English for Academic English for Academic PurposesPurposes

BBSc 1 and Erasmus Students

Ing. Alan WestcottIng. Alan Westcott(Dr. Karl Seeley, Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY)(Dr. Karl Seeley, Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY)

L e c t u r e 3

In/definite Articles

TOEIC AnnouncementTOEIC Announcement• TOEICTOEIC = = TTest est oof f EEnglish for nglish for IInternational nternational

CCommunication.ommunication.

• TOEIC is an English test which is recognized by many TOEIC is an English test which is recognized by many universities, such as Grenobleuniversities, such as Grenoble

• The TOEIC exam will take place here before ChristmasThe TOEIC exam will take place here before Christmas

• Preparation for TOEIC during 2-3 seminarsPreparation for TOEIC during 2-3 seminars• You will be advised when it startsYou will be advised when it starts• The University pays for the examThe University pays for the exam• 80 students only can take part80 students only can take part• Selection for TOEIC exam by a test during a seminarSelection for TOEIC exam by a test during a seminar• Students attaining Students attaining 900900 points in TOEIC will get points in TOEIC will get

Excellent mark for AEP and will not have to sit for the Excellent mark for AEP and will not have to sit for the EAP examEAP exam

Indefinite and Definite Indefinite and Definite ArticlesArticles

• The use of The use of indefiniteindefinite and and definitedefinite articles articles

• One of the most difficult tasks not only for One of the most difficult tasks not only for the student of the English language but the student of the English language but often even for native speakers. often even for native speakers.

• Although there are rules which define the Although there are rules which define the use of articles, there are many exceptions use of articles, there are many exceptions to these rules, making the task difficult.to these rules, making the task difficult.

Indefinite ArticleIndefinite ArticleA) A) a/ana/an The The indefinite indefinite articlearticle

• use in use in aa man man a a hat hat a a universityuniversityaa European Europeanaa one-way street one-way street

• use use anan before words beginning with a before words beginning with a vowelvowel ( (a, e, i, o, ua, e, i, o, u))anan apple apple anan island island anan uncle unclean an eggegg anan onion onion anan

hourhour

• or individual letter SPOKEN with a vowel sound !or individual letter SPOKEN with a vowel sound !anan L-plate L-plate anan MP MP anan SOS SOS anan 'x‚ 'x‚

• a/an a/an is the same for is the same for all all gendersgenders

a a manman aa woman woman an an actoractor anan actress actressaa table table

Indefinite Article Indefinite Article

B) B) The use of The use of a/ana/an 1 1 before a singular countable nounbefore a singular countable noun• I need I need aa visa. visa. They live in They live in aa flat. He bought flat. He bought anan ice-cream ice-cream

2 2 before a singular countable noun used as and example of a class of before a singular countable noun used as and example of a class of thingsthings

• A A car must be insured = All cars/Any car must be insuredcar must be insured = All cars/Any car must be insured• AA child needs love = All children/Any child needs love child needs love = All children/Any child needs love

3. 3. With a noun complement, including names of professionsWith a noun complement, including names of professions It was It was an an earthquake. She'll beearthquake. She'll be a a dancer. He isdancer. He is an an actor.actor.

4. 4. In certain expressions of quantityIn certain expressions of quantity• aa lot of lot of aa couple couple• aa great many great many a a dozen (but dozen (but one one dozen is also possible)dozen is also possible)• a a great deal ofgreat deal of

Indefinite ArticleIndefinite Article

5. 5. With certain numbersWith certain numbers• aa hundred hundred a a thousandthousand

– ““one” may be used for emphasis:one” may be used for emphasis:– ““One thousand dollars?!One thousand dollars?! That’s crazy!” That’s crazy!”

• Before half when half follows a whole numberBefore half when half follows a whole number 11/2 = 11/2 = one andone and a a half kilos half kilos, or , or a kilo anda kilo and a a half half• a half-holidaya half-holiday a half-portiona half-portion a half-sharea half-share

• With 1/3, ¼, 1/5 etc With 1/3, ¼, 1/5 etc • aa third third a a quarterquarter a a fifthfifth

Indefinite ArticleIndefinite Article

6. 6. An expression of price, speed, ratio, etcAn expression of price, speed, ratio, etc

• Fifty crowns Fifty crowns aa metre metre • Sixty km Sixty km anan hour hour • 20 20 dollarsdollars aa dozen. Four times dozen. Four times a a dayday

7.7. In exclamations before SINGULAR COUNTABLE nouns: In exclamations before SINGULAR COUNTABLE nouns:

• SuchSuch a a long queue! long queue! • What What aa pretty girl! pretty girl!

