Leadership Development Master Class

Module 2 Historical Perspective on Management

Leader – what is a leader

"a person who has commanding authority

and influence."

(Merriam-Webster, 2000)

Pre-classicleadership

King Hammurabi (2123-2071 B.C.), who originated a code of 282 laws which presided over business transactions,

personal behaviours, interpersonal relations,

penalties, and other social issues

Middle East

Leadership in China was seen in the military. General Sun Tzu, (ca 600

B.C.), organized the army into sections, and introduced ranks. He believed in having sound plans for battle to ensure success. "Thus do many calculations [plans] lead to victory, and few calculations to

defeat."

China

Chanakya Kautilya, (332-298 B.C), exhibited

leadership through advice on how to

institute and sustain economic, social, and

political stability.India

The earliest evidences of limits to the number of people a supervisor could

manage were in Egypt, in this case about 10 followers to one leader. There was also an apparent separation of each by a dress

code. During this period, the role of a supervisor began called a vizier. The

pharaoh tended to spiritual matters while viziers attended to worldly matters, a

delegation of authority. The viziers were, "directors, organizers, coordinators, and

decision makers"

Egypt

Socrates (469-399 B.C.) believed that those that know how to delegate will be

successful while those who do not delegate will not be successful.

Plato (428-348 B. C.), on the other hand, commented on human differences. This in

turn, he believe, led to a division of labour, one person might be excel in one task while another will excel in a different

task.

Greece

Thus the discussion about what constitutes good leadership

and management is not new

Thus the discussion about what constitutes good leadership

and management is not new

There are also great examplesof good leadership

Greek historian Xenophon

Peter Drucker “ Perhaps one of the best leadership

accounts ever written”

Why Study the Classical Literature of Leadership?

In his advance against the Persian king, Cyrus the Younger used many Greek mercenaries left unemployed by the

cessation of the Peloponnesian War. Cyrus fought Artaxerxes II in the Battle of

Cunaxa. The Greeks were victorious in that battle, but Cyrus was killed. Shortly

thereafter, the Greek general Clearchus of Sparta was invited to a peace conference, at which he was betrayed and executed.

Cunaxa (401 BC)

Xenophon was one of the well-to-do disciples of Socrates who left Athens to

serve with the Greek contingent "the Ten Thousand" raised by Cyrus the Younger of

Persia against Artaxerxes.

Cunaxa (401 BC)

Through tenacity and improvisation as well as masterful motivational rhetoric he leads them to safety… and in later life he documents the lessons learnt as a leader created by this unfortunate situation…

Cunaxa (401 BC)

Xenophon provideswonderful

leadership lessons

After the Battle of Cunaxa where Cyrus was killed, the Greek army was demoralized and discouraged.

Xenophon assembled the officers and spoke to them. "All of these soldiers have their eyes on you, and if they see that you

are downhearted they will become cowards, while if you are yourselves

clearly prepared to meet the enemy and if you call on the rest to do their part, you can be sure that they will follow you and

try to be like you."

Leaders expect positive results

According to Xenophon, the leader's primary responsibility in forming his

organization is to teach his followers the difference between correct and incorrect

performance and behaviour, thereby establishing a coherent, attainable set of expectations. For Xenophon, the leader,

not the followers, is to blame if expectations are unclear.

Leaders set clear expectations for performance

Xenophon asserted, "You know I am sure that not numbers or

strength bring victory in war; but whichever army goes into battle stronger in soul, their enemies

generally cannot withstand them."

Leaders inspire their followers

According to Xenophon, the true test of a leader is whether people will follow of

their own free will even during times of immense hardship.

Xenophon regarded it as highly indicative of good leadership when people obeyed

someone without coercion and were prepared to remain by him during times of

danger.

Leaders succeed during adversity

In describing the superior leadership of Clearchus,

Xenophon noted. "When he was in an awkward position, he kept his head, as everyone agrees who was with him anywhere."

Leaders succeed during adversity

Xenophon felt that a great leader had to establish himself in the good opinion of his men and to do this he had to be a model for them by enduring

hardship, showing confidence and leading by example.

Leaders “walk the talk”

On another occasion, Xenophon was encouraging his men forward while on

horseback, when Soteridas criticized him for being mounted while, he, on foot, was tired because of carrying his own shield.

Xenophon's reaction to this was to dismount immediately, take Soteridas'

shield from him, push him out of line, take his place and march with the men.

Leaders “walk the talk”

The reaction of the men to this was to hurl abuse at Soteridas and to pelt him with small stones until he reclaimed his

shield and allowed Xenophon to remount.

Leaders “walk the talk”

Xenophon thought vision was key. He wrote that "there will be a great rise in their spirits if one can change the way they think, so that instead

of having in their heads the one idea of what is going to happen to me? They may think 'what action am I

going to take?'"

