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Size Really Does MatterOptimizing Particle Size for Extraction

the Good, the Bad, the Ugly

Lab Baths

Filter Presses for Hemp Oil

ExtractionSqueeze Out

Every Last Drop

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Cannabis on Collision Course with Science

ISSUE 13 May/Jun 2020

A PUBLICATION

The Discovery of “The Gas”

Drawing Out the Diesel

Thermal Control

Equipment Used in

Cannabis Processing

• Vacuum

• Distillation

• Reactor Systems

• Isolate Production

• Solvent Recovery

• Homogenize

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• Vacuum

• Distillation

• Reactor Systems



• Homogenize

VISIT US @ cascadesciences.comOR SPEAK WITH OUR PROCESS EXPERTS @ 503.847.9047

ACHIEVE SUPERIOR RESULTSWITH CASCADE SCIENCESPROCESSING EQUIPMENT

WE PARTNER WITH THE BEST TO DELIVER TURNKEY SYSTEMS WITH PROFESSIONAL INSTALLION

Contents

06

05

10

14

16

Lab Baths – the Good, the Bad, the Ugly

Size Really Does Matter

18

22

Thermal Control Equipment Used in Cannabis Processing

The Word According to Josh

Filter Presses for Hemp Oil Extraction

The Discovery of “The Gas” is Revolutionizing the Terpene and Cannabis Industries

Each Trip Around the Sun Brings More Everything

Publisher MACE Media Group

CEO Celeste Miranda

Editor-in-Chief Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.

Authors Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.

Kevin Koby Blake Grauerholz Andrea Ashley Jim Driesenga Edye Buchanan

Designer Marko Nedeljkovic

Advertising Julian Azevedo

Bradford Burgess Lisa Dodson

888-210-8356

Precise temperature control is an essential part of

achieving the perfect product.

The INDUSTRY EXPERT for your extraction process heating and cooling needs.

Humankind loves technology. Every trip around the sun provides a wealth of technological innovation, seemingly on an exponential growth curve. Not all that long ago, though, pagers were in vogue, prior to the advent of flip phones. These phones weren’t smart, and so people still asked for directions. Sometimes, they wrote them down. Can you imagine?

Apps weren’t really a thing, either. Nor was Yelp, Uber, Amazon Prime, Netflix, Instagram, or Skype. Or drones, podcasts, YouTube, iPhones, 4G, 5G, or Google glasses. None of this existed. Are you shaking at the thought?

We’ve become spoiled with our modern conveniences, and if you don’t think so, try leaving home without your smartphone. Or turn off your router. That’s a wild experience that feels like reckless abandon, freedom, and impending doom all in one. Breathe in, breathe out. Repeat.

Technology isn’t always distracting or foreboding, though. Not at all. It obviously helps us advance as a planet, such as through

medical and scientific breakthroughs, or a trip to the moon, or the wonderful professor at the University of Connecticut who researches making time travel possible (Ronald Mallett). Technology also offers efficiency, cost-savings, and the automation of laborious tasks.

Innovation in the cannabis industry is easily recognized, since we’re at the dawn of its resurrection, and new ideas are often rapidly implemented. What’s posh today might be yesterday’s news tomorrow. There’s also lots of competition out there, making it paramount for businesses seeking longevity to consistently evaluate how they can get better, refine their craft, over and over and over times three.

This relentlessness can be exemplified in the botanical extraction industry. As more people have migrated out of humdrum careers or just other industrial sectors, they’ve brought their talent and their gear to cannabis. And these days, less companies are snobbishly hoarding supplies they’d sell to anyone else from cannabis companies. So, we now have many more options from which to choose. This issue regards possibilities for augmenting your technological prowess in the extraction facility.

Each Trip Around the Sun Brings More EverythingBy Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.

5EXTRACTION MAGAZINE

6 EXTRACTION MAGAZINE

There’s a reason that the cannabis plant has intrigued humanity for centuries with its powerful effects and unforgettable aroma. Cultivators and chemists alike have a long-held obsession with innovating and recreating cultivars that have remarkable depth and mind-blowing complexity.

Our research seeks to get to the root, of the root, of which molecules make one plant smell dank and skunky, another smell earthly with hints of pine, and yet another smell sweet and fruity. Yes, the cultivating world has grown by leaps and bounds over the past decade, but there’s been an admitted lack of understanding as to what exactly is responsible for the uniqueness of each cannabis plant.

The Secret to Finding the Gas At ABSTRAX, we’ve heavily invested in research and development for the past two years, including a proprietary three-dimensional gas chromatography system with mass spectrometry and various other detectors. It can literally measure the aromas of cannabis to determine which terpenes are present and quantify the concentration of each. And in that process, we’ve discovered exactly which compounds give cannabis its gassy scent.

The official hunt for “The Gas” was spurred by our strategic partnership with Josh Del Rosso from Josh D Farms. Josh is the iconic cultivator responsible for popularizing OG varieties and developing some of the best original genetics

in the industry. Collaboratively, we sought out the elusive, quintessential aroma associated with cannabis.

The research was executed at our Type 7 licensed research and manufacturing lab where award-winning product developers and PhD chemists use state-of-the-art extraction and the most advanced cultivar analysis technology to study over 400 botanical aroma compounds via three-dimensional analysis. Each compound within every plant was studied and carefully quantified.

We then developed the “Gas Factor” metric to quantify how gassy a cultivar is. Cannabis experts rated flowers based on gassiness, searched for trends in data, and developed a mathematical model to relate results to consumers. We created a numerical metric from 0-100 to rate how gassy a flower is based on its olfactory chemistry.

Seven Reasons This Discovery is MonumentalDiscovering “The Gas” is a huge find for the following reasons:

1) The new cultivar-specific terpene profiles have captured the essence of popular cannabis, especially the OG varieties. 2) It provides the ability to compare the “Gas Factor” of different cultivars to increase desirable traits, which makes it easier for cultivators to create higher quality and

By Kevin Koby, ABSTRAX

The Discovery of “The Gas” is Revolutionizing the Terpene and Cannabis Industries


consistent cannabis varieties.3) Consumers and manufacturers can now enjoy a non-cannabis-derived botanical terpene blend that tastes, smells, and feels very similar to cannabis terpenes, without tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).4) We can now offer advanced cultivar-specific formulations made entirely from natural, botanically derived ingredients that are also native to cannabis.5) The price per unit of a non-cannabis terpene product is a fraction of what a cannabis-derived product costs. And it can provide a more realistic, gassy aroma that may not be prevalent in cannabis-derived terpenes due to extraction capabilities, input quality, or degradation. 6) The botanically derived terpene formulations can be reproduced with unwavering consistency and purity.7) These terpenes are legal in every state and country throughout the world, opening the door for an extremely important application for terpenes in the cannabis industry and beyond.

With knowledge and a defined toolset, we can now empower cultivators to develop cultivar-specific blends that are extremely consistent. An introduction and explanation on how we made these discoveries can be found in the recently published blog post “A Quick Guide to Cannabis Metrics.” [1]For those in love with exotic cultivars that exhibit that wonderfully obscure fruity aroma that so many people love, we can recreate Sherbinski’s Acai Berry Gelato—with its

unique berry aroma and sweet earthy backnote—as well as many others. And this can be done with zero THC or cannabis to boot.

The Future With the cannabis market expected to grow to $42.7 billion by 2024 [2], terpenes are expected to play a massive role. This is even truer in the face of last year’s vape scare, which has resulted in higher industry standards and a call for natural ingredients. What’s more, the terpene industry is a rapidly growing segment of the global flavor and fragrance market, which is expected to grow to $35 billion by 2024. [3] This market segment includes the cannabis, cannabidiol (CBD), skincare, cosmetics, health and wellness, and food and beverage industries.

And finally, we’re excited about what this all means for the most well loved cannabis varieties like Sherbinski’s, Josh D, and Jack Herer. We’re working with them to create the “Native Series” and “The Growers Collection,” which allows for us to reconstruct cultivar aromas using botanically derived terpenes instead of cannabis so their products can be enjoyed in every state and nearly any country on earth.

We expect the art and science surrounding the application of terpenes to revolutionize the cannabis world as we know it, while opening a plethora of new and exciting opportunities within other growing industries. We believe we’ve just


scratched the surface, as there’s so much more exploration to be done!

About ABSTRAXABSTRAX is a leader in the research, development, and production of botanically derived and cannabis-inspired terpenes that create unforgettable sensorial experiences. Headquartered in California, the company has partnered with leading cannabis cultivators to study their plants’ chemical profiles and create advanced terpene formulations. As a result of these efforts, ABSTRAX offers the largest catalogue of botanically derived terpene blends and isolates native to cannabis. These ingredients, also known as functional flavors and aromas, are used in vapes, concentrates, edibles, beer, essential oils, fragrances, cosmetics, topicals, tinctures, alcohol, food and beverage, personal care, and more. Additionally, ABSTRAX has developed a robust quality management system, including gas chromatography analysis and molecular distillation of natural ingredients, to

investigate and ensure that ingredients used in its products and products within its industry, are safe for consumption. For more information, visit AbstraxTech.com.

References[1] Abstrax Tech, “Quantifying Terpenes: An Introduction into Botanical Flower Metrics,” www.abstraxtech.com. Accessed 19 April 2020.

[2] “Global Cannabis Market to Hit $42.7 Billion by 2024, According to Updated Report from Arcview Group, BDS Analytics.” Business Wire, 30 Jan. 2020.

[3] “Flavor and Fragrance Market Report: Trends, Forecast and Competitive Analysis.” ReportLinker, May 2019.

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By Blake Grauerholz, OutCo

Size Really Does Matter

The cannabis industry is slowly but surely implementing more regulations and safety standards throughout legal states. As such, it’s vital for manufacturers to be able to create reliable and reproducible products for consumers. California has the strictest testing standards in the United States, which further necessitates the need for total control over the manufacturing pipeline to ensure compliance. While there are many instruments vital to our day-to-day extraction operation, one piece of equipment stands out as an outlier of importance.

The Fritsch Pulverisette 19 (P-19) milling system is the backbone of the OutCo product line. Being an extract-focused company, the P-19 is quite literally utilized to make every product in our portfolio and has dramatically improved our extraction performance. To perceive the value that this precision milling system adds, extractors must understand the effect particle size reduction has within their carbon dioxide (CO2) or ethanol extraction process.

While many operators are focused on the interaction of various extraction system parameters (pressure, temperature, and time) on chemical yield and quality, pre-processed biomass often gets overlooked. Particle size is of great importance in coffee extraction, for example. The grind size of coffee beans is an important metric to dial in when trying to produce the most flavorful shot of espresso or batch of cold brew. In comparison, let’s take a broader look at how a milling system can affect the overall quality of cannabis extracts and manufacturing operations.

My focus as an extractor is to preserve the delicate nuances and compounds produced by the cannabis plant that our cultivation team works 365 tireless calendar days a year to produce. We offer consumers broad-spectrum products enriched not only with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) but also with minor cannabinoids and accompanying terpenes. These molecules are delicate, and in the case of terpenes, volatile even at room temperature.

This means that all plant handling and material preparation leading to extraction must be done carefully under controlled

and optimized conditions to ensure we preserve and prevent degradation of these compounds. This same concept of plant handling carries throughout our entire processing pipeline, especially in the extraction portion where we have gone to great lengths to experiment and optimize our parameters to produce the highest quality cannabis oil. When it comes time to process cannabis trim or flower in our CO2 extractor, we want to ensure it has the best possible surface area for the extraction to occur prior to pressing the Start button.

