft Report, European University Institute.

Kuschminder and Guay, 2017b. Reintegration Package for Ethiopia, Draft Report, European University Institute.

mBirr, n.d. About mBirr, URL: http://www.mbirr.com/aboutMbirr.html

Supporting Economic Transformation (SET), 2017. Supporting economic transformation and job creation: the role of Hawassa Industrial Park, URL: https://set.odi.org/sonia-hoque-odi-ethiopias-economic-transformation-job-creation-role-hawassa-industrial-park/

Stemming irregular migration in northern and central Ethiopia (SINCE), 2017. UNIDO and ILO Joint Inception Phase Report, URL: https://europa.eu/capacity4dev/file/64631/download?token=0BL4CoHN

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Ethiopia, 2018. Ethiopia’s Progress Towards Eradicating Poverty, URL: https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2018/04/Ethiopia%E2%80%99s-Progress-Towards-Eradicating-Poverty.pdf

World Bank, 2015. Fourth Ethiopia Economic Update: Overcoming Constraints in the Manufacturing Sector, URL: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/22317

World Bank, 2016. Fifth Ethiopia Economic Update: Why So Idle? Wages and Employment in a Crowded Labour Market, URL: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/25747

World Bank, 2017. Unemployment, total (% of total labour force) (modeled ILO estimate), URL: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS



World Bank, 2018, Ethiopia Economic Update: The Untapped Benefits of Services Reforms, URL: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/06/11/ethiopia-economic-update-the-untapped-benefits-of-services-reforms

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