BUT:BUT:

• Such long queues!Such long queues!• Such pretty girls!Such pretty girls!

Definite ArticleDefinite ArticleDefinite Article: theDefinite Article: the

The definite article is used The definite article is used before before singular and plural singular and plural nounsnouns when the noun is when the noun is specific or particular. specific or particular. It indicatesIt indicates that the noun is definite, that it refers to a that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particularparticular member of a group. For example: member of a group. For example:

• ""TheThe dog that bit me ran away." dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a Here, we're talking about a specificspecific dog, the dog that bit me. dog, the dog that bit me.

• "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a Here, we're talking about a particularparticular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman. Even if we don't know the

policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.saved the cat.

• "I saw the elephant at the zoo." "I saw the elephant at the zoo."

Here, we're talking about a Here, we're talking about a specificspecific noun. Probably there is only one noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo, or somebody has already mentioned it in elephant at the zoo, or somebody has already mentioned it in conversation. conversation.

Definite ArticleDefinite Article

We also use the definite article when weWe also use the definite article when we

mention something for the second time.mention something for the second time.

e.g. e.g.

• II saw saw aa student in the street. student in the street.

• TheThe student carried student carried aa textbook. textbook.

• TheThe textbook was written by the same textbook was written by the same author as the one I had in my office.author as the one I had in my office.

Definite ArticleDefinite Article

• We also use the definite article for unique things or We also use the definite article for unique things or people, eg.people, eg.– the Equatorthe Equator– the Polethe Pole

• the Queenthe Queen– If you say “a queen,” you’re talking about the general If you say “a queen,” you’re talking about the general

thing:thing:– ““The wife of The wife of aa king is a queen.” king is a queen.”– But: “But: “TheThe Queen arrives tomorrow.” Queen arrives tomorrow.”

• the Popethe Pope– ““He was He was aa good pope.” – there was more than one good good pope.” – there was more than one good

one, and he was one of themone, and he was one of them– ““He was He was thethe good pope.” – there was only one good pope. good pope.” – there was only one good pope.

Indefinite and Definite ArticleIndefinite and Definite Article

Countable and Uncountable NounsCountable and Uncountable Nouns

• TheThe can be used with uncountable nouns, can be used with uncountable nouns, or or the article can be the article can be omitted completely.omitted completely.

• "I love to sail over "I love to sail over thethe water" (some specific body of water) or "I water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (love to sail over water" (anyany water). water).

• "He spilled "He spilled thethe milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that dayperhaps the milk you bought earlier that day, or the milk you just , or the milk you just pouredpoured) )

or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk). or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

• ""A/anA/an" can be used only with " can be used only with countablecountable nouns. nouns.• "I need a bottle of water." "I need a bottle of water." • "I need a new glass of milk.""I need a new glass of milk."• Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants aa water," unless water," unless

you're implying, say, a bottle of water.you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of Definite Geographical use of Definite ArticleArticle

There are some specific rules for using the with geographical There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.nouns.

Do Do notnot use use thethe before: before:

• names of most countries/territories: names of most countries/territories: • Italy, Mexico, Bolivia, Spain, England, Germany, Poland, Italy, Mexico, Bolivia, Spain, England, Germany, Poland,

China …China …

But in plural/collective names:But in plural/collective names:

• the United Kingdomthe United Kingdom• thethe Netherlands Netherlands• thethe Philippines Philippines• thethe United States United States

Geographical use of Definite Geographical use of Definite ArticleArticleWe use ‘THE‘ with adjectivesWe use ‘THE‘ with adjectives