Milling systems are typically created and optimized for use with specific types of materials. The physical mechanism by which materials are reduced in size (cutting, impact force, friction, etc.), can influence the material on a cellular or molecular level. Cannabis that is cut, such as with the P-19, will largely allow individual cells to remain intact, simply as part of a smaller particle. The mechanism of hammering or beating cannabis material results in greater cell lysis and the potential for the introduction of undesired chemical compounds and/or cellular structures (e.g., chlorophyll) into the extraction process, especially when using ethanol.


While we postulated that reducing the particle size of the cannabis material would be beneficial to extraction, we also wanted to ensure that the cutting and heat generated during milling was not causing any physical or chemical losses to our high-quality plant material. We performed simple experiments by taking pre- and post-milling samples and then investigated the potential effect that milling has on terpene content and cannabinoid decarboxylation on the material before extraction occurs.

Regardless of the rpm (revolutions per minute) and heat produced, the plant material underwent no changes when comparing a third-party lab analysis of the raw flower to milled plant material. Since the mill is a vacuum-assisted platform, the design makes for a short residency time of plant material in the milling chamber, meaning that its exposure to heat is less than half a second. It should be noted, however, that milled plant material will dry out faster when stored and will subsequently lose terpenes. To combat this, the P-19 allows for fast throughput of dried plant material at a rate of 1-4 lbs per minute (depending on feed rate, particle size, oil content, and water activity), which allows us to mill our biomass immediately prior to beginning the extraction, helping to retain these valuable oils.

The P-19 gives operators total control over cannabis particle reduction via removable sieve cassettes that vary in sizes

from 0.5 mm to 10 mm and above. Whether your business is extraction, pre-roll manufacturing, analytics, or sample preparation, this milling system has a broad range of

applications and can be customized to quickly switch between product lines and tasks.

Our next experiment focused on the effect particle size has on extract yield, quality, and efficiency.

Since there are numerous ways to grind or mill cannabis, we compared the P-19 to other methods of milling such as food processors and even running whole plant/un-milled material. What we discovered was a linear response to particle reduction versus THC yield per run (Graph 1). In addition to increasing the fill weight of biomass into the extractor vessel,

the smallest particle sizes offered improved efficiencies in extracting THC and terpenes versus coarser and non-milled biomass (Graphs

1 and 2). These data also illustrated that a non-homogeneous, loose

particle density results in decreased efficiency, column channeling, and inconsistencies with precision in our terpene and oil fractions. What does this scientific research mean to our businesses? Using these data, we were able to choose the best particle size for our needs, allowing us to maximize material input into the extractor column, increase revenue per run, and improve the composition and quality of our finished products.

I am an enormous fan of German engineering, and the P-19 is a thoughtfully designed and robust piece of equipment that has numerous safety mechanisms to prevent operator injury and exposure to airborne particulates. The milling system is a low-cost item to operate and maintain. Having processed over 8,000 lbs of cannabis with our P-19, we have encountered zero mechanical issues or malfunctions of the system. The mill is also suitable for use in a cGMP (Current Good Manufacturing Practice) manufacturing environment, so all moving parts, panels, and plumbing are stainless steel and fully serviceable to allow for a comprehensive cleaning procedure that minimizes risk of chemical or biological cross-contamination between batches per U.S. Food and Drug Administration guidelines.

Finally, the mill has an easy-to-use interface that results in reproducible performance regardless of the operator, which saves time and labor costs for training technicians. The choice

of a milling system for cannabis pre-processing prior to extraction can have a significant influence on extraction yield and on operations overall. It turns out, size really does matter.

Graph 1 Graph 2

Graph 3



Let’s Start with the Ugly – Oil BathsOil baths are used for reactions that require heating/reflux temperatures up to 200°C. Oil baths are made of an aluminum or stainless-steel pan, a heavy porcelain dish, or thick-walled glass to withstand breakage and accidental spillage. They do provide uniform heating; however, they expose users to physical hazards, including hot temperatures and fire, severe skin burns, serious splattering from accidental addition of water/condensation, obnoxious smells, and potentially dangerous handling with slippery oil-covered flasks. And cleaning those slippery flasks can be an endeavor that shatters to pieces.

On to the Bad – Water BathsWater baths are a much safer option than oil baths, yet they’re still not the best option. Water baths are used for reactions that need temperatures up to 80°C and are one of the most common pieces of equipment found in laboratories. They maintain and store biological samples until they are ready to use. The cannabis industry has adopted water baths to keep highly viscous liquids at a warm temperature so they are easier to work with throughout downstream product refinement.

The downside of water baths is they are the number one source of contamination in a laboratory, and the water often cannot securely hold vessels without tipping or bobbing.

By Andrea Ashley, Cascade Sciences

Lab Baths – the Good, the Bad, the Ugly

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Warm water exposed to ambient atmosphere can harbor and incubate unwanted microbial growth (think untreated hot

tub). Given warm water has a high propensity to become contaminated and evaporates quickly, using a water bath wastes time and energy with the continual replacement and reheating of water, not to mention the constant monitoring to ensure all vessels do not tip and lose material.

The Good, Better, Best – Bead Baths.Thermal bead baths are the perfect option for heating

vessels in a constant, stable environment with a broad temperature range between -80°C to +180°C. Utilizing thermal beads in place of oil or water reduces the dangers of fire, contamination, and lack of temperature control. Thermal bead baths, like the 20L Cascade Sciences Bead Bath with 15L Lab Armor Beads, are antimicrobial and non-evaporating, and provide a great option for replacing oil or water baths for temperatures up to 180°C. Laboratories can even utilize their current baths by swapping the oil or water with highly polished, aluminum thermal beads to create a safe, clean, efficient bath solution. Through vigorous testing, Cascade Sciences has found that aluminum thermal beads have the same (if not better) thermal performance as oil and water. Bead baths don’t evaporate, which improves temperature performance and saves energy. Further, thermal beads enable versatility for using differently sized flasks and will also prevent flasks from floating away or bobbing out of the water.

“Cascade Sciences’ Bead Bath is hands down the favorite piece of equipment in our lab. It’s ability to securely hold vessels of differing sizes and shapes with varying volumes at a stable temperature significantly decreases our downtime and increases our productivity. Our products are better for it,” stated Russell Lombard, CEO, Canna Redux, Inc. “Whether we are using the bead bath for extraction/remediation or for consumer product formulation and development, its low maintenance and simplified cleaning makes it one of the best pieces of equipment in our facility.”

Additional advantages to using a bead bath include temperature uniformity and increased heat-up time; in the event of a power outage, thermal beads will hold their warmth and keep the product safe because aluminum beads retain heat better than water. Thermal beads can also be utilized to create a cold environment in place of dry ice, which reduces costs, as thermal beads do not need to be replaced. They can be purchased in 2L, 4L, or 8L quantities for use in existing baths or as complete bead bath packages (heated bath + thermal beads).


By Jim Driesenga, M.W. Watermark™

Filter presses have been used to separate solids from liquids for hundreds of years in a wide variety of industries. In the past few years, hemp processors have partnered with M.W. WATERMARK™ to use filter presses in various steps in their workflows. Before we get into how filter presses can be used in the processing of hemp oil, let’s first cover the filter press.

What is a Filter Press?A filter press is a batch operation, fixed volume machine that separates liquids from solids using pressure filtration. A solid/liquid slurry is pumped into the filter press and the liquid portion, free of virtually all suspended solids, exits the filter press. Filter presses are used in a wide range of applications in food, pharmaceutical, power, chemical, oil, and mining markets.

How Does a Filter Press Work?As mentioned, a slurry is pumped into the filter press. The solids are distributed evenly during the feed (fill) cycle. Solids begin to build on the filter cloth. Eventually the solids begin to form a layer on the filter cloth much like a pre-coat. That layer, adjacent to the filter cloth, traps the fine particles and forms a filter cake. Most of the solid/liquid separation is done by the filter cake building on the filter cloths.

As the pressure inside the filter press increases due to the feed pump, the slurry is forced into the fixed volume of the filter press, and the solids build within the chambers until they are completely full of filter cake. When the chambers are full, the fill cycle is complete. The filtrate (crude oil in this example) exits the press through a filtrate outlet.

How are Filter Presses Used in Hemp Oil Extraction and Purification?Now that you know what a filter press is and how it works, how is it used in the processing and purification of hemp oil?

Biomass/Solvent Separation – This is a very common application for a filter press. Dried hemp (the biomass) is ground and mixed with a liquid solvent, often ethanol. The biomass/solvent slurry is pumped through a filter press. The filtration step typically takes approximately two hours. The hemp stays in the filter press, becoming the “filter cake,” and the crude oil and solvent leave the filter press as the filtrate, free of nearly all visible suspended solids.

Biomass Filter CakePost Screw Press – Often a screw press is used to separate the hemp from the solvent. This also is an efficient process but fine solids may be in the pressate (liquid leaving the screw press). This pressate may be pumped through the filter press to generate a solvent/oil blend nearly free of suspended solids.Post Centrifuge – Similar to the post screw press application discussed above, a filter press may be used to remove suspended solids from the centrate following centrifugation.

Filter Presses for Hemp Oil Extraction

M.W. WATERMARK Pro-X™ filter press


Winterization – Filter presses have been used in the winterization step to “purify” edible oils, such as sunflower and palm oil, for many years. At low temperatures, waxes and other contaminants are solid and may be separated from the solvent that remains a liquid at this temperature. This process is the same when trying to remove waxes from the solvent/crude oil mixture when processing hemp extracts. The slurry is pumped through the filter press at a low temperature (-30 to -60°C) and the contaminants in the slurry remain in the filter press, while the filtrate leaving the filter press is free of waxes and other contaminants. At low temperatures, it may be necessary to use special filter plates. Some companies choose to filter the entire solvent/biomass slurry at a low temperature, thereby accomplishing biomass separation and winterization in one step with a filter press.

Winterization Solution Filtrate

Chlorophyll and Color Removal – Some companies choose to remove chlorophyll or colorants during hemp oil purification, often by blending activated carbon with the liquid phase. A filter press may be used to separate the activated carbon from the liquid phase in a similar manner as discussed above. Again, filter presses have historically been used to remove activated carbon in many other markets, often in the food and beverage sector.

This is only a brief overview of the many steps in the hemp extraction and purification process where a Pro-X™ filter press may be used. Please contact M.W. WATERMARK™ for specific details related to your process at [email protected].

Wax/Lipid Winterization Filter Cake


Currently in the U.S. (at the time of writing), 33 states and the District of Columbia have legalized medicinal cannabis use, with additional states allowing sale of cannabidiol (CBD) derived from cannabis. Hemp, which contains little tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and higher concentrations of CBD, is federally legal throughout the U.S. with manufacturing labs in many states. Globally, there are more than 50 countries that have legalized some variation of medical cannabis use. Many have restrictions on acceptable levels of THC due to its intoxicating properties. The defining factor between state and federally legal markets in the United States is that hemp must have ˂0.3% THC based on dried weight in flower form.

Cannabis processors are using established scientific techniques to isolate specific cannabinoids from the other 400+ compounds that make up the cannabis plant, such as terpenes, lipids, and chlorophyll. Many processors rely on techniques that utilize the same equipment applied in the distilled liquor industry. Controlled heating and chilling is used throughout the extraction and distillation procedures and during secondary and tertiary tasks required for further processing.

