SOCIAL IDENTITY, CHURCH AFFILTATION, AND LANGUAGE CHANGE TNKWARA'AE (SOLOUON ISLANDS)

Karen Ann Wa tson -Gegeo and Dav id We lchman Gegeo

INTRODUCTION

T h e S o l o m o n I s l a n d s w e r e a l r e a d y a c o m p l e x m u l t i l i n g u a lr e g i o n ( 7 0 - 9 0 I a n g u a g e v a r i e t i e s ' ) b e f o r e c o n t a c t w i t hEu ropeans l ed t o t he i n t r oduc t i on o f Eng l i sh and t hed e v e l o p m e n t o f S o l o m o n I s l a n d s P i j i n ( S I P ) o n p l a n t a t i o n s( B e n n e t t I 9 7 9 , S i e g e l - 1 9 8 6 , W a t s o n - G e g e o 1 - 9 8 7 ) . T o d a y ,a l t h o u g h E n g l i s h i s t h e o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f g o v e r n m e n t a n ds c h o o l s , S I P ( n o w a c r e o l e ) i s t h e p r i m a r y l a n g u a g e o f u r b a nHon ia ra , and t he na t i ona l 1 j - ngua f r anca spoken by pe rhaps 652o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ( J o u r d a n 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 9 ) . I n m o s t r u r a l - a r e a s ,v i l l a g e r s c o n t i n u e t o s p e a k a n i n d i g e n o u s l a n g u a g e . B u tE n g l i s h a n d S I P a r e t h e l a n g u a g e s o f p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a n d s o c i a li n f l u e n c e , a n d a s t h e S o l o m o n I s l - a n d s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a w ni n t o t h e w o r l d s o c i o e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , t h eimpo r tance and respec t acco rded l oca l l anguages i n t he pas t i se r o d i n g .

Wh i l e soc ioeconomic f ac to r s have o f t en been the f ocus o fI a n g u a g e v a r i a t i o n s t u d i e s , c h u r c h a f f i l , i a t i o n a n d i t sc o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e b e e n l e s s s t u d i e d . T h e h i s t o r i c a l r o l e o ft h e C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h c o l o n i a l i s r n , i n s h a p i n gl a n g u a g e u s e a n d a t t i t u d e s i n t h e P a c i f i - c i s l a n d s a n d e l s e w h e r eh a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i z e d , o f c o u r s e ( e . 9 . , B o u t i l i e r , H u g h e s , &T i f f a n y , e d s . , 1 9 7 8 , H i l l i a r d 1 9 6 6 , I 9 7 8 , W h i t e m a n 1 9 8 3 ) .T o d a y a s i n t h e p a s t , c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n i n t h e S o l o m o n s i sc l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e o p l e ' s a s p i r a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n ,e c o n o r n i c d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d I i f e s t y l e . T h e s e c o n c e r n s a r eimpo r tan t f ac to r s i n why t he now l a rge l y na t i v i zed Ch r i s t i anc h u r c h e s c o n t i n u e t o p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o fI a n g u a g e c h a n g e .

T h i s p a p e r e x a m i n e s l a n g u a g e c h a n g e , s o c i a l i d e n t i t y , a n dc h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n a m o n g K w a r a ' a e - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e o f M a l a i t a .I n K w a r a ' a e d i s t r i c t a n d i n K w a r a ' a e s e t t l e m e n t s n e a r H o n i a r aon Guada l cana l , i n t ense compe t i t i on f o r conve r t s among seve ra lchu rches i s hav ing a s i gn i f i can t i r npac t on l anguage cho i ce andchange . We focus on t he Sou th Seas Evange l i ca l Chu rch (SSEC)a n d t h e C h u r c h o f M e l a n e s i a ( C M ; A n g l i c a n ) a s i l l u s t r a t i v e .D r a w i n g o n G i l e s ' ( I 9 7 3 ) a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h e o r y a n d B e I I r s ( 1 9 8 4 )

l P r A P a p e r s i n P r a g m a t i c s 4 , N . r . l l 2 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 5 0 - l B 2

l q , tL J L

aud ience des ign f r amework , we show tha t Kwara 'ae SSEC and CMnembers ope ra te ou t o f d i f f e ren t mode l s f o r r ank ing l anguagev a r i e t i e s b y s o c i a l p r e s t i g e , a n d t h a t t h e y s i g n a l t h e i r

i s e p a r a t e i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h I i n g u i s t i c c o d e , d i s c o u r s epa t te rns , and nonve rba l aspec t s o f commun ica t i on . Thec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e i d e n t i f y a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t r a n s c r i p t s f r o mf o u r K w a r a ' a e s p e a k e r s .

ACCOMMODATION THEORY AND AUDIENCE DESTGN

G i l e s ' a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h e o r y ( e . g . , G i 1 e s , B o u r h i s , &T a y l o r I 9 l 7 ) a d d r e s s e s s o c i a l c a t e g o r i z a t i o n ( e . 9 . , b ye t h n i c i t y , s o c i a l c l a s s , o r r e l i g i o n ) , a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t op e o p l e ' s m o t i v a t i o n t o a d j u s t s p e e c h s t y l e s , t o g e t h e r w i . t h t h er e s u l t i n g s o c i o p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . E s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n the re a re t he cond i t i ons unde r wh i ch speake rs a re l i ke l y t o useconve rgen t , nonconve rgen t , oF d i ve rgen t s t r a teg ies i naccommoda t i ng t o t he speech o f a h i ghe r o r l owe r soc ia l l yr a n k e d g r o u p . f n G i l e s ' m o d e l , t h e s e c h o i c e s d e r i v e f r o mpercep t i ons o f whe the r soc ia l change i n t he rank o f t hesubo rd ina te g roup i s poss ib l e and des i red ( v i ewed pos i t i ve l y o rnega t i ve l y ) , and acco rd ing t o re l a t i ve soc ia ] power . Tab le 1sumnar i zes G i l es ' accommoda t i on rnode l w i t h rega rd t ope rcep t i ons o f soc ia l change and speake r responses .

Tab le 1 - - Expec ted I nd i v i dua l and Group L ingu i s t i c Accommoda-t i o n B e h a v i o r A c c o r d i n g t o P e r c e p t i o n s o f S o c i a I C h a n g e

Response

Percept ion o f soc ia l change I

Dominan t g roup Subo rd ina te g roup

no poss ib i l i t y o f soc ia l - nonconve rgence conve rgencechange perce ived

poss ib i l i t y o f soc ia l ' downward ' d i ve rgencechange pe rce i ved conve rgencefavo rab l y

p o s s i b i t i t y o f s o c i a l d i v e r g e n c e ( v a r i a b l e ) 2

change pe rce i vedun favo rab l y

I

( A d a p t e d f r o m F a s o l d 1 9 8 4 : 1 9 0 , b a s e d o n G i l e s e t a I . L 9 7 7 )

r52

A l t hough po ten t i a l - I y a power fu l exp lana to ry mode l o fl anguage cho i ce and speech s t y l e , accommoda t i on t heo ry has beenc r i t i c i z e d a s ) . i n g u i s t i c a l l y n a i v e ( F a s o l d 1 9 8 4 ) .Accommoda t i on t heo ry appea rs t o assume tha t a g i ven speake rc o m m a n d s a r a n g e o f c o m p e t e n c i e s i n I i n g u i s t i c v a r i e t i e s , a n dcan f r ee l y choose among the rn . Th i s i s an emp i r i ca l ques t i onwh ich wou ld have t o be asce r ta i ned f o r i nd i v i dua l speake rs , asu n i f o r r n i t y w i t h i n a s o c i a l g r o u p s e e m s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y . I n am u l t i l i n g u a l - s i t u a t i o n s u c h a s t h e S o l o m o n I s I a n d s , p e o p l e ' srepe r to i r es a re s t rong l y a f f ec ted by l eng th o f schoo l i r g , wo rkh i s t o r y , a n d r e s i d e n c e p a t t e r n s . M o r e o v e r , c r o s s - I i n g u i s t i ccommun ica t i on w i t h speake rs t a l k i ng i n t he i r own l anguagesbu t w i t h su f f i c i en t l i s t en ing comprehens ion t o unde rs tand t heo the r i s no t uncommon , and reduces t he need to expand one ' sr e p e r t o i r e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a c c e s s t o c e r t a i n l i n g u i s t i cv a r i e t i e s o r t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o g a i n a g i v e n c o m p e t e n c e l - e v e li n t h e m i s a l w a y s a p o l i t i c a l i s s u e w h e r e v e r l a n g u a g e v a r i e t i e sa r e a s s o c i - a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t i a l s o c i a l p r e s t i g e a n d p o l i t i c a lp o w e r .