• thethe Czech Republic Czech Republic• thethe Dominican Republic Dominican Republic     

or:or: with political descriptions with political descriptions we we use articlesuse articles

e.g. e.g. the the People's Republic ofPeople's Republic of ChinaChinathe the UnionUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics of Soviet Socialist Republicsthe the USSRUSSR

withwith compass compass directionsdirections do do not not use 'The'; use 'The'; e.g. e.g. NorthNorth Korea Korea

Geographical use of Definite Geographical use of Definite ArticleArticle• names of cities, towns, or states: names of cities, towns, or states: Prague, London, Moscow, Manitoba, MiamiPrague, London, Moscow, Manitoba, Miami

Major exception: Major exception: thethe Hague Hague

• names of streets: names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. High StreetWashington Blvd., Main St. High Street

• names of lakes and bays: names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake ErieLake Titicaca, Lake Erie exceptexcept with a with a groupgroup of lakes like of lakes like the Great Lakesthe Great Lakes

• names of names of singlesingle mountains: mountains: Mount Everest, Mount FujiMount Everest, Mount Fuji

• exceptexcept with with rangesranges of mountains like of mountains like the Andesthe Andes, , the Rockies,the Rockies, the Alpsthe Alps, , the High Tatrasthe High Tatras or or unusualunusual names like names like the Matterhornthe Matterhorn

Geographical use of Definite Geographical use of Definite ArticleArticle• Names of continents Names of continents Asia, Europe, Australia …Asia, Europe, Australia …

• names of islandsnames of islands Easter Island, Maui, Key West Easter Island, Maui, Key West

exceptexcept with island chains/groups: with island chains/groups: like the Aleutians, like the Aleutians, the Hebridesthe Hebrides the Canary Islands the Canary Islands

Geographical use of Definite Geographical use of Definite ArticleArticle

• Water bodiesWater bodies the (River) Danube/Vltava/Volgathe (River) Danube/Vltava/Volga

the Mississippi (River)the Mississippi (River)the (English) Channelthe (English) Channelthe Panama Canalthe Panama Canalthe Atlantic (Ocean)the Atlantic (Ocean)the Pacific (Ocean)the Pacific (Ocean)

the Mediterranean (Sea)the Mediterranean (Sea)

Definite Articles in GeographyDefinite Articles in Geography

• DesertsDeserts the Gobi (Desert)the Gobi (Desert)

the Sahara (Desert)the Sahara (Desert)the Mojave Desertthe Mojave Desert

• Points of the compassPoints of the compass as indicators of location as indicators of location the the nnorthorth, , the the ssouthouth, , the the eeastast, , the the wwestest

the South Polethe South Pole, t, the North Polehe North Pole

She lives in She lives in thethe south of Italy. south of Italy.Geoffrey is going to Geoffrey is going to thethe Far East next spring. Far East next spring.

• Points of the compassPoints of the compass as indicators of direction as indicators of direction fromfrom The wind is blowing from the west.The wind is blowing from the west.

But:But:• Points of the compassPoints of the compass as indicators of direction as indicators of direction toto

– We’re heading northWe’re heading north– North AmericaNorth America– Go west, young man!Go west, young man!

Geographical use of Definite Geographical use of Definite ArticleArticle

• Some constellations and other heavenly Some constellations and other heavenly bodiesbodies

the Big Dipper the Big Dipper the Pleiades the Pleiades the Cigar Galaxy (M82) the Cigar Galaxy (M82) the Crab Nebula the Crab Nebula

ButBut (names of people rather than things):(names of people rather than things):

OrionOrionCassiopeiaCassiopeia

Omission of articlesOmission of articles

Some common types of nouns that don't take anSome common types of nouns that don't take anarticle are:article are:

• Names of languages and nationalities: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, RussianChinese, English, Spanish, Russian

(Though there’s an archaic usage, “Translated from the (Though there’s an archaic usage, “Translated from the Czech by Josef Czech by Josef ŠŠkvorecký.)kvorecký.)

• Names of sports: Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseballvolleyball, hockey, baseball

• Names of academic subjects: Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, mathematics, biology, history, computer sciencecomputer science

Test of geographical articles Test of geographical articles useuse

• Question 1:Question 1:

• Which is correct?Which is correct?a.Brazil is in the South America.b.Brazil is in an South America.c.Brazil is in a South America.d.Brazil is in South America.