Increased demand for higher quality and purer products means it’s no longer sufficient to use basic thermometers to monitor and control critical temperatures throughout these processes. Today, precision temperature control and limiting devices are incorporated and considered an essential element for replicating this scientific methodology. Not only do these devices add an extra level of safety to the process but they also allow for improved yields and purer products.

Extraction ProcessesTo properly extract desired compounds, dried plant material must be milled to a specific size (the size will depend on your equipment). The milled biomass should be free of sticks and stems and consists mainly of flowers and leaves. Once processed, the crude oil will be dark in color, thick in

consistency, and contain major and minor cannabinoids, as well as other compounds that will be separated and removed through product refinement and purification.

There are several ways to perform cannabis extraction and each requires precise temperature control to promote cannabinoid release without degradation. This article will detail the widely used methods that are practiced across the globe.

Ethanol ExtractionThe simplest method for the home enthusiast as well as large scale producers is ethanol (EtOH) extraction, which can be accomplished either warm or cold. There are different options for equipment but one specific method for a basic, warm ethanol extraction is outlined below:

Food-grade ethanol is placed in a round bottom flask. A Soxhlet tube containing plant and filter material is placed above the flask and a condensing tube is placed on top of that.As the ethanol is heated, it evaporates and rises to fill the condensing tube.

By Edye Buchanan, BriskHeat Corporation

Thermal Control Equipment Used in Cannabis Processing

Condenser

Soxhlet Extractor

Boiling Flask

Water out

Water in

Circulating cold water causes the vapor to return to a liquid phase and drop into the Soxhlet tube. Cannabinoids (and terpenes) are soluble in ethanol so they dissolve and cannabinoid-rich ethanol drips back into the flask. Once the cannabinoid-rich ethanol is collected, other refinement processes might include winterization to remove lipids, filtering, and solvent purging to ensure clean products, as well as decarboxylation to activate cannabinoids from acidic to neutral forms.

Below are some tips to improve system efficiency and increase yield:

Metal-housed, soft-sided, or spherical heating mantles are available to uniformly heat a greater surface area of the flask. Flexible heating tapes and custom jacketing can be wrapped around tubing or other pieces of equipment that require heating.Use a temperature sensor and PID (proportional-integrative-derivative) temperature controller for each heater.

Incorporating a high-temperature cut-off controller ensures unexpected high temperatures will not over-pressurize your system causing flammable vapors to escape.

Liquefied Hydrocarbon ExtractionGases such as butane or propane are pressurized and chilled to liquid form. The liquid is mixed with plant material to extract cannabinoids and other molecules like terpenes. By slowly heating the solution and reducing the pressure, the liquid changes back into a gas. The solvent is then collected and recycled for future use, leaving extract that is solvent-free. PID temperature controllers can be used for chilling and re-vaporization. Heater manufacturers like BriskHeat Corporation design custom heating mantles to fit tightly around special chamber shapes and sizes.

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide ExtractionSupercritical carbon dioxide (CO

2) processing requires heating and pressurization to change CO2 from its gaseous to a liquid state. Above 31.1°C (88°F) and 1,071 PSI, it is known as a supercritical liquid and acts as a solvent. If these parameters drop below those values, it is considered subcritical. Outlined below is a summarized procedure for supercritical CO2 extraction:

Supercritical CO2 is passed through a chamber filled with milled plant material.



Cannabinoid-rich crude enters a separating chamber where the pressure is lowered. At this point, the CO2 returns to a gaseous form and the oil is collected for further processing.Degassing using heat is required to remove the remaining solvent.

Temperature control is critical to ensure the product is not overheated. By eliminating degradation from excessive heat, the process results in higher product yield and purer products. Below are some tips to improve system efficiency at this stage:

A temperature controller using PID control provides for less temperature variation and more control.Each heater in the system should have its own temperature sensor and controlling device.

Distillation ProcessesPost-extraction, the crude oil contains terpenes and other molecules that may not be desirable in final products. Distillation is a proven method for separating compounds by boiling point, including any leftover solvent or terpenes. Any terpenes that are captured in the extraction process (some extraction equipment will separate them but not all) or distillation processes can be saved and added back to final products later for added benefits and aroma. Keep in mind that anything added to your product will lower the purity of your cannabinoids but terpene additions will augment ensemble effects.

Further refinement is required to purify and isolate desired cannabinoids. BriskHeat Corporation’s hard-sided mantles cover more surface area on flasks and are available with built-in temperature control. For special shaped chambers, cloth heating mantles with electrical resistance wire heating elements can be used. Hot water-filled jackets may also be used.

Short-Path DistillationShort-path distillation is characterized by the extract travelling a short distance for processing.

A vacuum is applied to reduce the boiling points required for distilling the different compounds. Using a hard-sided mantle with a magnetic stirrer, the distillate is heated at different temperatures throughout the process and travels a short distance to the condensing tube to change from vapor to liquid.Once condensed, the material is separated into individual bulbs and is now called distillate, which will have a thick consistency and is

usually amber in color but can be golden with multiple passes. Slight heating can reduce viscosity.If CBD isolate is desired, distillate can be further processed to create dry, white, crystallized CBD. This can be added to products to increase CBD concentration.

Wiped Film DistillationThis distillation method contains several steps that are summarized below:

Crude extract is run through columns where heat is required to reduce viscosity and evaporate unwanted compounds such as terpenes. Crude oil enters the top of a column and mechanical wipers deposit the material on heated walls. Process components must be heated, and while methods vary, they consistently include glass or stainless-steel tubing, pumps, small vessels, and dispensing machines. Heaters must be extremely flexible to contour to a variety of surfaces. In addition, they must be removable, reusable, easily controllable, and moisture and chemical resistant. Silicone heating tapes are great options that adhere to these stipulations.

ConclusionHeaters, chillers, temperature controllers, and sensors comprise essential equipment used in extracting and refining cannabis oils. Commercially available equipment may have these integrated into the machinery. For those designing and operating their own rigs, it’s important to understand the function of these components and how they can impact the quality and quantity of your product. Using form-fitting flasks, beakers, cloth mantel heaters or flexible silicone tapes provides for better heat transfer and more accurate control than older methods using flat hot plates and thermometers.

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The cannabis and hemp industries are lurching forward at breakneck speed. Scientific inquiry and discovery, once forbidden unless secretly conducted, is now permitted, and many scientists have fled less exotic industries to marvel at and help unearth the secrets of Cannabis sativa. This installment of our advisory board member series regards Josh Jones, Ph.D., of Jonesing LLC, a cannabis and hemp consulting firm based out of Colorado.

Extraction Magazine: How did you get into the cannabis industry? Why did you want to dedicate your education to this plant, this industry?

Josh: My first job in cannabis was through a Craigslist ad! In 2015, I was fresh out of grad school and answered an ad for a hemp start-up in Colorado called Folium Biosciences. They’re a huge supplier of hemp products now but were just getting started at the time. They’d just harvested their first crop and needed help designing and optimizing initial extraction, refining, and product development. That position was a great exposure to the excitement and potential for this industry and showed me the need for trained experimentalists to help processors with goals having no industrial precedent. That is, nobody (including me) really knew how to process bulk biomass into products that were consistent, effective, and palatable. But we made lots of progress, and I got excited about the cannabis industry being a good space to grow my career.

In terms of dedicating my education, I’ve found the cannabis industry encompasses a lot of what I enjoy about chemistry. From the chemistry of natural products to experimental design, pharmacodynamics and drug delivery methods, and being able to think about complex mixtures from the perspective of organic chemistry, these are all things taught in chemistry graduate programs. But a big part of my wanting to work with cannabis is also related to enjoying the people I get to work with. Everyone is excited about the industry and the work they do. Plus, people really look to chemistry to inform an understanding of the plant, solve problems, and drive innovations. This admiration and need for chemistry has

resonated a lot with me and provides me a sense of belonging and a path for professional growth. It’s gratifying to ‘talk shop’ daily with chemists and non-chemists alike. I get to teach and learn at the same time. What more could I want?

I should also add that my interest in chemistry was spurred much earlier by plant-derived psychedelics and especially by reading Alexander Shulgin’s books. From the perspective of organic chemistry, natural products are really held on a pedestal...the range of bioactive molecules produced in plants and the ways they can be modified or combined to produce profound physiological and psychological effects has always served as inspiration for organic chemists. My interest in chemistry being rooted in psychoactive natural products has kind of aligned me socially with people in the cannabis industry.

EM: How have you seen the industry grow during your time in it? What have been the most important, compelling moments in your cannabis career?

JJ: We’ve probably all heard the phrase that working in cannabis is like ‘building an airplane as it’s going down the runway,’ and I think that sums it up. I’m not sure we’re quite to the end of that runway but seeing and taking part in some of those ‘bolt-on’ innovations (too many to list here) continues to fan the flame for me and many others. But I’d say the most compelling moment for me was when I left formal employment to start Jonesing Labs as a consulting firm. There are many consultants in this business and my case isn’t unique, but it allows me to think more broadly about what I’m doing and why. The chance to define the work I do points to the entrepreneurial risk-taking that’s woven into the psyche of the cannabis industry, and it’s a source of satisfaction to help people with problems where they might otherwise get stuck.

EM: You know how easy it is to fawn all over beautiful cannabis plants and the cool science that’s unlocking the plants’ secrets. What’s the most amazing thing you’ve learned about cannabis?

Interview Conducted by Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.The Word According to Josh

JJ: Well, one thing that’s perhaps not unique to Cannabis but amazing nonetheless is the variety of cultivars that have been and continue to be bred. Yes, a large variety of traits can be seen elsewhere, like in grapes for making different wines and, for that matter, the astounding variety of traits seen in Homo sapiens is cause for wonder. But the rapid development of Cannabis varieties expressing different cannabinoids, terpenes, pigments, and other yet-to-be-recognized secondary metabolites is an evolution of knowledge that keeps this industry moving at such a rapid pace. For example, a year ago it was hard to find hemp plants that produce CBG [cannabigerol] as the dominant cannabinoid. Now, you can have greenhouse-grown hemp flower with 15% CBG shipped to your door overnight. That’s amazing.

EM: As a consultant, how important is perpetual education, not only for your clients, but also for yourself, since you need a well-rounded, strong educational portfolio to know what to advise? How do you suggest people educate themselves?

JJ: This is the most important thing. But continuing education is a balancing act. I used to have so many Google Scholar alerts that I couldn’t read half of what I was exposing myself too. There’s just more information out there than there are hours in the day. The trick is to focus on just one or two things at a time. Consulting ends up being good for this because I can drill down into a few topics relevant to current projects. And having my own lab makes it even better. For example, CBN [cannabinol] is a big thing now; a lot of people are working on it. There’s a good body of literature from which to draw clues and opportunities for innovation. And the lab gives us the tools to investigate what’s possible and best. But everything is a moving target in this industry and it’s almost guaranteed that, in six months, the big value will shift to another target. So continuing education can’t safely be

focused on just one prospect. It’s more about building fluency in how the industry is growing, then using that

fluency to foresee what’s coming next. And everyone can do that within their own area. It just takes a conscious effort to

learn about what you’re doing.

EM: You are omnipotent.

What’s the one thing you’d change

about the cannabis industry?