S im i l a r p rob lems w i t h assump t i ons abou t speake rs ' code andd i s c o u r s e r a n g e a r e f o u n d i n B e I 1 ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) r f a u d i e n c e d e s i g n "f r amework , wh i ch a t t emp ts t o accoun t f o r s t y l e sh i f t cho i cesm a d e b y i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s i n s p e c i f i c s o c i a l c o n t e x t s . I nB e l l ' s m o d e l , d l l s t y l e s h i f t i n g i n c l - u d i n q b y t o p i c o rse t t i ng de r i ves f r om the ax iom tha t speake rs ad jus t ( des ign )t h e i r s p e e c h t o a p e r c e i v e d a u d i e n c e ( i b i d . : 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 ) . A u d i e n c er o l - e s , d e f i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o h o w s p e a k e r s r e s p o n d t o o ri n i t i a t e s t y l e s h i f t , i n c l u d e : a d d r e s s e e s , a u d i t o r s ( f u I 1pa r t i c i pan ts who n ' r ay a l so t ake t u rns as add ressees ) ,ove rhea re rs (who l i s t en I eg i t i r na te l y ) , eavesd roppe rs (whoove rhea r by i n ten t i on o r chance ) , and re fe rees (non -p resen tre fe rence g roup ) . A I I - a re de f i ned by whe the r t he speake r knowst h e m t o b e t h e r e , r a t i f i e s t h e r n a s p a r t i c i p a n t s , a n d d i r e c t l ya d d r e s s e s t h e m . T h e f i v e a u d i e n c e r o l e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i nT a b l e 2 z

I q ?

Tab le 2 - - H ie ra rchySpeake r Response

o f A t t r i bu tes andt o a n d I n i t i a t i o n

Aud ience Ro l -es i no f S t y l e S h i f t

Audience RoIe Known R a t i f i e d Add ressed

Addressee

Audi tor

0verhearer

Eavesdropper

Re fe ree

(adapted f rom Bel_ l 1 9 8 4 : 1 6 0 )

speake rs respond p r ima r i r y t o add ressees , assess ing t he i rpe rsona r cha rac te r i s t i c s , gene ra r speech s t y re reve r , and .( p r o b a b l y ) l e v e r s f o r s p e c i f i c r i n g u i s t i c v a r i a b l e s ( i b i d . :1 6 7 ) . N o n - a d d r e s s e e a u d i e n c e r o l e s m a y a f f e c t s u c h q u a l i t a t i v easpec t s as cho j . ce o f speech ac t o r b i l i ngua l l anguage sw i t ch( i b i d . : l - 76 ) , and some t imes a re ac tua r l y more sa i i en t t o t hespeake r t han t he i den t i t y o f t he add ressee . By i n i t i a t i ngs t y re sh i f t , speake rs can rede f i ne t he re ra t i onsh ip be tweent h e n s e l v e s a n d t h e a d d r e s s e e ( i b i d . : 1 8 5 ) , a n d i n G i l e s , t e r m s ,nay conve rge o r d i ve rge w i t h t he add ressee o r o the rs . H ighsa l i ence re fe rees may a f f ec t speake r behav io r more t han t hosew h o a r e a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t . .

A l t hough G i l es and Be l l - ' s r node l s p rov ide use fu l f r ameworksfo r exam in ing ranguage cho i ce and change a t t he soc ie ta r andi n d i v i d u a r l - e v e t , t h e i r r i m i t a t i o n s n u i t b e r e c o g n i z e d .speakers are o f ten arnb iva lent about the soc ia l - va lue of thel i ngu i s t i c codes t hey know, t he ex ten t o f t he i r own compeEencein t hem, and t he re ra t i ve mer i t o f choos ing a pa r t i cu l_a r codein conp lex soc ia l c i r cums tances . r nd i v i du i t s va ry as t owhe the r t he i r p res t i ge rank ings o f l i ngu i s t i c codes and t he i raud ience des ign dec i s i ons rema in re ra t i ve l y s tab le andrednac ted ac ross chang ing con tex t s , o r r e f l ec t genu ine cho i ceswi th in a reper to i re as shaped by imnediate contextua li n f l uences . Mos t impo r tan t f y , cho i ces o f d i scou rse s t y re andnon-verba l behav iorar pat terns are a t least as i rnpor tant ascho i ce o f l i ngu i s t i c code f o r c l a i n i ng i den t i t y 1 -nu rke 1969 )w i t h a g i ven soc ia l g roup .

r

1 5 4

We tu rn now to a b r i e f h i s to r i ca l accoun t o f l anguage usein So lomon I s l ands chu rches and i t s e f f ec t on soc ie ta l - I anguagec h a n g e .

I ,ANGUAGE AND CHURCH IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

From the t u rn o f t he cen tu ry un t i l t he 1960s , schoo l i ngin t he So lomons was rnos t l y i n t he hands o f t he Ch r i s t i anm i s s i o n s ( M c G a v i n & G a n n i c o t t 1 9 8 9 ; S e a r l - e 1 9 7 0 ) . T h eI a n g u a g e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n m i s s i o n s c h o o l s v a r i e d g r e a t l y b ys e c t a n d a c r o s s t i m e ( s e e W h i t e r n a n 1 9 8 3 ) . A t o n e p o i n t o ra n o t h e r , v a r i o u s l o c a l l a n g u a g e s , E n g I i s h , P i j i n , a n d e v e n M o t a(a l anguage o f Vanua tu ) have been l he I anguage o f schoo li n s t r u c t i o n a n d / o r c h u r c h I i t u r g y . 3

T h e M e l a n e s i a n M i s s i o n ( M M , l a t e r C M ; e s t a b l i s h e d 1 8 4 8 ) a tf i r s t u s e d l o c a l v e r n a c u l a r s i n r u r a l a r e a s a n d M o t a i n i t sN o r f o l k I s l a n d b o a r d i n g s c h o o l w h e r e M e l a n e s i a n m i s s i o n a r i e sa n d c a t e c h i s t s w e r e t r a i n e d . T h e M M v a l u e d i n d i g e n o u sl a n g u a g e s a n d s o m e a s p e c t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e . B u t t h elanguage i - ssue was ho t ) - y deba ted f r om the l - a te 1800s t o t he1 9 2 0 s . T h e d e c i s i o n t o u s e M o t a t o f o l L o w M e l - a n e s i a n s ' r r o w n

t h o u g h t p a t t e r n s a n d s o c i a l v a l u e s t ' ( H i I l i a r d 1 - 9 7 B z 2 O 4 ) w a sin tended to p roduce conve rgence i n re l i g i ous be l i e f wh i l eassuming nonconve rgence i n l anguage and cu l t u re ( s i ncem i s s i o n i z a t i o n b y o u t s i d e r s w a s t o b e a t e r n p o r a r y p r o c e s s ) .Some c le rgy , howeve r , a rgued fo r Eng l i sh as r r t he pa th t os e c u l a r k n o w l e d g e a n d a d v a n c e d e d u c a t i o n o v e r s e a s r ' ( i b i d . ) .They f ea red t ha t w i t hou t Eng I i sh , Eu ropeans and As ians wou ldou t - co rnpe te i s l ande rs i n gove rnmen t and bus iness . He re ,conve rgence by t he subo rd ina te g roup was t o l ead t o t hep o s s i b i l i t y o f s o c i a l c h a n g e . H o w e v e r , t h i s a r g u m e n t w a s a l s oconnec ted t o t he B r i t i sh P ro tec to ra te gove rnmen t ' s i ns i s tencet h a t m i s s i o n s c h o o l s t r a i n i s l a n d e r s a s c l e r k s f o r c i v i lse rv i ce . U l t ima te l y , conve rgence t o Eng l i sh was i n tended tosuppo r t r a the r t han supp lan t t he co lon ia l soc ia l sys tem.