TestTest

• Question 2:Question 2:Which is correct?Which is correct?

a.I'm going to United States of America.

b.I'm going to the United States of America.

c.I'm going to a United States of America.

d.I'm going to United States of Americas.

TestTest

• Question 3:Question 3:Which is correct?Which is correct?

• a. a. Shanghai is the largest city in China.b. b. The Shanghai is the largest city in China.c. c. A Shanghai is the largest city in China.

d. d. Shanghai is a largest city in China.Shanghai is a largest city in China.

TestTest

• Question 4:Question 4:Which is correct?Which is correct?

a.The Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau.

b.A Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau.

c.Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau.

TestTest

• Question 5:Question 5:

• Which is correct?Which is correct?a.Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, th

e Himalayas and the world.b.The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Chin

a, the Himalayas and the world.c.Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, Hi

malayas and the world.d.d.Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the

China, the Himalayas and the world.China, the Himalayas and the world.

TestTest

• Question 6:Question 6:

• Which is correct?Which is correct?a.a.The largest lake in the world is the Lake The largest lake in the world is the Lake

Baikal in Russia.Baikal in Russia.b.b.The largest lake in the world is Lake Baikal The largest lake in the world is Lake Baikal

in Russia.in Russia.c.c.The largest lake in the world is a Lake The largest lake in the world is a Lake

Baikal in Russia.Baikal in Russia.

TestTest

• Question 7:Question 7:

• Which is correct?Which is correct?a.a.South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean.South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean.b.b.A South China Sea is part of the Pacific A South China Sea is part of the Pacific

Ocean.Ocean.c.c.The South China Sea is part of the Pacific The South China Sea is part of the Pacific

Ocean.Ocean.d.d.The South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean.The South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean.e.e.South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean.South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean.

Adjective orderAdjective order

• AdjectivesAdjectives cannot be written in any order. cannot be written in any order. • There are rules, so you should use the following order:There are rules, so you should use the following order:• Determiner or article Determiner or article

– Determiners e.g. this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, Determiners e.g. this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, her, hers, they, their, Sam's ; or yours, him, his, her, hers, they, their, Sam's ; or

• Articles - a, an, theArticles - a, an, the  

• Opinion adjectiveOpinion adjectivee.g. polite, fun, cute, difficult, hard-workinge.g. polite, fun, cute, difficult, hard-working   

• Size, including adjectives, comparatives and superlativesSize, including adjectives, comparatives and superlatives– height; e.g. tall, short, high, low; taller, tallestheight; e.g. tall, short, high, low; taller, tallest– width; e.g. wide, narrow, thin, slim; wider, widestwidth; e.g. wide, narrow, thin, slim; wider, widest– length; e.g. long, short; longer, longestlength; e.g. long, short; longer, longest– volume; e.g. fat, huge; fatter, fattest volume; e.g. fat, huge; fatter, fattest

  

Adjective orderAdjective order

• ShapeShapee.g. circular, oval, triangular, square, 5-sided, hexagonal, e.g. circular, oval, triangular, square, 5-sided, hexagonal, irregularirregular   

• AgeAgee.g. new, young, adolescent, teenage, middle-aged, old, anciente.g. new, young, adolescent, teenage, middle-aged, old, ancient   

• ColourColoure.g. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, white, grey, black, e.g. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, white, grey, black, black and white, light blue, dark red, pale blue, reddish brown, black and white, light blue, dark red, pale blue, reddish brown, off-white, bright green, warm yellowoff-white, bright green, warm yellow   

• NationalityNationalitye.g. Hong Kong, Chinese, English, American, Canadian, e.g. Hong Kong, Chinese, English, American, Canadian, JapaneseJapanese

Adjective orderAdjective order

• ReligionReligione.g. Christian, Buddhist, Taoist, Me.g. Christian, Buddhist, Taoist, Muuslsliim, m, pagan, atheistpagan, atheist   

• MaterialMateriale.g. wood, plastic, metal, ceramic, paper, e.g. wood, plastic, metal, ceramic, paper, silksilk   

• Noun used as an adjectiveNoun used as an adjectivee.g. campus (as in 'campus activities')e.g. campus (as in 'campus activities')   