JJ: Omnipotent? Hmm, so Trumpian? But OK, I’d like to reiterate what many others have said, that some pivotal laws

surrounding cannabis should be changed. For example, if producers

of THC-dominant cannabis weren’t subject to 280E and 60% federal taxes

(not counting state and local taxes) on retail revenue, that revenue could then be invested

in production equipment and higher wages, both of which can define the quality of what’s

produced. And if CBD [cannabidiol]-dominant cannabis were restricted to say 1% THC instead of

0.3% THC, then researchers, farmers, processors,



and retailers largely wouldn’t be so hindered for diligently offering safe products that society is calling for. I think those legal changes would have a massive and positive effect.

EM: If you could only tell someone one profound thing about cannabis, what would you say?

JJ: Cannabis is what you make it. It can be a hindrance or a tremendous help, depending how it’s used. I’ve used cannabis regularly since adolescence, with respect for its effects, appropriate timing and circumstance, and I simply find it enjoyable. But if I use cannabis when I’m trying to get something done, it’s a complete disaster and I get nothing done. That’s not it’s place. My wife, having grown up where cannabis was demonized, has never consumed cannabis on a regular basis, yet finds no objection to my conservative use. I’m just saying that cannabis is clearly embedded in society, and we have lots of things to choose from in a free society. Let people use it or not use it but placing severe legal repercussions on adult-use cannabis creates more problems than it solves.

EM: Where do you see the industry, post-2020?

JJ: I look forward to continued industry expansion in terms of the quality, quantity, and variety of products available. On the one hand, we’re seeing the growing entrance of established manufacturers of equipment suitable for industrial processing of cannabis plants into known formulations (e.g., topical, transdermal, mucosal, water-compatible, etc.), as well as the development of novel delivery methods unique to the components of cannabis. On the other hand, heroic breeding efforts are shining light on the tremendous complexity of the cannabis genome and the variety of

compounds available for use. I foresee non-cannabinoid products from cannabis will also have a place in tomorrow’s market, such as cannaflavins and the significant lipid content produced in non-seed components of the plant.

EM: Desert Island: one album, one book, one food, one beverage, and one cannabis product (style) - what would you choose?

JJ: What is this, twenty questions?!

EM: Just eight.

JJ: Ok, Bach’s English Suites (Glenn Gould), Tao Te Ching (Stephen Mitchell translation, plus original Laozi), beef jerky, IPA (beer), and spliffs.

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PF2004_penta_herbs.indd 1 3/3/20 12:43 PM

Publisher MACE Media Group

CEO Celeste Miranda

Editor-in-Chief Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.

Authors: Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.

Alan at Strainly Jill Ellsworth, MS, RDN

Kevin Frender Rob Fusco

Will Roberts Robbie Batts

Gretchen Schimelpfenig, PE Daniel Isenstein

Jonathan Vaught, Ph.D.

Designer Marko Nedeljkovic

Advertising: Julian Azevedo

Bradford Burgess Lisa Dodson

Contents

120806

141820

Cannabis Biodiversity: The Stakes are High

Crosses, Garlic, and the Staking of Schedule I

Adding a Cannabis Kill Step Will Save Money in the Long Run

The Relationship Between Leaf Surface Temperature and Lighting SpectrumEnvironmental Data Provides Valuable Insights at Cannabis Growing Facilities

24 The Benefits of Bringing Hemp Indoors

262830

Sustainably Mitigating the Environmental Impact of Cannabis Cultivation

Is Compliance Enough?

Unlocking the Potential for Minor Cannabinoids, Wellness Products, and a Boom for Modern Farmers

Demystifying Cloning: Ensuring Viability and Vibrancy

The hemp industry skyrocketed onto the world’s stage, as cannabidiol (CBD) found its way into everything from cheeseburgers to pillows. It’s not all fluff, though, as science has provided data demonstrating CBD’s prowess. In more recent times, however, the industry seems to be bouncing along from gravitational forces having caused its return to Earth. And given the high at which it soared, with each recoil, a little more wreckage shakes off as bad habits and dying stigmas are left behind for the garbage man/person to add to the heap.

Also flung onto the pile are myopic businesses that looked at hemp-based CBD and were blinded by a different shade of green, only to realize that people really do care about quality, accuracy, and honesty. And while the fat continues to get trimmed from industry meat, we are far from perfection.

Without federal guidance on analytical testing for plant and product contamination, many products remain questionable. Data can remedy this, and, ironically, we can look to already-in-place state guidelines for federally illegal products in efforts to better sweep up the industry. Products tainted with pesticides or mycotoxins have no footing in the realm of the medicinal. Nor do businesses who fail to see the importance of analytics; or those advertising false CBD claims, only to rip that rug out from under consumers, perhaps selling cannabinoid-free hemp seed oil instead just to make a quick buck.

The plant deserves better, no matter what molecules you’re looking to monetarily or medicinally profit from. So do the millions of people still shaken by 80+ years of Reefer Madness. For them, hemp, or cannabis “light,” might be just the ticket. Sadly, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) still is unthinkable to many who could clearly benefit from its consumption. That’s not really surprising, though, given the effectiveness of the propaganda.

What little guidance there has been from the US Department of Agriculture has jadedly fixated on THC, so much so that THC is mentioned in the Interim Final Rule 194 times. Federal insistence on the deleterious aspects of THC has devolved into something fanatical, without reason or compassion or universal truths. The blatant disregard for logic can quickly be evidenced by the reigning Schedule I status of THC-rich cannabis, defined as devoid of medicinal qualities, while CBD-rich cannabis is touted as a panacea. Even the feds via the US Food and Drug Administration got into the CBD game through their approval of a cannabis-derived pharmaceutical. Worse yet, levels of THC above 0.3% are deemed so catastrophic that some would rather see your crop burn. CBD is divine while THC is of the devil? Hardly, and yet the madness maintains…

The persistent Schedule I rule has loomed as a psychic vampire, frantically sucking the lifeforce of humanity. But the efforts of likeminded Earthlings have armed us with our proverbial crosses and garlic to quell the monster back into the recesses of the cellar. And it’s to those people that this issue is devoted.

By Jason S. Lupoi, Ph.D.

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Crosses, Garlic, and the Staking of Schedule I

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As you’re reading this, Big Ag is making strategic moves into the cannabis space aiming for massive chunks of the industry. Many of us are conscious of this evolution but feel overwhelmed when it comes to taking concrete actions to preserve our legacy. In the spring of 2019, Phylos Bioscience sparked a controversy in the cannabis community. One important but unnoticed aspect of this scandal is that bioengineering companies in the cannabis space use genotype-related data (i.e., plant identity) to breed new cultivars. Specifically, the goal is to use massive datasets of cannabis genomics to drive marker-assisted breeding programs.

When looking at issued or pending plant patents, no reference is made to the genotypes (i.e., identity). Instead, the ‘unique’ traits brought forward to justify the patent are on the chemotypic level (the qualities of the plant)! This means that genetically-distinct patented cannabis plants might produce chemovars like yours.

To simplify, patent-driven breeders use cultivars’ identities to conduct their breeding programs but have so far used cultivars’ qualities to support their plant patent applications. Could the owner (e.g., an Ag corporation) of a proprietary cannabis cultivar sue you for infringing on their patents based on the chemotypic manifestation of your distinct genetics? That’s an important question that time will have to answer, as this may have an impact on the ability of cultivators to grow public domain varietals.

Meanwhile, there are a number of organizations representing small cultivators’ interests in the community. These growers’ alliances and associations operate under the form of nonprofit organizations and for this reason are the most legitimate entities to advance the cause of biodiversity and safe access to genetics. It’s now time for the people on the field (no pun intended) to take over the open-source breeding movement and make it theirs! Oh, and let’s clarify something: an open-source breeding license is not an honor system…

The Legal Value of the Open-Source LicenseRecently, you could read a blog article from an Intellectual Property (IP) lawyer in the cannabis industry explaining why an open-source license would be useless and no more than “an honor system” (i.e., that it has no legal value). [1] The truth is an open-source license is like any other license agreement: it is a legally binding agreement that can be enforced in court if necessary. Parties to an open-source license agreement are required to comply with all terms and clauses. In case of contract breach, either party can demand reparation in court. On the contrary, public domain genetics do not come with a license agreement. They are entirely free of any rights. While this is a great ideal to lean toward, public domain genetics are unfortunately used today to produce proprietary ones.

Open-source licensing is getting corporate cannabis worried. Companies that adopted an IP-based business model (the prevalent model in Big Pharma and Big Ag), relying on the use of patents to acquire a monopoly over some genetics that originate from the public domain, know that if open-source licensing becomes the norm in the cannabis industry, their business model will be disqualified. IP lawyers make their fees from obtaining, maintaining, and defending patents on behalf of their clients.

An open-source license is enforceable in the jurisdiction defined within the license. Localizing the Open Cannabis License in various states and countries where cannabis cultivation is legal improves its enforceability by ensuring its compatibility with the local legal systems and regulations and that it is in the official language used by the legal system. Making enforcement practical for breeders and non-profit beneficiaries indeed implies localizing the license in their jurisdictions.

Open-source licenses have been used and enforced for decades, whether by small nonprofits or by private companies. They are not an honor system and, although they

By Alan at Strainly

Cannabis Biodiversity: The Stakes are High


9TERPENES & TESTING


are not the philosophical ideal from the prohibition years when nothing could be privatized, they are the necessary practicality in the legalization era!

Some of you might think “but why would someone dictate how I should distribute these genetics down the road?” This is a valid question!

The Impact on Public Domain Cultivars Philosophically speaking, leaving all cannabis varietals in the public domain, the way we did during the prohibition years, is ideal. Seeds are commons. Actually, they’ve been in the public domain since humans converted from hunter-gatherers into sedentary communities. When they settled, humans gave birth to agriculture. Breeding was a crucial activity through which future harvests were ensured. This lasted for thousands of years until Big Ag companies decided to tap into that public domain pool of genetics to develop proprietary cultivars with similar traits.

Nowadays, it is precisely because of this proprietary dynamic that leaving varietals in the public domain

makes existing biodiversity available for gradual privatization, eventually reducing biodiversity. Big Ag companies decided to tap into that public domain pool of genetics to develop proprietary cultivars with similar traits. Hence, open-source licensing becomes a protective method by applying restrictions to the terms of propagation and distribution, but this time, based on copyleft principles.

It’s important to understand that open-source licensing doesn’t have any impact on already existing and future public domain cultivars. All the OG Kush, Girl Scout Cookies, and Purple Haze cultivars of this world are and will remain in the public domain. They cannot be distributed under any open-source license and they can’t be licensed or patented at all. No open-source license will change that.

Newly-bred varietals, however, according to the breeder’s decision, will be eligible for open-source licensing and their progenies (from crossing such open-source varietals) will have to remain in the open-source pool. In such a context, it will be important for

anyone procuring open-source genetics to know that they will be on the hook for how they distribute these genetics or their progenies, since they will be required to remain under open-source licensing. Any licensee failing to comply with the terms of the license will be legally accountable and may face reparation claims by the licensor (i.e., the breeder) or the beneficiary (e.g., the growers’ alliance acting on the breeder’s behalf).

You will still be able to procure public domain genetics if open-source is too intimidating for you. Open-source genetics will simply be one additional option aside from public domain cultivars (our collective legacy). The same breeder may decide to issue some cultivars under open-source licensing and others in the public domain.

How Will It Work?Breeders releasing their plants under open-source licensing will explicitly inform their customers upon transaction. Anyone procuring such seeds will be deemed to be aware of the open-source license terms and implications.