Leaders provide a vision of the future

According to Xenophon: "... in heaven's name, let us not wait for other people to ... call upon us to

do great deeds. Let us instead be the first to summon the rest to the path of honour. Show

yourselves to be the bravest of all the captains, with more of a right to leadership than those who are our leaders at present. As for me, if you are

willing to take the initiative like this, I am prepared to follow you."

Leaders show initiative

“I have never even demanded from you what you promised me. And I swear that I

would never have taken it, even if you had offered it to me, unless the soldiers were going to get what was due to them at the same time. It would have been a

dishonourable action to get my own affairs straight and allow theirs to remain in a bad way, especially when I was held

in honour by them."

Leaders have morals and ethics

For you what is the most important leadership lesson from Xenophon

A. Dealing with adversityB. Having visionC. Being congruentD. Having disciplineE. Having morals and ethics

Aristotlethe philosopher

Rhetoric: the art of persuasion in which

emotion and power are influential features

Aristotle

Howard GardnerHoward Gardner Leading Minds: An Anatomy of Leadership Leading Minds: An Anatomy of Leadership

““A key – perhaps A key – perhaps thethe key – key – to leadership isto leadership is thethe effective effective

communicationcommunication of a story.” of a story.”

““A key – perhaps A key – perhaps thethe key – key – to leadership isto leadership is thethe effective effective

communicationcommunication of a story.” of a story.”

Sought to explain the success and failure of leaders

Followers, in blind obedience, may carry out orders that are erroneous or

dishonourable.Leaders may begin to listen only to advice

that supports their views (hubris) and become increasingly isolated as they

become more powerful.

Castiglione’s The Book of the Courtier

Stanley Milgrim…Solomon Ash…

The Abilene Paradox…Philip Zimbardo…

Compare it with what we know today

Offered real-world advice to leaders on how and when they should act

to do whatever is necessary for the greater good and protect the

community.Leadership is not popularity; it is

being respected (feared and effective) without being hated.

Machiavelli’s The Prince

Let us jump aheadsomewhat

Here the discussionrevolves around

management- with leadership as a component

Frederick Taylor

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) was essential to scientific management.

Taylor defined management as "knowing exactly what you want men to do, and

then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest

way

Scientific Management Frederick Taylor (1856-1915

Jules Fayol (1841-1925) believed that management was the logical understanding and

clustering of, " the production, sales, financial, and accounting

functions of the organization

Jules Fayol (1841-1925)

Fayol determined that managers needed certain qualities,

knowledge, and experience. These included, "Physical

qualities, mental qualities, moral qualities, general education,

special knowledge, and experience"

Jules Fayol (1841-1925)

Division of Labor: allows for job specialization.

Authority and ResponsibilityUnity of CommandLine of Authority

CentralizationUnity of Direction

EquityOrder

Jules Fayol (1841-1925) – Principles of Management

Max Weber (1864-1920) established the notion of structure to ensure

organizational effectiveness. "Weber's work on bureaucracy was

conceived as a blueprint for efficiency, which would emphasize

rules rather than people and competence rather than favouritism"

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Follett realized the need for teamwork through her

observations. She had a connection between the

scientific management era and the social person era

Mary Follett (1868)

Chester Irving Barnard (1886), proposed that through teamwork an

organization could, ensure the survival.

Follett and Barnard were concerned with group efforts. They wanted to

remodel former ideas of management

Chester Irving Barnard

Enter the modernera..

The result being…

PlanningOrganizingLeadingControl

Classic Management Tasks

Determining organizational goals and a means for achieving

them

Planning

Deciding where decisions will be made

Who will do what jobs and tasks

Who will work for whom

Organizing

Monitoring progress toward goal

achievement and taking corrective action when

needed

Controlling

The Control Process

A further developmentin classical management

is the responsibilitiesat different levels

Top Management

Creating a context for changeCreating a context for change

Developing commitmentand ownership in employees

Developing commitmentand ownership in employees

Creating a positive organizational culture through language and actionCreating a positive organizational

culture through language and action

Monitoring their business environmentsMonitoring their business environments

Middle Management

Coordinate and link groups, departments, and divisions

Coordinate and link groups, departments, and divisions

Monitor and manage the performance of subunits and managers who report to them

Monitor and manage the performance of subunits and managers who report to them

Implement changes or strategies generated by top managers

Implement changes or strategies generated by top managers

Plan and allocate resources to meet objectivesPlan and allocate resources to meet objectives

First Line Management

Manage the performance of entry-level employees

Manage the performance of entry-level employees

Encourage, monitor, and reward the performance of workers

Encourage, monitor, and reward the performance of workers

Teach entry-level employees how to do their jobsTeach entry-level employees how to do their jobs

Make detailed schedules and operating plansMake detailed schedules and operating plans