M e l a n e s i a n M i s s i o n b o a r d i n g s c h o o l s ( f i r s t o p e n e d i n t h eS o l o m o n s i n t h e l a t e 1 8 9 0 s ) s w i t c h e d t o E n g l i s h i n 1 9 2 5 , d u e t odemand f r om So lomon I s l ande rs , t he need to a t t r ac t po ten t i a ls tuden ts away f r om p lan ta t i on wo rk (w i t h t he p rom ise o fe m p l o y m e n t i n g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e a s c l e r k s ) , a n d d i f f i c u l t y i nf i n d i n g B r i t i s h t e a c h e r s w i l l i n g t o l e a r n a M e l a n e s i a n l a n g u a g e( S e a r 1 e 1 9 7 0 : 1 1 ) . V i l l a g e s c h o o l s g r a d u a l l y s h i f t e d t oEng l i sh ove r t he nex t seve ra l decades . F rom the 1940s t o1970s , t he MM boa rd ing schoo l s we re cons ide red t he bes t i n t heS o l o m o n s f o r t r a i n i n g a n i s l - a n d e r e l i t e i n E n g l i s h . O n

f

Je

1 5 5

Ma la i t a , chu rch l i t u rgy , hymns and p raye rs we re t r ans la ted i n tow e l l - f o r m e d h i g h r h e t o r i c ( f o r n r a l r e g i s t e r ) K w a r a ' a e .

T h e S o u t h S e a s E v a n g e l i c a l M i s s i o n ( S S E M , l a t e r S S E C ;es tab l i shed i n Queens land i n 1904 ) accompan ied p idg in - speak ingplantat ion workers when they re turned home f rom Aust ra l iasho r t l y a f t e r t he t u rn o f t he cen tu ry , t o t ake new j obs on t hep lan ta t i ons j us t be ing se t up i n t he So lomons . The SSEM usedthe evo l v i ng S IP i n schoo l s and se rv i ces , g rea t l y con t r i bu t i ngto i t s sp read t h roughou t t he a rch ipe lago . The SSEM a im seemsto have been a comprehens i ve re l i g i ous and cu l t u ra l conve rgenceto Ang lo -Eu ropean be l - i e f s . Th i s a i n has rece i ved con t i nuedsuppo r t by t he popu la r i t y o f Eng l i sh i n t he SSEC.

Neve r the l -ess , SSEM/SSEC n i ss iona ry J - i ngu i s t s such asNorman C . Deck and o the rs i n Wes t Kwara 'ae i n t he pas t 30 yea rshave been ac t i ve i n t r ans la t i ng t he New Tes tamen t and chu rchl i t e r a c y m a t e r i a l s i n t o l o c a l ) - a n g u a g e s . T h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n shave been ra the r unsuccess fu l because t hey a re d i f f i cu l t t ocomprehend , and because o f t he g row ing l oca l des i re t o l ea rnE n g l i s h a n d P i j i n .

Ove r t he pas t hund red yea rs , d i f f e rences i n l anguageva r i e t y o r speak ing s t y l e f r om one denomina t i on t o ano the r i nthe So lomons have been used some t imes de t i be ra te l y andsone t imes i nadve r ten t l y t o a t t r ac t conve r t s , t o sepa ra tethen f r on non -conve r t s , and t o emphas i ze t he i r d i s t i nc t i venessf rom rnenbers o f o ther denominat ions. Today some 952 of thepopu la t i on i s Ch r i s t i an , and conve rs ion means mov ing f r om oneChr i s t i an sec t t o ano the r . Ye t compe t i t i on f o r conve r t s hasi n c r e a s e d , p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e 1 9 8 0 s w o r l d w i d e u p s u r g e o ff u n d a m e n t a l i s m a n d e v a n g e l i s m , a n d o n M a l a i t a , t o s o c i o e c o n o m i cdec l ine .

We tu rn t o a ve ry b r i e f accoun t o f MM/CM and SSEM/SSEC inW e s t K w a r a ' a e , w h e r e w e h a v e c o n d u c t e d r e s e a r c h s i n c e 1 9 7 8 .(Fo r b rev i t y , members o f t he two chu rches w i I I be re fe r red t oh e r e a f t e r a s A n g t i c a n s a n d E v a n g e l i c a l s . 4 )

ANGLICANS AND EVANGELTCALS IN WEST KWARA'AE

M i s s i o n i z a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s o f t h e 2 O t h c e n t u r yacconpanied a rna jor sh i f t in popuJ-at ion f rom mounta ins tocoas ta l p l a i n , i n i t i a l l y f o r access t o Wes te rn goods t h rought rade , and l a te r because o f p ressu re f r om m iss iona r i es . Ton in in i ze compe t i t i on i n t he i r evange l i z i ng e f f o r t s , t he SSEMand MM pa r t i t i oned Wes t Kwara 'ae based on whe re t he i r o r i g i na l

-

headqua r te r s had been se tv i 1 1 a g e . 3 B u t r e l i g i o u sv i l l a g e s w e r e c l a i m e d b ys p l i t b e t w e e n t h e m .

1 5 6

up and who had r ropened f r a g i venr i va l r y was i n tense whe re ad jacen td i f f e r e n t m i s s i o n s , o r a k i n g r o u p w a s

A n g l i c a n s v i e w E v a n g e l i c a l s a s b e l o n g i n g t o a n o t h e rC h r i s t i a n f a i t h , b u t u n t i l t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 s E v a n g e l i c a l s v i e w e dA n g l i c a n s a s u n s a v e d , o n l y a s t e p a w a y f r o m r r p a g a n i s m r r ( i . e . ,t h e a n c e s t r a l r e l i g i o n ) . T h e S S E C a t t i t u d e r e f l e c t e d b o t h agene ra l f undamen ta l i s t pos i t i on t owards o the r chu rches , and as p e c i f i c r e j e c t i o n o f t h e C M ' s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f s o m e p r a c t i c e sf rom t rad i t i ona l Kwara 'ae cu l t u re . Today , t he CM i s r r accep ted ' l

as a Ch r i s t i an chu rch by t he SSEC. Acco rd ing t o t h i s nev /p o s i t i o n , A n g l i c a n s a r e r r s a v e d , f r b u t t h e y d o n o t b e l o n g t o t h eI ' t r u e c h u r c h , r r t h a t i s , t h e S S E C . E v a n g e l i c a l s a r e l e s s I i k e l yt o h o n o r k i n o b l i g a t i o n s , s u c h a s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h g c o s t o fm a r r i a g e s , w h e n t h e k i n g r o u p i s s p l i t b e t w e e n s e c t s . 6