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Customers will have to comply with the license terms pertaining to the procured genetics on a perpetual basis. For growers, there is no impact compared to public domain cultivars (the current model). However, customers/growers who want to breed from open-source genetics will have to release such newly-bred genetics under the same license terms. A breeder considering other licensing terms (or even patenting) would have to use public domain cultivars to work from.

Gradually, a community of open-source breeders, working from either public domain genetics or the ever-growing open-source genetic pool, will emerge and grow organically. Eventually, proprietary (i.e., patented), public-domain, and open-source genetics will coexist based on very different motivations.

Open-source genetics are a genetic sanctuary in case access to public-domain varietals becomes compromised. This can happen if proprietary genetics become prevalent and no one has any incentive to preserve public domain genetics (we lost many already). Or

if public domain genetics become marginalized through legalization (such as ‘only proprietary genetics are safe and therefore authorized’).

Make the Change Happen!Wondering what next steps you should take? Contact your growers’ alliances in your county or state and ask them to issue the open-source breeding license in a practical jurisdiction for US-based and Canadian breeders. This is the first step to locally define the terms of a collective effort to preserve genetics for the cannabis community.

Strainly’s vision is to empower growers and breeders to preserve genetics while maintaining a balanced relationship benefiting patients, breeders, and growers.

Strainly provides safe, reliable, and convenient access to everything growers need to do what they do best. Strainly allows growers, breeders, nurseries, and equipment providers to offer and procure their genetics and equipment while benefiting from a rating/reviews mechanism, fostering trust among the community.


In the food and beverage industry, we consumers are lucky to have strict regulations and systems in place that protect us from getting sick. Perhaps the most important component is what’s known as the “kill step”— a mandatory process when bacteria, mold, and other harmful pathogens are destroyed during manufacturing.

Unfortunately, the cannabis industry isn’t legalized at the federal level, which means it also isn’t regulated at the federal level. As a result, cannabis products vary widely in quality between states, even when they meet local regulatory standards. For multistate operators, larger cannabis companies that maintain operations in multiple markets, the patchwork of regulatory standards creates a litany of additional challenges. Imagine trying to develop a standard production process that takes these differences into account—it’s not easy.

And this brings us back to the idea of a kill step. There are clear benefits of implementing a kill step for both regulators and producers, which is part of the reason why there isn’t as much resistance to kill-step requirements in other industries. Bringing a kill-step process to the cannabis industry would not only help ensure consistency and safety of the supply chain but could also save suppliers the expense of testing every single batch of cannabis.

Planning for SafetyComparing the cannabis industry to the food and beverage industry makes sense. After all, cannabis products start as an agricultural crop and undergo similar manufacturing processes before making it onto dispensary shelves. However, there are clear disparities between safety standards in the cannabis industry compared to the mainstream food and beverage industry.

In the food industry, every manufacturer must have a hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system in

place, as this helps ensure that biological, chemical, and physical hazards are identified and eliminated throughout the manufacturing process. Furthermore, fresh products undergo an additional kill step, such as chemical washes or pasteurization, during which products are treated to remove dangerous pathogens such as bacteria, mold, and fungus. In cannabis, however, this is not a standard process. In fact, if you look at testing standards between states, you’ll quickly notice no two states are alike. In Colorado, for example, regulators test for 15 pesticides, in Nevada, they test for

By Jill Ellsworth, MS, RDN, Willow Industries

Adding a Cannabis Kill Step Will Save Money in the Long Run


24, and, in California, products are checked for 66 different pesticides. The conflicting testing standards between legal states creates serious safety risks for consumers and legitimacy problems for the industry. Without a standardized kill step, consumers will never fully know how safe or consistent their cannabis products are if they purchase from different states.

Another critical difference is how inefficient and expensive the cannabis testing system is compared to the mainstream food and beverage industry. In the cannabis industry, retail products must be tested separately in small batches, which not only holds up the production line but can cost manufacturers thousands of dollars a month. However, in the food and beverage industry, manufacturers aren’t required to batch test each end product because they have already written very detailed HACCP plans that include a kill step like pasteurization for milk or a bleach bath for carrots. Having a kill step makes the process much simpler and cost effective for farmers and manufacturers.

Regulating OurselvesWhen regulators aren’t implementing uniform testing or safety measures like HACCP or kill steps, both consumers and industry insiders are adversely affected. Adopting a kill step or, even better, a whole HACCP system in the cannabis industry would help producers ensure that their products are as safe to consume as any products in the food and beverage industry.

A kill step early in the manufacturing process also would mean that more cultivators are compliant in states that mandate microbial testing, in states that don’t require testing, it would provide consumers with an extra crucial layer of protection that currently doesn’t exist.

Ultimately, if cannabis cultivators and manufacturers included a kill step, it could cut down on the amount of testing that is currently being performed and make existing supply chains safer and more efficient. Additionally, testing and decontamination measures help ensure consistent products, which improve brand loyalty and help prevent negative press coverage for both individual companies and the entire regulated industry.

Because federal cannabis legalization may not be on the immediate horizon, it really is up to those in the industry to step up and implement consistent universal standards and safety measures to protect consumers and the industry at large. The kill step is a perfect place to start.


Cannabis cultivators understand the importance of temperature when it comes to growing healthy, high-yielding plants–temperatues that are too warm will stress plants while cold temperatures slow their growth. Many growers try to find a Goldilock’s zone in their grow rooms but make the mistake of only thinking about this challenge regarding air temperature, similar to cranking up or turning down a thermostat in our homes.

However, the temperature of the plants themselves, specifically their Leaf Surface Temperature (LST), is not the same as the ambient air temperature in the growing area. Judging the LST by measuring the ambient air temperature in your garden is like taking the air temperature in your living room and inferring your body temperature from that. Only by examining the actual leaf surface temperature is it possible to determine how warm the plants really are. The actual LST is determined by several factors besides air temperature, including plant type, humidity, and light spectrum.

Why Does LST Matter?Most biochemical reactions only operate within a certain temperature range and have an even narrower range in which reactions proceed most efficiently. If temperatures are too low or too high, reactions proceed more slowly or not at all. Most of any plant’s metabolism occurs within the leaf; therefore, any given plant has an optimal LST range that maximizes growth and production of other desirable secondary metabolites, such as resins, pigments, flavor-enhancing compounds, and vitamins.

The LST is affected by, but not equivalent to, the ambient air temperature in the growing environment. Leaves can be cooled through evaporation in open pores in the leaf (stomata) that allow gas exchange and are warmed by absorbed but unused light, whether from artificial or natural

sources. LST is almost always different from the ambient air temperature.

What’s the Ideal LST?This is, unfortunately, a question without a single, simple answer, as many factors influence the ideal. Multiple types of metabolic reactions exist within plants, and each has a different optimal temperature range. Primary metabolism (photosynthesis) is obviously the most important, since without it, the plant will not survive. Optimal temperatures for desirable secondary metabolites must be considered as well, especially if the plant is grown specifically for those metabolites.

The optimal leaf temperature range for photosynthesis in many plants is between 15°C and 30°C (59°F to 86°F) for normal atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO

2). However, there are many exceptions. Arctic- and alpine-adapted plants typically require cooler temperatures, while desert-adapted and plants using C4 photosynthesis prefer it to be warmer. Since there are two slightly different chemical reactions for photosynthesis, called C3 and C4, the variant a plant uses is determined genetically. CO2 supplementation will also generally raise the optimal temperature for photosynthesis, so the ideal LST for photosynthesis is dependent on environmental conditions as well as plant type.

Secondary metabolic reactions may require a huge range of optimal temperatures. Many plants have even evolved responses specifically triggered by exposure to cold or hot temperatures to better adapt to their surroundings; for example, some plants produce proteins with anti-freeze properties when exposed to cold.

What Affects LST?Many factors influence LSTs, such as the ambient air temperature

By Kevin Frender, Black Dog Grow Technologies

The Relationship Between Leaf Surface Temperature and Lighting Spectrum

surrounding leaves, leaf pigmentation, and genetic/metabolic differences. Higher relative humidity will likely increase LST in otherwise identical conditions, as evaporative cooling of the leaf will not occur as readily; however, plants employing CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) may be an exception, as their stomata (leaf pores) remain closed during the day. The amount of unused light absorbed by the leaf also has a profound effect, as it’s converted to heat.

Various artificial grow light technologies create different light spectrums. Light-emitting diode (LED) grow lights differ significantly from other forms of artificial plant lights because the spectrum can be finely tuned, eliminating unwanted excesses of light wavelengths (colors) while providing light plants can use most efficiently. Other artificial lighting technologies produce much of their light as an unintended and unavoidable byproduct of how they operate, ultimately wasting energy in heating up plant leaves.

When a photon of light hits a plant leaf, it can be reflected/scattered or absorbed. Reflected or scattered photons will not affect the leaf temperature at all, but physics dictates that all photons absorbed by the leaf will increase leaf temperature; how much depends on the energy (wavelength) of the photon and whether some of that energy was used to trigger other chemical reactions, such as photosynthesis.

Photons fully utilized by the plant in chemical reactions will heat the leaf less than photons which are absorbed but not utilized. Therefore, measuring LST indirectly measures the efficiency of the light spectrum for growing plants—lower efficiency spectrums tend to heat the leaf more, while higher efficiency spectrums heat the leaf less since more light energy is being converted to chemical energy.

Benefits of LED Lighting We’ve observed that when employing LED lighting optimized for plant growth, ambient air temperature must be kept higher compared to other types of artificial light to achieve optimal growth. By employing a forward-looking-infrared (FLIR) camera, we can demonstrate what we’ve already experienced in our own growth by showing LSTs under different kinds of lights in otherwise identical conditions.

When using plant-optimized LED lights, ambient air temperatures should be kept higher compared to other lighting sources to achieve the same metabolic rate. Side-by-side tests of LED lights versus other lighting, where all other environmental conditions (such as ambient air temperature) are kept the same, are not particularly informative or accurate as to the lights’ relative performance—the tests



should be run so that LST is the same under each light to enable identical metabolic rates.

When using optimized-spectrum LED plant lights, the lack of excess infrared and other unusable light causes leaves to warm, meaning that ambient air temperature must be warmer than for the same plant grown under any light (natural or artificial) that is not optimized for plant growth. Figures 2-5 demonstrate this effect under varying grow lights and at ambient room temperatures of 75°F or 84°F.

Most growers aim for a 75°F air temperature when growing Cannabis under high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights without CO2 supplementation, which results in an LST of approximately 89°F (Figure 5). In a 75°F room under Black Dog Grow Technologies grow lights, Cannabis LST is only 81°F (Figure 5), which is too low for the plants to be performing their best. In order to get the desirable 88°F leaf surface temperature with the Phyto-Genesis Spectrum™ (a plant-optimized spectrum used by Black Dog LED), the ambient air temperature in the room needs to be 84-85°F. To fairly test the lights on their merits, different ambient air temperatures are required for each type of grow light.

One important thing to note is that trying to optimize LST when using a common infrared thermometer can be problematic. Most infrared thermometers judge the temperature only for a single spot, and as the FLIR images show (Figures 2-5), you can’t get the whole picture from only a single spot reading. LST will vary among leaves on a plant and even on different places on the same leaf, so only by looking at the average from a FLIR is it possible to determine the average LST.

Estimating Savings from Reduced Cooling NeedsThere are an incredible number of factors to account for when calculating the energy savings from running a grow 9°F warmer. Ambient outdoor temperature, insulation efficiency, cooling system efficiency, and a host of other variables greatly affect the outcome. There are several convenient online calculators for estimating energy savings in residential buildings based on higher thermostat settings, but these are based on assumptions about standard residential uses and likely greatly underestimate the savings that would be realized in an artificially lit, indoor growing environment.