• The noun that the adjectives are describingThe noun that the adjectives are describing

Adjective orderAdjective order

StyleStyle::

• Although it is possible to write a sentence that Although it is possible to write a sentence that uses all the categories; uses all the categories;

e.g. 'my beautiful, long, curving, new, pink, e.g. 'my beautiful, long, curving, new, pink, western, Christian, silk wedding dress', it is bad western, Christian, silk wedding dress', it is bad style as it is too long. Try to use style as it is too long. Try to use less than five less than five adjectives in a single listadjectives in a single list

• Therefore you could say Therefore you could say ""Have you seen myHave you seen my beautiful new cream silk beautiful new cream silk

wedding dresswedding dress? ? It's long and curving, and is in It's long and curving, and is in western Christian style."western Christian style."

WRITING ESSAYSWRITING ESSAYS

• your essay should tell your teacher you have your essay should tell your teacher you have understoodunderstood the topic and that you can the topic and that you can argueargue about the informationabout the information

• you doyou do not not have to say anything have to say anything newnew, but you must , but you must show you can describe and defend your show you can describe and defend your opinionopinion

• you should present you should present evidenceevidence to support your to support your opinion so it is believedopinion so it is believed

• be brief, you be brief, you cannotcannot say say everythingeverything about a about a subject, but go into subject, but go into depthdepth of just a little of the topic of just a little of the topic you write about you write about

WRITING ESSAYSWRITING ESSAYS• IntroductionIntroduction• Your essay should contain:Your essay should contain:• information about the topicinformation about the topic• your opinionyour opinion• critical frameworkcritical framework

• Body of the essayBody of the essay• Several paragraphs which should contain:Several paragraphs which should contain:• evidence, or your thoughts on the topicevidence, or your thoughts on the topic• context - where does the evidence/thought come from context - where does the evidence/thought come from

(e.g. from the topic of your essay)(e.g. from the topic of your essay)• comment – how does the evidence fit your opinion?comment – how does the evidence fit your opinion?

• ConclusionConclusion• restate your argumentrestate your argument• show the "pros" and "cons" (i.e. things or arguments in show the "pros" and "cons" (i.e. things or arguments in

favour and arguments against)favour and arguments against)

WRITING ESSAYSWRITING ESSAYS

HOMEWORKHOMEWORK

Write an essay on your home country or town or Write an essay on your home country or town or region.region.Why should someone come visit?Why should someone come visit?

Or not?Or not?

The essay should have 300 wordsThe essay should have 300 words

Deadline : Deadline : 2525 October 20 October 201010

WWHAT IS HAT IS PUNCTUATIONPUNCTUATION ? ?

• … … …… … …

PunctuationPunctuation: :

The use of standard marks and signs inThe use of standard marks and signs inwriting and printing to separate wordswriting and printing to separate wordsinto into ::•sentences sentences •clausesclauses•and phrases in order toand phrases in order to clarifyclarify (= (=

make more clear) their meaningmake more clear) their meaning..

Examples of punctuation:Examples of punctuation:• , , • . . • ::• ;;• ’ ’• ) () ( • ]] [[• — — • --• / / • # #

CommasCommas

• Separating parts of sentencesSeparating parts of sentences– Usage is somewhat flexible, generally Usage is somewhat flexible, generally

corresponding to a slight pause in corresponding to a slight pause in speech that doesn’t amount to a full end speech that doesn’t amount to a full end of a sentence.of a sentence.

– Misuse of commas can lead to run-on Misuse of commas can lead to run-on sentences, structures that have more sentences, structures that have more than subject-predicate.than subject-predicate.

Full stop (period)Full stop (period)

• Its only use is to end a sentence.Its only use is to end a sentence.– In normal writing, the material from the In normal writing, the material from the

previous full stop to the next one must previous full stop to the next one must make one full sentence.make one full sentence.• In writing that mimics conversation, you can In writing that mimics conversation, you can

have a fragment.have a fragment.– ““Do you want to go?”Do you want to go?”– ““Not really.”Not really.”

Colon and semi-colonColon and semi-colon

• A colon starts a list, where the items are A colon starts a list, where the items are separated by semi-colons (or sometimes separated by semi-colons (or sometimes commas).commas).– We have three goals: getting in; seizing the We have three goals: getting in; seizing the

diamond; and getting out.diamond; and getting out.