Suppo r ted by v i deo tapes o f Aus t ra l i an and Amer i cant e l - e v a n g e l i s t s , p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e s b y f o r e i g n e v a n g e l i s t s ,and t he a r r i va l o f f undamen ta l i s t m i ss iona ry g roups unde r t heg u i s e o f r e c o v e r y e f f o r t s a f t e r C y c l o n e N a m u i n 1 9 8 6 , S S E Cp r o s e t y l i s m i n c r e a s e d i n W e s t K w a r a ' a e d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s .Rev i va l mee t i ngs a re now he fd even i n remo te Ang l i can v i l l ages ,accompan ied by t he e lec t ron i c mus i c o f young Kwara ,ae Gospe Irock mus i c i ans whose po r tab le sound sys tems we re pu rchased w i t ho v e r s e a s s u p p o r t . ' R e v i v a l r n e e t i n g s a r e e x c i t i n g , a n d a p p e a lt o t he i den t i f i ca t i on o f t he young w i t h t he ou t s i de wo r l d ands o c i a l c h a n g e . T h e o l o g i c a l l y , t h e r n e e t i n g s o f f e r a n e c s t a t i c ,e m o t i o n a l v i s i o n t o r u r a l v i l l a g e r s w h o s e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r ee m p h a s i z e s e m o t i o n a l c o n t r o l , a n d w h o s e f r u s t r a t i o n w i t hcu r ren t economic c i r cums tances i s acu te . The evange l i z i ngmessage emphas i zes no t on l y pa rad i se a f t e r dea th , bu t a be t t e rl i f e on ea r th w i t h rega rd t o economic oppo r tun i t y , deve lopmen t ,a n d m o d e r n i z a t i o n . T h i s } a t t e r m e s s a g e i s s y m b o l i z e d b y t h ebehav id ra l and l i ngu i s t i c conve rgence o f evange l i ca l - s w i t nu r b a n r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s .

ANGLICANS AND EVANGELICALS IN KWARA,AE: BELIEFS AND I ,ANGUAGEATTTTUDES

A s E n g l i s h a n d P i j i n a r e v a l u e d a b o v e l o c a l l a n g u a g e s a tt h e p r o v i n c i a l a n d n a t i o n a r ] e v e l - s o f S o l o m o n s s o c i e t y , i t i sn o s u r p r i s e t h a t W e s t K w a r a r a e p e o p l e l i k e t o d i s p l a y t h e i rknowredge o f t hese two ranguage va r i e t i es . ove r t he pas t 4oyea rs , howeve r , Evange l i ca l s have conve rged t owards Wes te rncu r tu re and u rban pa t t e rns i n t a r k and behav io r more t han

l r l

157

Ang l i cans . The two g roups a re rnak ing d i f f e ren t dec i s i ons onwha t aud ience cha rac te r i s t i c s t o respond to i n accommoda t i ngthe i r speech . We w i l ] exam ine t hese po in t s i n r e l a t i on t od i f f e ren t i a l p res t i ge rank ing o f l anguage va r i e t i es , ands t y l i s t i c c h o i c e s i n I i n g u i s t i c c o d e , d i s c o u r s e p a t t e r n s , a n dnonve rba l aspec t s o f commun ica t i on .

Prest ige rank ing of l -anguage var ie ty by c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n

Evange l i ca l s and Ang l i cans ope ra te ou t o f somewha td i f f e ren t node l s f o r r ank ing l anguage va r i e t i es by soc ia lp res t i ge . As a rgued above , and because o f t he SSEC 's g rea te raccess t o ove rseas scho la rsh ips and deve lopmen t f unds , f o r manyyea rs SSEC membersh ip has been assoc ia ted w i t h asp i ra t i ons f o reconomic advancemen t , schoo l i . g , and a Wes te rn l i f es t yJ -e .E n g l i s h p r i m a r i l y , a n d P i j i n s e c o n d a r i l y a r e t h e l a n g u a g eva r i e t i es assoc ia ted w i t h t hese asp i ra t i ons . I n con t ras t ,K w a r a ' a e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t a ' a n g a ' a ' s i n f u l n e s s ' o f t h epas t .

Somewha t more cu l t u ra l l y conse rva t i ve , Ang l i cans have beeni n t h e I e a d e r s h i p o f a t t e m p t s t o r e v i t a l i z e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r eo r Xas tom ( i n S IP ) ove r t he pas t decade . The CM ex te rna lnetwork has a lso prov ided rnany fewer oppor tun i t ies forexpe r i ences ab road o r l oca l deve lopmen t p ro jec t s . Kwara 'aeAng l i cans make a d i s t i nc t i on be tween the va lue o f Eng l i sh andP i j i n as ou tg roup va r i e t i es , and Kwara 'ae as i ng roup va r i e t y .They a re pa r t i cu la r l y conce rned t ha t h i gh rhe to r i c , t he f o r rna lreg i s te r o f Kwara 'ae , con t i nue t o be l ea rned and spoken becausethey be l i eve i t t o embody t he essence o f Kwara 'ae cu l t u re .SSEC and CM p res t i ge rank ings a re rep resen ted i n Tab le 3 , wh i chi s based on ou r l ong - te rm e thnog raph i c s tudy o f Kwara 'aelanguage use , and d i scuss ions o f l anguage a t t i t gdes by memberso f t he Kwara 'ae Language and Cu l t u re Commi t t ee .o

-

1 5 8

Tab le 3 - - P res t i ge Rank ing o f Language Va r i e t i es by Chu rchA f f i l i a t i o n

C tt l

S '

Y .

O rE v a n g e l i c a l s Ang I i cans

outgroup rngroup srt 'S '

P '

:a

F

Engl

II

P i j

outgroup

ingroup

E n g I i s h

e i j i nI

K w a r a ' a e h . r .

IK w a r a ' a e I . r .

K w a r a ' a e = h . r .III

K w a r a ' a e = I . r .

i s h

i n

A s T a b 1 e 3 s u g g e s t s , E v a n g e l i c a l s r a n k E n g I i s h , P i j i n ,h i gh - rhe to r i c Kwara 'ae and l ow- rhe to r i c Kwara 'ae f r om h igh t ol ow i n a s i ng le rank ing scheme , i nd i ca t i ng a conve rgence t oou tg roup s t y l e and va lues as rep resen ted by educa ted u rbanSo lomon i s l ande rs , t he Evange l i ca l r e fe rence g roup . . Ang l i cansseem to have two t r acks i n t he i r r ank ing sys tem, each o f wh i chi s i n t e r n a l l y r a n k e d . H i g h - r h e t o r i c K w a r a ' a e a n d E n g l i s h a r eranked equa l l y h i qh among Ang l i cans , w i t h t he cho i ce be tweenthe rn dependen t on aud ience and con tex t . S im i l a r l y , l ow -r h e t o r i c ( o r d i n a r y , e v e r y d a y s p e e c h ) K w a r a ' a e a n d P i j i n a r eequa l l y r anked a t a l owe r l eve l - v i s -a - v i s t he h igh rankedv a r i e t i e s .

Wha t accoun ts f o r t hese mode l s and t he a t t i t udes beh indthem? In te res t i ng l y , bo th g roups pe rce i ve Ang l i cans ass p e a k i n g r r p r o p e r r r o r " r e a l r r K w a r a ' a e a p o i n t t h a t i sr e p e a t e d l y m a d e i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a s w e l } a s i n p u b l i c m e e t i n g s .E v a n g e l i c a l s o f t e n l a m e n t t h e i r i n a b i l i t y ( e v e n a m o n g s e n i o rg e n e r a t i o n m a l e s ) t o s p e a k h i g h r h e t o r i c w e l I . T h e y s a y t h e yhave r r f o rgo t t en r r much Kwara 'ae vocabu la ry and many sub t l e wayso f p h r a s i n g i d e a s o r c o n c e p t s . B u t t h e y t a k e p r i d e i n t h eI o s s , e q u a t i n g i t w i t h t h e i n e v i t a b l e i f r e g r e t t a b l e c o s t o feduca t i on and mode rn i za t i on . These a t t i t udes a re p robab l ydeepened by t he i nc reas ing pove r t y on Ma la i t a , and t he des i refor drarnat ic economic improvement wi thout a c lear not ion o f howt o e f f e c t s u c h c h a n g e s .