The energy and associated cost savings realized with LED plant lights go well beyond just the reduced electricity required to run the lights—in many situations, the reduction in heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning costs will easily augment.

ConclusionBy not wasting energy-producing light of no use to the plant, LED grow lights are vastly more efficient than HPS and other traditional artificial plant lighting technologies. This has important implications on required environmental conditions to maintain optimal plant growth, as plants grown under LED plant lights require a warmer environment.

Kevin Frender is Chief Science Officer and Chief Technology Officer at Black Dog Grow Technologies. He has been growing indoors with artificial light for more than 35 years, using every commercially available lighting technology along the way. He also starts plants indoors for his summer outdoor garden every year and has decades of experience with hardening off seedlings for transplantation outdoors. Combined with a vast knowledge of plants and a penchant for science, Frender is an expert in the field of lighting.

Figure 1. Light-emitting diode light (middle left) versus high-pressure sodium light (middle right). Same plants viewed with visible light (far left) and through infrared (FLIR, far right)


Figures 2-5. Comparison FLIR images for the same plant under the same relative humidity but different lighting and different temperatures. The color bars in each image illustrate LST temperature.

Figure 2 Figure 3

Figure 4 Figure 5

Because cannabis plants require specific conditions at various stages of development, it is important to control the environment throughout the growing facility. Ideal growing conditions can vary from one area to another depending on the maturity of the plants. In addition to control mechanisms, it is important for growers to use environmental monitoring systems to keep watch of conditions and provide notifications when potential threats arise.

A monitoring system can detect problems such as unexpected temperature changes, humidity fluctuations, power outages, low carbon dioxide (CO2), improper soil moisture, incorrect water pH, and unauthorized access. The system sends alerts via email, phone call, or text message to designated personnel when conditions fall outside of the preset range.

Could-Based Monitoring System in Protective EnclosureData Logging AdvantageOne of the greatest advantages of a remote monitoring system is that it can also function as a data logger. For data-driven grow farms, this is an important function because the valuable, accurate information collected by the system shapes current and future operational decisions.

The data logger helps growers identify patterns and trends in environmental conditions in order to get insight into potential problems before they impact plants. Spotting a potential issue is easier with access to the big picture. For example, if the temperature increases very slightly every day, the change

might not be noticeable. Because the data logger monitors trends, growers can inspect areas and equipment that might be causing these changes.

Data Log Chart Showing Temperature and Humidity ReadingsThe data log might show power fluctuations occurring at regular intervals, indicating a situation that should be investigated. The recorded data also demonstrates if your equipment is operating without interruption. For example, the data could show signs of a ventilation fan or lighting fixture beginning to malfunction that then can be repaired or replaced before total failure.

Over the long term, comparing temperatures, CO2 levels, humidity, soil moisture, and water pH from year to year can help growers identify optimum growing conditions for different areas of the facility. Looking forward, growers can then fine tune the environment to optimize plant health, production, and yield.

Temperature Sensor DisplayA data logger communicates with sensors at a


By Rob Fusco, Sensaphone

Environmental Data Provides Valuable Insights at Cannabis Growing FacilitiesA monitoring system with data logging capabilities provides critical information to keep operations running at top performance – now and in the future.

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set interval and automatically records data points, dates, and times. Cloud-based systems can store and provide an unlimited number of records. Manually monitoring and gathering this data risks inaccurately recording the information, takes a significant amount of personnel time, and detracts from other important workplace demands. Cloud-based systems also let users view the status of multiple locations, access trending reports, check specific equipment status, and review alarm history without having to install any software.

Outdoor Humidity SensorCloud-based units constantly communicate a signal to the cloud to validate their online status. If the communication link is interrupted—for example, by a power outage or an employee accidentally switching off the unit—the system generates an alarm indicating that the internet connection is lost or that there is a cellular communication problem. Users are alerted about the disruption through phone, text, or email. All data collected during this time will be stored in the device and uploaded to the cloud when the internet connection is restored.

There are a few different ways to access sensor readings and data. With a cloud-based system, users can monitor real-time status, make programming changes, and review data logs on a mobile device via a web page or app. If the system is not cloud-based, users must log in through a local area network to access status conditions.

Useful Sensors and PlacementWhile temperature and humidity sensors are used most often at cannabis growing facilities, the following are also quite helpful:

Electricity powers critical equipment like lighting, water wells, heater fans, louvers, sprinklers, and humidifiers. Sensors will immediately detect power outages.

Sensors mounted in growing areas will detect when CO2 goes above or below critical thresholds.To monitor air circulation, users can place sensors on automatic ventilation systems like vented roofs, side vents, and forced fans. Users will receive an alert if these systems stop running or start operating outside preset parameters.Moisture detection sensors placed in the soil will measure water content.

Soil Moisture SensorWater pH sensors can prevent nutrient deficiencies that occur in over- or under-acidic water by sampling as it runs through the pipe. Sensors are tapped into existing plumbing.

Water pH SensorSensors placed on misting and irrigation systems will monitor the performance of pumps and pressure lines. Sensors placed on entrance doors, windows, supply rooms, and equipment sheds will send alerts about unauthorized entry into the facility during off hours when no staff is on duty.

ConclusionEnvironmental monitoring systems with data logging capabilities are a cost-effective solution for protecting valuable cannabis plants and equipment. Not only do they keep 24/7 watch over cannabis growing facilities, they are also ideal for preventative maintenance and long-term planning.

Rob Fusco is Director of Business Development with Sensaphone, a developer and manufacturer of remote monitoring and alerting systems. He can be reached at [email protected].


Why Clone?Asexual reproduction—also known as cloning—is a simple, dependable way to continue the success of a cannabis cultivar you want to grow repeatedly.

Growing from seed requires first purchasing from a reputable producer, then continuing to germinate and sex out male sprouts so they don’t put an early end to flower production. By contrast, clippings that are genetically identical to the “mother” they were removed from are guaranteed to be female, eliminating the possibility of pollination. Other perks of cloning include the same flavor, terpene profile, cannabinoid compounds, yield, and other general characteristics of the mother plant, making for more predictable, easy-to-grow cultivation. Also, whereas plants grown from seeds will naturally grow to various heights, clones can be harvested and grown at more equal lengths, meaning that even light distribution is an easier task.

Choosing a Clone to ClipA clone clipping should be chosen from a non-flowering female plant in a vegetative state. To maximize cutting production, the mother should have a good candelabra shape where the branches are evenly distributed and the same length. This will facilitate making

strong, uniform clone cuttings—we recommend between 4.5 and 6 inches long—which create an even canopy for lighting. Clone cuttings should have at least four leaves and two nodes growing on them. Cuttings from the top of the plant usually receive the best lighting and so are stronger and better suited for cloning. For the same reason, nodes cut toward the top of the mother will also form new roots faster than cuttings harvested from other locations on the plant. By pruning the mother plant frequently, keeping her soil nutrient rich, and always clipping from above the node so regrowth is easier, you can increase the number of clones that you can regularly take.

Clipping and RootingBefore clipping, take common-sense precautions to clean and sanitize the propagation space regularly and dip pruners into disinfectant when switching from one plant to another. These efforts reduce the spread of pathogens, such as botrytis, fusarium, or hop latent viroid (which causes dudding). Once the clone is clipped, trim excess leaves around what is now the stem of the new plant and cut the base at a 45-degree angle to increase the rooting surface area. Clipping off the

ends of fan leaves can also induce photosynthesis and faciliate uptake of nutrients and water. The clone is then dipped into rooting hormones before being placed into a rooting medium. While it is possible for the plant to root without hormones, they greatly improve clone uniformity and growth. Cloning hormones come in a variety of mediums, including gels, powders, and liquids. Choose one that is well reviewed and works best for your methodology.

In terms of rooting medium, we recommend rockwool blocks because they have great airflow and moisture retention and are easy to use. Root cubes or soil will also do the trick but be sure to pre-water soil before planting the clone so the watering doesn’t undermine the turgidity of the plant.

Once plants are in the rooting medium, environmental consistency becomes paramount. At this stage, roots have yet to sprout and gain the ability to regulate how water moves through their leaves, leaving them vulnerable to drying out. Most growers use a tray and dome at this stage to ensure that humidity is high, though another common low-tech method is misting the leaves with a spray system. If using a dome, be sure that air continues to circulate within

By Will Roberts, Dark Heart Nursery

Demystifying Cloning: Ensuring Viability and Vibrancy


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the system so mold doesn’t become an issue. Clones need about 18 hours of light at this stage but are extremely heat sensitive as well, which means that keeping a close eye for signs of scorching and drying out is essential.

When the plant begins to root, usually within 10-14 days, you can provide more nutrients and increased light. This is also the stage in which it can be transplanted into soil to begin full growth. Again, use sterile practices such as disinfection and wearing gloves to reduce risk of transplant shock. Clones should now be treated no differently than any other cannabis starts and will exhibit the favorable growth, yield, and profile characteristics of the mother they were clipped from.

Diagnosing Common ProblemsThe clearest sign of a vibrant and viable clone is its dense, hairy, white roots. Roots that appear dried and shrunken are a sign of underwatering, while overwatered roots have a brown, slimy appearance and funky smell associated with root rot.

Another common issue is well-meaning growers using too much nutrient after a clone is clipped. Nutrients must be eased into once the process of rooting occurs, otherwise the plant will experience a burn from over-fertilization.

As stated above, mold can become a problem due to lack of airflow or too much moisture. If you spot mold early on, make your own mild antifungal using baking soda with water or buy a similar simple formula fungicide to mist on the affected areas. If some plants die before rooting, be sure to promptly remove them from the rest of the grow so no mold develops.


Lastly, a common issue that plants experience is dudding from hop latent viroid, which presents as a variety of symptoms, including loss of vigor, stunting, reduction in yield, reduction in potency, and changes in morphology. Transmission of viroids in a nursery setting usually occurs via mechanical means, lending credence to the imperative of strong sanitation measures while working with the clones.

Final AdviceInvest time and money into cloning measures that are known to work and avoid the gimmicky support products. Aeroponic cloning machines, also known as easy cloners, take too long to form roots and are often more novel than functional. Likewise, use cloning mediums and other products that are well reviewed and work best for your specific workspace. Stick with

methodologies that are proven to be successful and don’t buy into showy, commercial options.

Lastly, try to avoid handling and disturbing the pre-rooted clones more than necessary. The plants prefer not to be moved much at this stage, and less handling reduces the likelihood of contamination. Allow the plants time and space to grow and, in return, prepare for a full crop of healthy clones to nurture.

About Dark Heart NurserySince 2007, Dark Heart Nursery has specialized in cultivating high quality clones for growers. Dark Heart is the largest licensed nursery in California, producing more than a million clones per annum. The company was thrilled to continue growing last year, opening a new cannabis bioscience facility in Half Moon Bay.


By Robbie Batts, InSpire Transpiration Solutions

The Benefits of Bringing Hemp Indoors

The world has been growing hemp outdoors for thousands of years, but recent advances in science and technology have resulted in some cultivators taking their operations indoors. The top three hemp-producing states in the U.S. are estimated to have more than 2.5 million square feet of indoor hemp cultivation space—and that doesn’t include estimates from the rest of the states that currently grow hemp. [1]

The hemp industry shows no signs of slowing down and cultivators looking toward the future should understand the pros and cons of growing indoors versus outdoors. As we collectively learn more about the recreational and medical benefits of cannabinoids other than THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and terpenes, the biggest advantage to cultivating hemp indoors is gaining the flexibility necessary to adapt to evolving consumer and therapeutic demands.