• A colon can also set off a single item that’s A colon can also set off a single item that’s being emphasized.being emphasized.– There’s one thing we care about: money.There’s one thing we care about: money.

Semi-colonSemi-colon

• A semi-colon can also be used to A semi-colon can also be used to separate two structures that can separate two structures that can each be a sentence but that you each be a sentence but that you want to relate a little more closely.want to relate a little more closely.– We won’t be coming on Saturday; we’ve We won’t be coming on Saturday; we’ve

heard the performance is horrid.heard the performance is horrid.

ApostropheApostrophe

• Used to form possessivesUsed to form possessives– This is Ondra’s hat.This is Ondra’s hat.– I can see the ship’s mast.I can see the ship’s mast.

• For a plural ending in “s”, the For a plural ending in “s”, the possessive apostrophe comes after the possessive apostrophe comes after the “s”“s”– It was the lady’s hat. It was the lady’s hat. (1 lady)(1 lady)

– It was the ladies’ best luncheon. It was the ladies’ best luncheon. (more than 1 (more than 1 lady)lady)

ApostropheApostrophe

• It’s also used in contractions, where it It’s also used in contractions, where it substitutes for one or more missing letterssubstitutes for one or more missing letters– It is It is it’s it’s– Did not Did not didn’t didn’t– Cannot (preferred to “can not”) Cannot (preferred to “can not”) can’t can’t– we had gone we had gone we’d gone we’d gone– You have finished You have finished You’ve finished You’ve finished– You would like it You would like it You’d like it You’d like it– You had already left You had already left You’d already left You’d already left– We are happy We are happy We’re happy We’re happy

its vs. it’sits vs. it’s

• Easy to confuse, because ’s often Easy to confuse, because ’s often indicates possessiveindicates possessive– But the contraction of “it is” But the contraction of “it is” needsneeds an an

apostrophe to show the missing space apostrophe to show the missing space and “i”and “i”

– The possessive “its” is formed like The possessive “its” is formed like “hers,” “theirs,” “ours”:“hers,” “theirs,” “ours”:• It’s It’s ourour house house

•The house is The house is oursours

ParenthesesParentheses

• Sets off a side remark that could be Sets off a side remark that could be dropped entirely and still leave a dropped entirely and still leave a complete sentencecomplete sentence– The dogs are highly skilled.The dogs are highly skilled.– The dogs (that were bred for sheep-The dogs (that were bred for sheep-

herding) are highly skilled.herding) are highly skilled.– The dogs are highly skilled (they were The dogs are highly skilled (they were

bred for sheep-herding).bred for sheep-herding).

Square bracketsSquare brackets

• Similar to parentheses in function, Similar to parentheses in function, but their use is usually restricted to but their use is usually restricted to particular situations, such as particular situations, such as citations in academic writing:citations in academic writing:– As demonstrated by previous research As demonstrated by previous research

(Jones and Surowiecki [1998]), fish can (Jones and Surowiecki [1998]), fish can swim.swim.

em-dashem-dash

• Functions a lot like parenthesesFunctions a lot like parentheses– If the Fed were to moderately raise its inflation If the Fed were to moderately raise its inflation

target—currently around two per cent—and target—currently around two per cent—and commit itself to keeping prices moving higher for commit itself to keeping prices moving higher for the next couple of years, it could help change this the next couple of years, it could help change this dynamic.dynamic.

• Can also function somewhat like a colon for Can also function somewhat like a colon for emphasisemphasis– The dominant sentiment is caution—consumers are The dominant sentiment is caution—consumers are

hesitant to spend, and businesses are hesitant to hesitant to spend, and businesses are hesitant to expand, invest, and hire.expand, invest, and hire.

en dash or hyphenen dash or hyphen

• Used to break a word across a lineUsed to break a word across a line– In English, the break has to come In English, the break has to come

between a syllablebetween a syllable•syl-la-ble, not sy-ll-ab-lesyl-la-ble, not sy-ll-ab-le

• Used to link words into compound Used to link words into compound wordswords– We use just-in-time deliveryWe use just-in-time delivery