Wh i l e recogn i z i ng and va lu i ng t he h ighe r s ta tus o fE n g l i s h a n d P i j i n o u t s i d e K w a r a ' a e , A n g l i c a n s p e r c e i v e K w a r a ' a ea s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f a l a f a l a ' t r a d i t i o n , c u l t u r e ' , h i s t o r y , a n dco re cu l t u ra l va lues . A l t hough they a re some t imes amb iva len tabou t a l L o f t hese , t hey hope to keep a sense o f i den t i t y i n at i r ne o f r ap id soc ia l change . Ang l i cans rega rd a t t emp ts t o

edt l

S

Kvdff

T

+L

b

tTI

1 5 9

conve rge t o ou t s i de r no rms when speak ing t o i ns i de rs as a lu ra ' e' p r e t e n t i o u s ' a n d m a l a f a k a ' p s e u d o - E u r o p e a n . ' T h e i r s p e a k i n gs t y l e gene ra l l y conve rges t o t he imned ia te aud ience , w i t h ap re fe rence f o r h i gh - rhe to r i c Kwara 'ae on se r i ous and impo r tan toccas ions . They j oke abou t t he SSEC c la im tha t one can f o rge to n e ' s n a t i v e l a n g u a g e . I n v i l l a g e c o n t e x t s , A n g l i c a n c o d e -sw i t ch ing t o Eng l i sh beyond s i ng le vocabu la ry i t ems i st y p i c a l J . y f o r h u m o r , s e l f - t e a s i . g , o r s a t i r e . Y e t asubs tan t i a l number o f Ang l i cans i n te res ted i n r i s i ng i npo l i t i ca l o r chu rch c i r c l es do t r y t o speak a m ix tu re o fE n g l i s h a n d K w a r a ' a e i n v i l l a g e c o n t e x t s , s e e m i n g l y r e s p o n d i n g- - as Evange l i ca l s do t o an ou t s i de re fe rence g roup . Theya re o f t en t he t a rge t s o f i nd i r ec t t eas ing and goss ip .

Fea tu res o f l i ngu i s t i c code and d i scou rse pa t t e rns

M o s t A n g l i c a n s a n d E v a n g e l i c a l s w h o u s e e i j i n o r E n g l i s hw o r d s f o r c o n c e p t s n o n - e x i s t e n t i n K w a r a ' a e , o r t o s i g n a l t h e i reduca t i on and know ledge o f a l a rge r wo r l d , canno t c l ea r l ydemarca te be tween the two l anguages . Thus a speake r may sdy ,r r l s p e a k E n g l i s h ( t h e l o c a l E n g l i s h - P i j i n m i x ) b u t I d o n ' tspeak g rammar ( schoo l - t augh t Eng l i sh ) . "

A l t hough many t heo log i ca l - and l i t u rg i ca l t e rms (whe the r i nKwara 'ae o r Eng l i sh ) a re sha red by t he two sec t s , chu rchvocabu la ry has been an i r npo r tan t l ex i ca l doma in f o r s i gna l l i ngd i f f e r i ng chu rch membersh ip and be l i e f s . Tab le 4 compares afew concep ts and l abe l s i n t he two chu rchgs ' Kwara 'ae l i t u rgy ,f r o m E n g l i s h , K w a r a ' a e , M o t a , a n d F i j i a n : v

T a b l e 4 - - E x a m p l e s o f E n g l i s h , K w a r a ' a e , M o t a , a n d F i j i a nTerrns in SSEC and CM Church Vocabularv

S S E C CM

tobap t i ze

bapt ism

to per formnarr iage(on sorneone )

f a ' a b a b a t a e s ecaus+bap t i ze

baba taese 'angabap t i ze+nom

f a ' a m a r i t icaus+mar r i age

s iudbuUa t f r+no1y

s i u d b u ' a n g abath+hoIy+nom

daukwa i l imah o l d + r e c i p r + h a n d ( j o i n

hands )

r

1 6 0

( T a b l e 4 , c o n ' t . )

S S E C CM

m a r r i a g e m a r i t i ' a n g amar r i age+nom

pas to r / p r i es t bas topasco r

to preach sannonsermon

H o l - y S p i r i t s i b i r i t 5 b usp i r i t +hoJ -y

k ingdon k i n g i ' ak i ng+nom

heaven

c i t y

r o o m ( a s i nUppe r Room)

l a w

s i n

he fenheaven

taonetown

rumuroom

I ol a w

s i n ' a n g as i n+nom

G r a m m a t i c a l a n d p h o n o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s a l s o d i s t i n g u i s hEvange l i ca l s f r om Ang l i cans . Deck was wo rk ing i n Rade (a l a rgev i l l age sou th o f Auk i ) when he t r ans la ted t he New Tes tamen ti n to Kwara 'ae . Fo r t h i s r eason , and because Rade was t he SSEMchurch headqua r te r s and t r a i n i ng cen te r , Rade d ia l ec t i nwh i ch con t rac ted f o rms abound became and i s s t i l l t hed i a l e c t o f K w a r a ' a e s p o k e n b y E v a n g e l i c a l s . T r a n s l a t i o n s b y

a r a ' i n g amarry+nom

mamafa the r (Mo ta )

funaup r e a c h ( r i j i a n )

a n o ' i r u d b us p i r i t / s o u I + g e n t h i n g

( h o l y )

t a l o ' abe known+nom (o f

pa ramon t ch ie f i np a s t , h e n g e a r e a o fh i s j u r i s d i c t i o n )

I a n q iheaven

fanoa doev i l l a g e b i q

m a ' e l u m aCL house : r oom

t a k iL a w

a b u l a r o r a ' a n g abehave+wrong+nom

tt1c€sI

;i(:l

(I(

1 6 1

Deck and o the rs we re t yp i ca l l y l i t e ra l , i n con t ras t t o Ang l i cant r a n s l a t o r s ' a t t e n t i o n t o c u l t u r a l l y m e a n i n g f u l p a r a p h r a s i n g .The g rammat i caL pecu la r i t i es o f t hese f i t e ra l t r ans l -a t i ons a reconmon i n SSEC se rmons , and have had an impac t on Evange l i ca l s 'eve ryday speech . SSEC Kwara 'ae i s aLso cha rac te r i zed bys i m p l i f i c a t i g n ( e . 9 . , l o s s o f h i g h - r h e t o r i c f o r m s ) a n dredundancv . " S imp l i f i ca t i on ex tends t o t he l oss o f sub t l eseman t i c i i f t " . " . , " L= be tween wo rds i n t he Kwara 'ae l ex i con .A l l o f t hese pa t t e rns a re espec ia l l y no t i ceab le among Kwara 'aein u rban Hon ia ra , whe re P i j i n i s i nc reas ing l y spoken i neve ryday i n te rac t i ons . Emu la t i on o f u rban Kwara 'ae may beinvo l ved i n cu r ren t r u ra l speech pa t t e rns , s i nce peop leregu la r l y t r ave l back and f o r t h be tween Ma la i t a andG u a d a l c a n a l . I n G i l b e r t C a m p a n d K a i b i a , t h e t w o l a r g eK w a r a ' a e s e t t l e m e n t s n e a r H o n i a r a , t h e S S E C c l a i m s t h e l a r g e s tchu rch f o l l ow ing .