Here are some of the leading benefits of growing hemp indoors when compared to outdoor cultivation:

Flexibility in Cultivar Type and Seasonality One of the most obvious benefits of growing hemp indoors is the ability to cultivate year-round instead of depending on variable outdoor growing conditions. Indoor cultivators are also able to grow more cycles of crop each year, leading to increased revenue. In addition to year-round growing capabilities, indoor cultivation also provides growers with

the opportunity to grow multiple hemp varieties in one grow cycle without facing cross-pollination and contamination concerns.

Though hemp thrives in many climates and environments, outdoor cultivation lacks the environmental and cultural control that an indoor grow room provides. Cultural control refers to the concept of going beyond environmental control to understand the plant and the plant’s culture—the bacteria, fungus, and spores living on/inside the plant (which ties into pest management capabilities). Controlled environment agriculture is a technology-based approach that’s employed across many industries. The end goal is to provide protection, control, and the ability to maintain optimal growing conditions to enhance chemotype expression of specific cultivars. Indoor cultivation allows for protection against harsh weather conditions, the alleviation of cross-pollination concerns, and better defense from pests and parasites. Complete environmental control introduces

options for integrated pest management to prevent, monitor, and control pests and parasites through environmental control factors such as moisture and temperature that can contribute to pest/parasite buildup.

Environmental and Cultural ControlGrowing hemp indoors gives cultivators control over the factors that influence plant health, plant yield, and plant quality, which can have a significant impact on the bottom line. The ability to define setpoints and control elements like light schedules, nutrients, temperature, relative humidity, airflow, and carbon dioxide (CO

2) levels leads to optimized plant quality and yield. A high-quality end product means higher cannabinoid and terpene concentrations and the ability to demand premium pricing in the marketplace.

In addition to optimized plant vitality, the control that indoor cultivation provides means less risk for your crop and your


business. Effective environmental control is the first step in an integrated pest management plan and mitigates your risk for costly concerns like microclimates, mildew and mold, and other pathogen concerns. Integrating a pest management program from the start will help you identify and take action toward pest control before the problem expands.

Standardization and Consistency As the cannabis industry continues to mature, consumer demands, pharmaceutical regulations, and testing requirements are evolving. Product standardization is becoming increasingly important, especially as cultivators look to cross international borders with their goods. Businesses preparing for success, looking toward future growth, and hoping to remain competitive in the marketplace should pay attention to rules and regulations like good manufacturing practices, which are becoming paramount in the early stages of facility development.

In order to meet the standards being set by consumers and regulators, cultivators need to ensure one thing: product consistency. A high-quality, reproducible product requires steady growing procedures, including temperature, relative humidity, CO

2, and other environmental control considerations. Achieving this same consistency and product standardization in an outdoor environment is subject to mother nature’s whims and can be a daunting task.

Key Methods to Optimize Indoor Growing Conditions

Understand how your mechanical equipment choices impact your product and how each aspect of your environmental equipment impacts the performance of the other vital plant inputs: light, water, nutrients, etc. Your system is only as good as its weakest link.

Choose the right partner(s) experienced in the hemp industry to help you achieve and maintain operational efficiency. Right size your systems—this isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach. Trust a professional to help you find the right balance between upfront investment, minimizing operating costs, and providing the flexibility needed to adapt to evolving consumer and therapeutic demands. Your systems must be able to monitor, maintain, and control the environment at each vital stage of the plant life cycle.Environmental control systems should prevent and minimize biosecurity risks.

There are many benefits to bringing hemp cultivation indoors, but to do so successfully, your operation must create and maintain optimal environmental conditions. Doing so will lead to healthier plants and increased product yield, all while mitigating your risk profile and positively impacting your bottom line.

Robbie Batts is a passionate engineer with over a decade of experience designing, selling and commissioning HVAC and process systems throughout North America. Recognizing a knowledge gap around fully understanding plant transpiration rates and how they impact controlled environments, he co-founded InSpire to focus on Advanced Transpiration Solutions: www.InSpire.ag

Reference[1] Nichols, K. “Hemp Report: Top 10 U.S. States.” Hemp Industry Daily, 2018, https://mjbizdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Hemp-Report_Top-10-US-States.pdf.


Low-carbon agricultural strategies are crucial for the cannabis industry to adopt to align with energy efficiency, renewable energy, and the reductions in greenhouse gas emissions necessary to lessen the effects of climate change. There is much evidence of associations between climate conditions and infectious diseases [1], and today we face unprecedented uncertainty as we try to manage a pandemic and continue to mitigate climate change. With collective wellness in mind, we can do our part to heal while simultaneously strengthening our businesses in changing markets by considering the environmental impacts of cannabis, thus creating resilience throughout our communities during these challenging times.

As the industry continues to develop in the face of global public health crises and climate change, it’s critical that strategies are shared amongst cultivators to achieve efficient and low-carbon operations in the most cost-effective ways possible. In doing so, cultivators get the tools and resources necessary to build and maintain more efficient facilities with lower associated greenhouse gas emissions, and communities are better positioned to achieve their climate change mitigation goals. As a non-profit organization, Resource Innovation Institute (RII) establishes industry standards, facilitates the creation of brand-agnostic best practices, and advocates for effective policies and incentives that drive resource efficiency. We offer free, peer-reviewed guidance for cultivators and their project teams, like our Best Practices Guides for Cultivation Cannabis with LED Lighting and HVAC. [2]

Consider different cultivation approaches to weigh energy, water, and emissions impacts. The 2018 Cannabis Energy Report produced by New Frontier Data, RII, and Scale

Microgrid Solutions was the first study of its kind to use real commercial facility data sourced from RII’s Cannabis PowerScore resource benchmarking platform. [3] While outdoor farms demonstrated very low electricity consumption compared to greenhouses and indoor facilities, their associated water impacts may be higher based on irrigation approaches, warranting further research. The data showed that greenhouses have a wide range of electric energy intensity, with some greenhouses using as much electricity as indoor facilities, and that the average electric energy intensity of indoor grows is nearly twice the average of greenhouse grows.

The following strategies offer ways to minimize CO2 emissions

of any cultivation operation, including: sequestering carbon in soil, maximizing energy efficiency of processes and facilities, using renewable energy, adopting energy storage technologies to manage demand, and benchmarking resource consumption over time.

Described below are some steps to incorporating these strategies into a cannabis business:

1. Regenerative soil practices store carbon and reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of a cultivation operation. Returning carbon to create new living soil is one way for the cannabis industry to be a carbon sink, rather than a carbon creator. Outdoor farms in particular have the opportunity to practice sustainable land management practices that build new soil to store carbon.

2. The major driver of carbon emissions in cannabis cultivation environments is the energy consumption

By Gretchen Schimelpfenig, PE, Resource Innovation InstituteThe promise of a low-carbon future

Sustainably Mitigating the Environmental Impact of Cannabis Cultivation


References[1] World Health Organization, “Climate Change and Human Health,” accessed April 13, 2020.

[2] Resource Innovation Institute, https://www.resourceinnovation.org/resources

[3] Resource Innovation Institute, Cannabis PowerScore, https://cannabispowerscore.org

associated with electric lighting, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), and dehumidification systems serving facilities. As growers consider operational energy and resource efficiency to become a cut above the rest, an emerging best practice is for cultivation facilities to convert their lighting to light-emitting diode (LED) systems. A best practice for HVAC systems for cultivation facilities is to integrate dehumidification equipment with central HVAC systems to create a more energy-efficient operation.

3. Lighting and HVAC systems interact heavily with each other, and the operational changes necessary for an efficient cultivation facility may be mysterious and complex for many growers. A traditional HVAC and lighting system approach could make up 45% of a facility’s operational costs. Operating energy-efficient lighting and HVAC systems effectively involves a learning curve, and RII’s Best Practices Guides offer growers a head start. Monitoring actual environmental conditions is crucial to achieving the intended performance and cost savings of a design. When commissioned and maintained properly, a high-performance HVAC and lighting system can reduce operating costs to 30%.

4. Energy source matters more than energy use when calculating carbon impacts of cultivation. While energy efficiency is key to minimizing costs, the types of energy used to power, heat, and cool greenhouses, indoor grows, and drying facilities greatly influence the associated carbon footprint of a cultivation operation. For a grow facility, the electricity generation mix of the regional electric utility, the amount of fossil fuel consumed, and the frequency of use of back-up generators are influential inputs to the life-cycle carbon calculations of cannabis facilities. Generating energy on site using renewable sources like solar photovoltaic panels and wind turbines can reduce carbon impacts while also slashing energy costs for growers in regions with high electric rates. A strategy for avoiding consuming energy when the grid is served by fossil fuels is to adopt energy storage strategies like battery banks for use during peak periods, for back-up generation, or for outage planning.

5. Understanding emissions impacts requires measuring energy consumption year after year. Benchmarking energy performance for all fuel sources allows cultivators to track trends over time and compare their facilities to their peers. RII’s Cannabis PowerScore (CannabisPowerScore.org) is freely available to analyze electricity consumption against other cultivators who have also shared information with the platform. The more aggregate data the cannabis industry has to measure performance, the faster the industry can move towards a low-carbon future.

“Compliance” is the action or fact of adhering to or obeying a wish, command, or guideline. In the hemp industry, “compliance” mostly refers to potency testing to certify that material adheres to federal guidelines stating that hemp has not exceeded the legal 0.3% tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration dividing legal “hemp” from federally illegal “cannabis.” Please note that this article is geared toward federal compliance.

Individual states like Florida and New York have enacted their own compliance standards.To assure that hemp is “compliant,” samples are sent to independent laboratories for potency testing. The labs generate certificates of analysis (CoAs) reporting the concentrations of various cannabinoids in the sample. For “compliance” purposes, the cannabinoids specifically tested are delta-9-THC and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, or THCa, a precursor to THC. The combined concentration of these two must be less than 0.3%. If the total THC exceeds this limit, the biomass is considered federally illegal.

QR (quick response) codes on packaging and CoAs available in some retail outlets are geared toward assuring that hemp products are compliant with federal law. These CoAs also report the concentration of other cannabinoids in the sample but, again, to be legally “compliant” on a federal level, hemp only needs to pass a total THC potency test.

This system protects the farmer, the processor, and the retailer but does it protect the consumer? No. The current system, at best, only protects the consumer from getting “high.”

Analytical labs can evaluate more than just potency, however. Some of these tests not only help protect consumers but could also save processors and producers money and other resources.

Take pesticide testing, for example. There can be various reasons why a product gets contaminated with pesticides.

Some explanations are completely innocent like outdoor hemp getting exposed to pesticides because of drift from adjacent fields or farms. I once witnessed hemp planted in a field adjacent to tobacco, which can be treated with chemicals that are not approved for hemp.

Or, perhaps an indoor grower has an infested greenhouse or sees signs of microbial infestation. The decision to scrap the crop, or even part of it, due to the presence of any of these contaminants could represent a significant financial burden to the grower. Absent crop insurance, not everyone is going to make the “right” decision in this situation. To harvest these tainted crops, the biomass only needs to federally “comply” in terms of THC concentration.