And important insights from

Henry Mintzberg

Interpersonal Informational Decisional

•Figurehead

•Leader

•Liaison

•Monitor

•Disseminator

•Spokesperson

•Entrepreneur

•Disturbance Handler

•Resource Allocator

•Negotiator

H. Mintzberg, “The Manager’s Job: Folklore and Fact:.” Harvard Business Review, July-August 1975.

Interpersonal

Decisional

Entrepreneur

Disturbance Handler

Resource Allocator

Negotiator

Entrepreneur

Disturbance Handler

Resource Allocator

Negotiator

Managers adapt to incremental change

Managers respond to problems thatdemand immediate action

Managers decide who gets what resources

Managers negotiate schedules, projects, goals, outcomes, resources, and raises

Managers adapt to incremental change

Managers respond to problems thatdemand immediate action

Managers decide who gets what resources

Managers negotiate schedules, projects, goals, outcomes, resources, and raises

Informational

Monitor

Disseminator

Spokesperson

Monitor

Disseminator

Spokesperson

Managers scan their environmentfor information

Managers share information with others in their company

Managers share informationwith others outside their departments or companies

Managers scan their environmentfor information

Managers share information with others in their company

Managers share informationwith others outside their departments or companies

This leaves us with the emphasis on leadership…

What leaders dovis managers

But before that let usreflect and review…

Which of the following subjects did you find most useful?

A. The overview of ancient management techniques

B. The overview of scientific managementC. The functions of managementD. The roles of the manager (Mintzberg)E. Management responsibilities per

organization level

Which of the following subjects did you find least useful?

A. The overview of ancient management techniques

B. The overview of scientific managementC. The functions of managementD. The roles of the manager (Mintzberg)E. Management responsibilities per

organization level

The four tasks of leadership are

A. Planning, organizing, leading, controlB. Initiating, planning, controlC. Leading, planning, controlD. Initiating, close out, planning, control

Manto is a foreman – which level of management is he typically?

A. Top managementB. Middle managementC. First line management

Karen is a HR Function Manager – which level of management is she

typicallyA. Top managementB. Middle managementC. First line management

Rose reports to the MD and is an EXCO member – which level of management is

she typicallyA. Top managementB. Middle managementC. First line management

According to Mintzberg management has a informational, decisional and

interpersonal roleA. TrueB. False

Managers negotiate schedules, projects, goals, outcomes, resources,

and raises

A. NegotiatorB. Resource allocatorC. Team leader

Match WordWith Statement

Match WordWith Statement

A. LeaderB. Manager C. Team member

Match WordWith Statement

A. FigureheadB. Stakeholder C. Dinner host

Match WordWith Statement

A. FigureheadB. Stakeholder C. Liaison

Match WordWith Statement

Managers respond to problems thatdemand immediate action

A. FigureheadB. Disturbance handler C. Liaison

Match WordWith Statement

Match WordWith Statement

Managers decide who gets what resources

A. EntrepreneurB. Resource allocatorC. Liaison

Match WordWith Statement

Match WordWith Statement

Managers scan their environmentfor information

A. CounsellorB. MonitorC. Team leader

Match WordWith Statement

Match WordWith Statement

Managers share information with others in their company

A. Disseminator B. MonitorC. Team leader

Match WordWith Statement

Match WordWith Statement

Managers share informationwith others outside their

departments or companies

A. Disseminator B. MonitorC. Spokesperson

Match WordWith Statement

Match WordWith Statement

Lets look at leading – asfunction of management

From the more traditional look at the

concept of management – leading is a function and includes the tasks

of inspiring and motivating people

Leading as a function of management

In terms of thinking and research two aspects

were emphasized

MotivationInspiration

The focus of leading

What is motivation then?

The psychological processes that arouse and

direct goal-directed behavior

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Her

zber

g’s

Tw

o-F

acto

r T

heo

ry

Equit

y T

heory

Suggests that people are motivated by two things: (1) how much they want something

and (2) how likely they think they are to get it

Expectancy Theory

Attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that

behavior with positive consequences tends to be

repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences

tends not to be repeated

Reinforcement theory

This view of leading asfunction inevitably

leads to…

Three aspects

Motivation

Inspiration

The focus of leading

Extraversion tendency to experience positive emotions and moods and feel good about oneself and the

rest of the world

Huge focus in the big five…

Positive affectivity tendency to experience positive emotions and moods, feel productive stress and have healthy

critique of self and others

Huge focus in the big five…

Agreeableness tendency to get along

well with othersConscientiousness

tendency to be focused, scrupulous, and

persevering

Huge focus in the big five…

Openness to Experience tendency to be original, have broad interests, be open to a wide range of stimuli, be daring and

take risks

Huge focus in the big five…

Somewhat restrictive…Be effective in terms of

your own style…

Different leaders all successful

End of Session