Taken toge the r , t he above pa t t e rns make SSEC Kwara 'aes o u n d I i k e ' r b a b y t a l k r ' ( c h i l d r e n ' s s p e e c h ) t o A n g l i c a n s . I nt u r n , t h e A n g l i c a n p e n c h a n t f o r u s i n g h i g h - r h e t o r i c K w a r a ' a efo rns assoc ia ted w i t h t r ad i t i ona l - p rac t i ces make CM Kwara 'aes o u n d w i k i t ' w i c k e d , s i n f u l ' ( S I P ) a n d o I d - f a s h i o n e d t oE v a n g e l i c a I s .

W i th rega rd t o phono logy , i n r ecen t yea rs nasa l i za t i on o fr r b r r consonan ts has been sp read ing t h rough To 'aba i t a i n No r thM a l a i t a . T o ' a m b a i t a ( a s l i n g u i s t s a r e n o w s p e l l i n g i t ) i s al anguage c l ose l y re l - a ted t o Kwara 'ae . To 'amba i t a Ang I i canshave no t made th i s phono log i ca l sh i f t t o t he deg ree o f SSECmembers who toge the r w i t h m iss iona ry I i ngu i s t s who come toKwara 'ae a f t e r wo rk ing i n To 'amba i t a have i n f l uenced SSECK w a r a ' a e s p e a k e r s . K w a r a ' a e e v a n g e l i c a l s r a r e l y n a s a l i z e t r b r t

i n eve ryday speech , bu t t hey do nasa l - i ze i n chu rch con tex t s ,t r ans fo rn ing ( f o r examp le ) 5bu i n to 6mbu . SSEC speake rs havea l so begun im i t a t i ng t he m isp ronunc ia t i ons o f m iss iona ryI i n g u i s t s w o r k i n g i n - g w a r a ' a e , w h o s a y ( e . 9 . ) s a n g g o f o r s a n g o ,o r i a n g q a r o r f a i g a . 1 1 A n o t h e r e x a r n p l e ' i s - c o n s o n i n t r e a u c t i o n ,as in the SSEC reduct ion o f nc lw to w in surnames mispronouncedby Ang lo -Eu ropean ou t s i de rs . (S i rn i l a r l y , i n Vanua tu , P r imeMin i s te r Wa l te r L i n i ' s name was o r i g i na l l y I i ng i , bu t changedto re f l ec t Ang lo -Eu ropean p ronunc ia t i on o f m iss iona ryor thography of a bar over the n to represent the ve lar nasal[ pe rsona l commun ica t i on , Lamon t L i nds t rom] . ) These l i ngu i s t i ci nnova t i ons have a sy rmbo l i c mean ing f o r Evange l i ca l s ,d i s t i ngu i sh ing t he rn f r om Ang l i cans wh i l e s i gna l l i ng t he i ri den t i t y w i t h Evange l i ca l s e l sewhere on Ma Ia i t a . Im i t a t i on o fn i ss i ona ry l i ngu i s t s i s conve rgence t o t he op in i ons o r behav io ro f an ou t s i de g roup w i t h wh i ch i ns i de rs w i sh t o be assoc ia ted .

r

r 62

Nonve rba l aspec t s o f commun ica t i on

I n m i s s i o n d a y s , A n g l i c a n s a n d E v a n g e l i c a l - s w e r e s o m e t i m e sd i s t i n g u i s h e d b y d r e s s o r h a i r - d o . F o r e x a m p l e , f a ' i s u ' u' r i . v e r l a t ' , a h a i r - d o f e a t u r i n g t w o p a r t s r u n n i n g f r o m f r o n t t oback o f t he head i n i r n i t a t i on o f Ang lo -Eu ropean fema lem i s s i o n a r i e s , w a s w o r n p r i m a r i l y b y S S E M w o m e n , a n d i s s t i l In i c k n a m e d s u f i s i k o s ' s e a c o a s t ( S S E M ) h a i r c u t ' . S h o r t h a i rwo rn by Ang l i can men and women i s s t i l l r e fe r red t o as su f im i s o n ' m i s s i o n ( C M ) h a i r c u t ' . T h e d e e p b l u e o f e v e r y d a y a n ds c h o o l u n i f o r m s k i r t s a n d l a v a - I a v a s i n A n g l i c a n v i l l a g e s i ss t i I l c a 1 l e d k a l a m i s o n ' m i s s i o n c o l o r ' . O t h e r t h a n s c h o o lu n i f o r m s , d i s t i n c t i o n s i n d r e s s o r h a i r c u t n o l o n g e r m a r kc h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p . B u t k i n e s i c , g e s t u r a l , a n d p a r a l i n g u i s t i cd i f f e r e n c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t .

W a l k i n g a l - o n g M a l a i t a R o a d w i t h a g r o u p o f W e s t K w a r a , a er e l a t i v e s , W a t s o n - G e g e o h a s b e e n s u r p r i s e d o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s b yhe r compan ions ' r emark ing , as peop le app roach i n t he f a rd i s t a n c e , r r H e r e c o m e s o m e S S p e o p l e r r o r r r s o m e M i s o n t C M ] p e o p l ea r e a h e a d . r r T h e s e j u d g m e n t s a r e b a s e d o n d i f f e r e n t i a l s t y l e so f w a l k i n g . T h e k i n e s i c s o f A n g l i c a n s ( a n d C a t h o l i c s ) i st y p i c a l l y c o n s t r a i n e d , w h e r e a s E v a n g e l i c a l s m a y s w a y f r o m s i d et o s i d e , t a k e l o n g e r s t r i d e s , a n d o f t e n s w i n g t h e i r a r m sn o t i c e a b l y .

P e o p l e s a y t h a t h a b i t u a f f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s ( i n p u b l i ccon tex t s ) con t ras t be tween the two g roups , and we have a l sor e p e a t e d l y o b s e r v e d t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s . F o l l o w i n g t r a d i t i o n a l -K w a r a ' a e n o r m s , A n g l i c a n s t y p i c a l l y s h o w s e r i o u s t o r n i l d l yh a p p y f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , p r o j e c t i n g t h e s e n s e o f c a l m t h e ya s s o c i a t e w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l ( p r e - C h r i s t i a n ) b e h a v i o r a n d k e yc u l t u r a l v a l u e s ( i . e . , b a b a t o ' o , a n g a , , s t a b i l i t y , m a t u r i t y , ,a n d e n o e n o ' a n g a , ' d e l i c a c y , h u m i l i t y , g e n t l e n e s s , ) .E v a n g e l i c a l s t y p i c a l l y d i s p l a y e x c i t e d f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s w i t hw i d e s m i l e s , p r o j e c t i n g t h e s e n s e o f i n t e n s e w o n d e r a n d j o ythey assoc ia te w i t h be ing sp i r i t ua l l y saved and i n d i r ec tc o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h G o d . r n t e r e s t i n g l y , a d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n o fd i s t i n g u i s h i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i s f o u n d a m o n g t h e K a l u l i o f p a p u aNew Gu inea , whe re Ch r i s t i ans show cons t ra i ned , a lmos t sadbehav io r i n con t ras t t o t he d rama t i c , demons t ra t i ve behav io r o ft he unconve r ted (pe rsona l comrnun i ca t i on , Bamb i Sch ie f f e l i n ) .

Ges tu res and pa ra l i ngu i s t i c aspec t s o f t a l k a re cong ruen tw i t h t he d i f f e rences desc r i bed above . T rad i t i ona l Kwara ,aeg e s t u r e s a r e s r o w , f l u i d , a n d t y p i c a r r y p u l r e d b a c k j u s t a t t h em o m e n t o f f u l l e x t e n s i o n . E y e s , c h i n , n o s e , a n d r i p s a r e u s e dde i c t i ca l r y t o i nd i ca te d i r ec t i on . Ges tu res among Ang l i cans

1 6 3

u s u a l l y f o r l o w t h e s e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s . E v a n g e r i c a r st yp i ca l r y use much more open , expans i ve , and rap ia ges ru res ,appea r i . ng t o im i t a te Ang lo -Eu ropean ou t s i de rs .