Most hemp is tested before it’s harvested. Mold can form after the harvest during the drying/curing stage. Mold can grow anywhere that sufficient moisture, oxygen, and mold spores are present, including inside final packaging. Mold spores travel in the wind and are invisible by eye. It is difficult to prevent exposure to mold spores outside of a controlled environment, and molds like Aspergillus spp. can produce mycotoxins.

Likewise, heavy metals can find their way into hemp plants in unsuspecting ways, especially since hemp is considered a hyperaccumulator of these contaminants. How many people know how their local drinking water authority tests for drinkability? Would you consume hydroponic cannabis from Flint, Michigan? Do you think Flint is the only place with contaminated water? Or soil, which can also leach contaminants into crops? Many local agricultural extension offices are aware of this problem and offer affordable soil testing.

Federally “compliant” material that’s tainted with these contaminants can be delivered to processors for extraction or for use in pre-rolls or any other “process” that converts that material into a consumer product. There are surely processors that perform incoming inspections including

By Daniel Isenstein, PSN Labs


Is Compliance Enough?


more than just potency testing. Unfortunately, they may not always require a full panel of tests that incorporates heavy metals, pesticides, microbials, and mycotoxins. Thus, contaminated hemp can be introduced into the production line. As the material is processed, contaminants can leach out of the biomass. For example, mycotoxins and pesticides can co-extract and be concentrated in the resultant oil. These contaminants spread into the material and contaminate the processing equipment as well. If the entire line isn’t exhaustively cleaned, it could transfer contamination to the next batch.

Working in the cannabis/hemp industry is definitely cool but industrial hygiene is industrial hygiene. It’s not glamorous. Donning personal protective equipment (PPE) and cleaning processing equipment is a chore whether one is working with hemp or hot dogs. Decontamination is dependent on imperfect humans. Equipment often has hard to reach/clean areas. Residual contamination hides in the most difficult places, waiting for a chance at a curtain call.

Once contaminated cannabis hits the supply chain, it fouls whatever else it touches. Ethanol can extract all sorts of nastiness with your cannabinoids, contaminating your solvent. And if your medium is contaminated, everything it touches gets contaminated.

“An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” These words are just as true today as when Ben Franklin first spoke them. An aggressive testing process geared toward prevention and not just containment is the first step. Growers need to test their soil and water. The cost of annual testing pays for itself when compared to the cost of crop contamination. Additionally, why settle for minimal compliance potency testing at harvest? Your product is worth more if it’s compliant and clean.

Processors, are you performing an incoming inspection on every lot of material? What’s the cost of testing compared to the risk that a dirty lot of hemp contaminates your equipment? Perhaps you can work with your lab to create a better model. Imagine if all the hemp you processed received a full panel of potency and purity tests before you received it into your facility. Your lab might offer a better price since you will be bringing them business. In turn, you can pay your farmers a better price for their crop.

Continuously improving quality is an important discussion for the hemp industry. Let’s start it, with or without the feds.

While most consumers and researchers are familiar with cannabis’ most popular cannabinoids – delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) – there are still over 140 other cannabinoids in the plant that are underutilized. [1] A growing body of evidence indicates that minor cannabinoids may prove to be just as, if not more, beneficial to overall human wellness and potential disease mitigation as their well-known counterparts, THC and CBD.

Several minor cannabinoids are non-intoxicating, meaning they can be used without causing a “high” feeling, and are part of a growing group of cannabinoid wellness ingredients that can be legally consumed when obtained from hemp. Because of these factors, there is growing interest from the scientific and agricultural communities into the genetics of plants that will ultimately make these compounds commercially available. Next generation breeding technologies, combined with modern cannabinoid hemp farming techniques, are creating a multi-billion dollar opportunity for hemp-based wellness products.

The Minor Cannabinoids That MatterIn the past decade, THC and CBD have demonstrated their medical and wellness applications. [2-4] Although not as extensively studied, a growing body of research provides evidence that many minor cannabinoids may also be effective against several degenerative conditions, including Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, and potentially even infectious diseases. [4-13]

A partial summary of some recently discovered medical benefits for cannabigerol (CBG), cannabichromene (CBC), the -varins, and cannabinol (CBN) are listed below.

CBG is a non-intoxicating cannabinoid typically most abundant in low-THC, high-CBD cannabis varieties, including hemp. CBG reacts with cannabinoid receptors in the brain, in a manner like THC. CBG, like CBD, acts as a buffer to the psychoactivity of THC [5], which may help alleviate paranoia sometimes caused by higher levels of THC. CBG may have efficacy in fighting inflammation [2,6,8], pain [4,13], nausea [4,13] and slowing the proliferation of cancer cells. [2,4,8,9] Many additional potential benefits are still being discovered, so CBG is a crucial minor cannabinoid to continue monitoring.

CBC, also a non-intoxicating cannabinoid, may play a role in neurogenesis, the process by which the human brain grows, develops, and heals. [13] CBC has been reported to help fight cancer and inflammation without activating any of the endocannabinoid receptors in the body. [13] For this reason, the combination of CBC used in conjunction with other cannabinoids that act through endocannabinoid receptors may significantly increase efficacy in certain treatments due to synergistic effects.

CBN is a mildly intoxicating degradation product of THC found in small amounts in cannabis that may have potential benefits as a sleep aid or sedative. CBN is created when tetrahydrocannabidiolic acid (THC-A) is oxidized and sometimes is found in cannabis that’s been stored for an extended period of time. However, CBN can also be produced through direct oxidation of THC-A in the lab. Studies also suggest that CBN may have applications in treating certain types of cancers, convulsions, glaucoma, pain, and inflammation. [4,8,9]

The -varins, also known as propyl cannabinoids, including tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabidivarin (CBDV),

By Jonathan Vaught , Ph.D., Front Range Biosciences


Unlocking the Potential for Minor Cannabinoids, Wellness Products, and a Boom for Modern Farmers

cannabichromevarin (CBCV), and cannabigerovarin (CBGV), have a three-carbon tail as opposed to the five-carbon tails of THC, CBD, and CBC. The shorter carbon tail is due to the precursor (CBG) already formed with the shorter carbon chain (i.e., cannabigerovarinic acid, or CBGVA, instead of CBGA). The -varins’ unique structure may be responsible for some of the differences in properties compared to the compounds with a five-carbon tail. [1,14]

Within the -varins category, THCV has been studied more extensively in recent years. While it shares a similar chemical structure to THC, THCV is an antagonist (blocks activity) of the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor, whereas THC activates the CB1 receptor. [1,8,14] Preliminary studies suggest that THCV holds promise in the treatment of obesity, certain eating disorders, and diabetes. [1,4,6,14] Recent studies also show THCV may prove useful for treatment of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases. [7,10-14]

Another popular -varin cannabinoid is CBDV, a non-intoxicating cannabinoid much like CBD. First isolated in 1969 [15], studies point to CBDV potentially having applications in treating a range of ailments and conditions, including epilepsy, neurological disorders, and muscular dystrophy. [10,11] More research must be done to fully

understand the effects of CBDV in humans. CBDV is typically only found in CBD-dominant cannabis cultivars.

Bringing Minor Cannabinoids to the Mass MarketWhile there are numerous potential medical applications for these minor cannabinoids, they still have not been harvested for mass consumption mainly because they are naturally produced in extremely low levels in the cannabis plant. For instance, many cannabis varieties produce less than 1% CBG by dry weight. However, science is creating viable markets for these minor cannabinoids as interest grows and new data are collected around the world. Through selective breeding programs, CBG production has been boosted to 40 to 50 times of naturally occurring levels. For the first time, this compound exists at a high enough level in plants where it can be mass produced in a cost-efficient manner.

At Front Range Biosciences, we are leveraging marker-assisted breeding to target increased production of these minor cannabinoids in hemp. We believe the best way to get these critical compounds to the marketplace is to work directly with farmers and growers. There is a remarkable opportunity for the hemp industry to work together with the US Food and Drug Administration and help generate the necessary safety data and research to get these plant-based products to market as dietary supplements and food additives.


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[1] Hanus L, et al. “Phytocannabinoids: A Unified Critical Inventory.” Nat Prod Rep, vol.33, no.12, 2016, pp.1347-1448. [journal impact factor = 11.876; times cited = 60]

[2] Kogan N, Mechoulam R. “Cannabinoids in Health and Disease.” Dialogues Clin Neurosci, vol.9, 2007, pp. 413–430. [journal impact factor = 3.976; times cited = 83]

[3] Hernandez-Cervantes R, et al. “Immunoregulatory Role of Cannabinoids During Infectious Disease.” Neuroimmunomodulation, vol.24, 2017, pp.183-199. [journal impact factor = 1.351; times cited = 18]

[4] Daris B, et al. “Cannabinoids in Cancer Treatment: Therapeutic Potential and Legislation.” Bosn J of Basic Med Sci, vol.19, 2019, pp.14-23. [journal impact factor = 1.458; times cited = 12]

[5] Navarro G, et al. “Cannabigerol Action at Cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 Receptors and at CB1-CB2 Heteroreceptor Complexes.” Front Pharmacol, vol.9, no.632. [journal impact factor = 3.845; times cited = 10]

[6] Izzo A, Camilleri M. “Emerging Role of Cannabinoids in Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases: Basic and Clinical Aspects.” Gut, vol.57, 2008, pp.1140-1155. [journal impact factor = 17.943; times cited = 97]

[7] Ramirez B, et al. “Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease Pathology by Cannabinoids: Neuroprotection Mediated by Blockade of Microglial Activation.” J Neurosci, vol.25, 2005, pp.1904–1913. [journal impact factor = 6.074; times cited = 342]

[8] Chakravarti B, Ravi J, Ganju R. “Cannabinoids as Therapeutic Agents in Cancer: Current Status and Future

Implications,” Oncotarget, vol.5, 2015, pp.5852–5872. [journal impact factor = 5.168; times cited = 64]

[9] Borrelli F, et al. “Colon Carcinogenesis is Inhibited by the TRPM8 Antagonist Cannabigerol, a Cannabis-Derived Non-Psychotropic Cannabinoid,” Carcinogenesis, vol.35, no.12, 2014, pp.2787–2797. [journal impact factor = 4.004; times cited = 40]

[10] Fernandez-Ruiz J. “The Endocannabinoid System as a Target for the Treatment of Motor Dysfunction,” Br J Pharmacol, vol.156, no.7, 2009, pp.1029–1040. [journal impact factor = 6.583; times cited = 84]

[11] Campbell V, Gowran A. “Alzheimer’s Disease; Taking the Edge Off with Cannabinoids?” Br J Pharmacol, vol.152, no.5, 2007, pp.655–662. [journal impact factor = 6.583; times cited = 67]

[12] Croxford J. “Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids in CNS Disease.” CNS Drugs, vol.17, 2003, pp.179–202. [journal impact factor = 4.192; times cited = 110]

[13] Rodrigues R, et al. “Cannabinoid Actions on Neural Stem Cells: Implications for Pathophysiology.” Molecules, vol.24, no.7, 2019, pp.1350. [journal impact factor = 3.060; times cited = 1]

[14] Morales P. “Molecular Targets of the Phytocannabinoids – A Complex Picture.” Prog Chem Org Nat Prod, vol.103, 2017, pp.103-131. [journal impact factor = N/A; times cited = 46]

[15] Vollner L, et al. “Cannabidivarin, a New Hashish Constituent.” Tetrahedron Letters, vol.3, 1969, pp.145-147. [journal impact factor = 2.259; times cited = 25]

References

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