A n g r i c a n s p e r c e i v e E v a n g e l i c a l s , d e f a u l t v o i c e v o r u m e a sg rea te r t han t he i r own , w i t h w ide sw ings i n p i t ch wh i chcon t ras t w i t h t r ad i t i ona r chan t - r i ke i n tona t i on con tou rs .These cha rac te r i s t i c s a re pa r t i cu la r l y obv ious when I i s t en ingto se rnons . sSEc p reache rs im i t a te t he Pen tecos ta l p reach ings t y l e o f o u t s i d e e v a n g e r i s t s , a n d t h i s s t y r e h a s i n f r u e n c e do ra to ry among Evange r i ca l s . Ang r i cans co rnp ra in t ha tEvangeJ . i ca l s bombard one w i t h t a l k , t hey a re a rways s i ng ing andwh is t l i ng , and t ha t t hey a re roud . An Ang r i can mo the rre tu rn ing f r om tak ing he r ch i l d t o t he hosp i t a l m igh t sdy ,I tThe re was a ve ry no i sy SS pe rson a t t he hosp i t a l , r r whe re shei s assum ing chu rch a f f i l i a t i on f r om vo i ce vo lume (and pe rhapso t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) . A c o m m o n w a y t o c r i t i c i z e " n o i s y " o rf r anbuoyan t behav io r i n an Ang r i can i s t o sdy , ,Tha t m ison mani s b e h a v i n g j u s t l i k e a s i k o s m a n . * s o m e o f w h a t a n g t i c a n st a k e t o b e n o i s y , u n r e s t r a i n e d b e h a v i o r ( t a l k i n g a l o t ,wh i s t l i ng and s i ng ing o f hymns ) i s r ega rded by Evange r i ca l_s asf r w i t n e s s i n g " t o t h e i r f a i t h .

J u s t h o w s a f i e n t a r e t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e o p l e r s m o m e n t -by -momen t r r aud ience des ign t r accommoda t i ons i n speech andbehav io r? we w i l r desc r i be one o f two cases we have obse rvedin sp l i t k in networks where a member o f one church changed toano the r , f ocus ing on t he resu l t i ng changes i n demeano r andbehav io r .

A n A n g l i c a n m a n w e r l ] c a I I p h i l e m o n , r a h o h a d c o n v e r t e d a n dn o v e d t o a n S S E C v i l l d g € , I a t e r r e t u r n e d t o h i s o r i g i n a l c h u r c ha n d v j - I l a g e i n a d i v o r c e d i s p u t e . H i s s t r i k i n g c h a n g e s i nspeech and behav io r a lmos t ca r i aca tu re t he con t ras t s be tweenS S E C a n d C M o u t l i n e d a b o v e . o r i g i n a l l y r e s t r a i n e d a n d q u i e t i nmanne r , Ph iLemon became h igh l y exc i t ab le as an ssEC member . Hedemons t ra ted h i s commi tmen t t o t he new fa i t h t h rough f r equen tw i t n e s s i n g , l a y p r e a c h i n g , a n d e m o t i o n a l d i s p r a y s i u c h a sc ry i ng and s i ng ing . H i s o ra to r y a t f eas t s sh i f t ed t oP e n t e c o s t a r s t y r e , a s d i d h i s m a n n e r o f g e s t u r i n g , s i t t i n g ,s tand ing and wa l k i ng , and pa ra tanguage .

' when he abrupt ly re turned to the CM a few years la ter ,

Ph i re rnon ' s behav io r j us t as ab rup t l y r eve r ted t ; Ang r i canno rms . Th i s reve rs i on i nvo l ved changes i n r i ngu i s t i c code .Du r i ng h i s ssEc days , ph i remon ' s Kwara rae con ta ined many Raded i a r e c t f e a t u r e s , a n d w a s h e a v i r y s p r i n k l e d w i t h n n g r i s h a n dP i j i n wo rds and ph rases . when conve rs ing w i t h wa tson -Gegeo , he

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a l - w a y s s p o k e t h e l o c a l E n g l i s h - P i j i n m i x , t h o u g h s h e a l w a y sr e p l i e d i n K w a r a ' a e . B u t o n o u r r e t u r n t o K w a r a ' a e m o r e t h a n ayea r a f t e r he re tu rned t o t he CM, Ph i l emon conve rsed w i t hW a t s o n - G e g e o i n a n e x t r e m e l y r a p i d , h i g h l y c o m p l e x , n o n - R a d eK w a r a ' a e , o f t e n s e v e r e l y t a x i n g h e r l i n g u i s t i c r e s o u r c e s . H eexpe r i enced susp i c i on f r on r h i s Ang l i can re l a t i ves abou t t hes e r i o u s n e s s o f h i s r e c o n v e r s i o n , a n d h e s e e m e d t o b ee n d e a v o r i n g t o b e h a v e a s A n g l i c a n a s h e c o u l d . P h i l e n o n ' st rans fo rma t i ons sugges t t ha t peop le a re se l f - consc ious abou tI i n g u i s t i c a n d b e h a v i o r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s e c t s , a n d t h a tt hey mon i t o r t he i r own behav io r acco rd ing l y .

w e w i l l n o w i l l u s t r a t e A n g l i c a n a n d E v a n g e l j - c a l

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t s o f f o u r K w a r a ' a e s p e a k e r s .

ANGLICAN AND EVANGELICAL DIFFERENCES IN FOUR SPEAKERS

We have se lec ted t r ansc r i p t s f r om fou r speake rsrep resen t i ng two gene ra t i ons , t ape reco rded i n pub l i c o ra lp e r f o r m a n c e c o n t e x t s : t w o m a l e s p e a k e r s ( o n e A n g l i c a n , o n eE v a n g e l i c a l ) i n t h e i r l a t e 7 O s t o e a r l y B O s i n d 9 € , a w o m a n( A n g I i c a n ) i n h e r m i d - 4 0 s , a n d a m a n ( E v a n g e l i c a l ) i n h i s l a t e3 O s .

A n n a n a i s M a I o a n d B a d d e l v L i t a : M e m o r i e s o f W o r l d W a r I I

G e g e o i n t e r v i e w e d A n n a n a i s M a l o a n d B a d d e l y L i t a ( a I ln a m e s a r e p s e u d o n y m s ) t o g e t h e r i n A u g u s t 1 9 8 4 , r e t e l l i n g t h e i rW o r l d W a r I I e x p e r i e n c e s a n d d e s c r i b i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o nin t he So lomons a f t e r t he War . The i n te r v i ew was conduc ted asp a r t o f a n E a s t - W e s t C e n t e r s p o n s o r e d p r o j e c t o n P a c i f i ci s l a n d e r s ' r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f W o r l d W a r I I ( W h i t e , A k i n , G e g e o ,a n d W a t s o n - G e g e o 1 9 8 8 ; W h i t e a n d L i n d s t r o m 1 9 8 9 ) . A n e l e c t e dp a r a m o n t c h i e f , A n n a n a i s ( c . 7 8 y e a r s i n 1 9 8 4 ) i s a f o r m e rc o l o n i a l c L e r k a n d r e t i r e d S S E C p r e a c h e r a n d t r a n s l a t o r w h or e c e i v e d s o m e r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g i n A u s t r a l i a a b o u t 2 5 y e a r sa g o . A n A n g I i c a n , B a d d e l y ( c . 8 2 y e a r s ) i s a r e s p e c t e dg w a u n g a ' i ( e l d e r ) a n d t r a d i t i o n a l I e a d e r w h o h a s n e v e r a t t e n d e ds c h o o l .

W i t h r e g a r d t o l i n g u i s t i c c o d e , d t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h ei n t e r v i e w , A n n a n a i s a s k e d w h e t h e r t o s p e a k a I a ' a n g a t o l o' i n d i g e n o u s I a n g u a g e ' ( i . e . K w a r a ' a e ) o r E n g I i s h . G e g e o ( w h ospoke on l y Kwara 'ae t h roughou t ) sa id t o speak wha teve r wascon fo r t ab le , bu t p re fe rab l y Kwara 'ae (w i t h t he expec ta t i on t ha tt h e i r n a r r a t i v e s w o u l d b e m o r e d e t a i l e d i f g i v e n i n K w a r a ' a e ) .A n n a n a i s ' a c c o u n t w a s a m i x t u r e o f P i j i n , E n g l i s h , a n d K w a r a , a ea s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s s p e e c h i n p u b l i c c o n t e x t s w e h a v e

t65

obse rved , even t hough he has l ed e f f o r t s t o reco rd Kwara raegenea logy and o the r aspec t s o f t r ad i t i ona l cu l , t u re . Thef o l l o w i n g p o r t i o n o f A n n a n a i s ' a c c o u n t i r r u s t r a t e s h i s c o d e -sw i t ch ing and -m ix i ng :

E x a m p l e 1 A n n a n a i s M a l o l 1

Nauk s i gn on , du ra t i on o f l l a r y I s i gned on f o r t he du ra t i onof the War /

M : : ' k a j . 1 t u a i T u l a e k /So lonon f s l ands he t ko ta ne ,

Tulaek/A n a o s n e ' e i r ( . ) 1 9 3 9 /N a u k j o i n o n ' i n a i r a i a , ( . ) 1 9 3 0

a e 1 9 4 0 , k a i l k a t o , a n n a ( . )Aust ra l ian Enbaro l Forces/

About two hundred/K i a r l e a k m a i ' h u a n t i s i m

' a i n i l /

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( . . ) ka j - I t u tua an t a i , asoa ( . )t a i ' r e k o n a i s i a n ( . ) r e k o n a i s i a nplen blong Japan heni karn/

I t i d -de i i a / ( . )O l r a e t m i f a l a w e i t ( . ) n a t i n g

hapen iet/

Y e s , w e w e r e a t T u 1 a g i /Tu lag i was t he headqua r te r s

o f t he So lomon I s l ands /T h a t d a y w a s i n 1 9 3 9 /I j o i n e d o n a n d i n 1 9 3 0

u h 1 9 4 0 , w € w e r e c o n n e c t e dt o t h e A u s t r a l i a n I m p e r i a lFo rces /

Abou t two hund red (men) /They came to t each us /

Teach us abou t f i qh t i ng /

Fo r f i qh t i nq /O k a y , w € s t a y e d t h u s ( . ) 1 9 4 0

we were s tay ing (and ) oneday a Japanese reconna i -s a n c e ( . ) r e c o n n a i s a n c ep lane came /

I t was m id -day /A l r i g h t , w € w a i t e d ( b u t )

noth ing happened/

sone o f Annana i s ' code -sw i t ch ing i s no doub t t op i c - re ra ted andh e l p e d h i m r e l i v e a n d d e s c r i b e h i s e x p e r i e n c e s . N o t i c e a b l e i nthe t r ansc r i p t i on i s h i s t endency t o make a po in t f i r s t i n onelanguage and t hen repea t i t i n ano the r . H i s repo r t i sg e n e r a r l y r a c k i n g i n d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l , t e n d i n g t o c o n s i s t o fsummary s ta temen ts abou t wha t t he B r i t i sh , Amer i cans ,Aus t ra l i ans , and Japanese we re p lann ing and do ing ra the r t hanwha t he obse rved o r expe r i enced h imse l - f . Annana i s spokeh e s i t a n t l y , h i s t e m p o r a p i d d u r i n g K w a r a r a e p h r a s e s , s l o wd u r i n g E n g l i s h a n d P i j i n p h r a s e s . H i s i n t o n a t i o n c o n t o u r sva r i ed , gene ra l l y r esembr ing t hose assoc ia ted w i t h p i j i n andEng l i sh more t han Kwara 'ae d i scou rse . The mood o r t one hees tab l i shed was o f s i ng re -speake r pe r fo rmance , ds i n a rec tu reor sermon, ra ther than conversat ion ( the format Gegeo uses fori n t e r v i e w s ) . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y r e f l e c t e d h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h es i t ua t i on . Annana i s ' code se rec t i on and pe r fo rmance deep rya f f ec ted i n te rac t i on w i t h h i s immed ia te aud ience . The f r equen taud ience back -channe r i ng cha rac te r i s t i c o f o ra r r epo r t i ng i n

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Kwara 'ae j - s no t i ceab l y absen t f r om the reco rd ing .

Annana i s appea red t o be accommoda t i ng t o add ressee Gegeoa n d a u d i t o r W a t s o n - G e g e o ( b u t n o t a u d i t o r B a d d e l y ) a s E n g l i s hs p e a k e r s e d u c a t e d o v e r s e a s . I n B e 1 1 ' s t e r m s , A n n a n a i s , s h i f t sa s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t o p i c o f W a r s e r v i c e w e r e a l s o a naccommoda t i on t o commun ica t i on w i t h a supe ro rd ina te soc ia l( r e f e r e n c e ) g r o u p : t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c hhe se rved be fo re and du r i ng t he War .

When Badde l y began to speak , a d ra rna t i c sh i f t i n t hein te r v i ew occu r red . No tw i t hs tand ing Annana i s ' examp le , Badde l ys p o k e h i g h - r h e t o r i c K w a r a ' a e u s i n g E n g l i s h o r P i j i n e x p r e s s i o n so n l y f o r w a r - r e l - a t e d t e r m s l a c k i n g K w a r a ' a e e q u i v a l e n t s . H i saccoun t was de l i ve red w i t hou t hes i t a t i on and w i t h t he p rosod i cs i g n a l s f o r a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n t y p i c a l o f r e p o r t i n g i n h i g hr h e t o r i c . G e g e o ( a n d a l s o A n n a n a i s ) a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e s p o n d e dapp rop r i a te l y w i t h synch ronous , r ap id l y -paced back -channe l i ngand ques t i ons f o r c l a r i f i ca t i on . Badde l y f ocused on eve rydayl i f e as a wo rke r i n t he Labou r Co rps , and d i scussed thefee l i ngs and f r us t ra t i ons expe r i enced by t he wo rke rs . Thefo l l ow ing examp le compares t he two men ,s l i ngu i s t i c code andd e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l i n e x p l a i n i n g h o w s i g n a l l i g h t s f u n c t i o n e da s w a r n i n g s :

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Badde l y p rov ided more desc r i p t i ve de ta i l t han Annana i s i n t h i scase as i n many o the rs du r i ng t he i n te r v i ew , and he d id sow i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g v e r y o f t e n t o E n g l i s h o r P i j i n .

Bo th Annana i s and Badde l y knew tha t Gegeo va lues h iqh -rhe to r i c Kwara 'ae and speaks i t we l l . Badde l y accommoda ted t oadd ressee Gegeo acco rd ing l y , and poss ib l y a l so t ook t he kas tom( P i j i n t e r m f o r t r a d i t i o n ) s i d e o f a u d i t o r A n n a n a i s ' i d e n t i t yi n to cons ide ra t i on . I n sho r t , t he two men accommoda ted t od i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e a d d r e s s e e ' s i d e n t i t y . I n E r i c k s o n ' s(1975 ) t e r rns , Annana i s and Badde l y each sha re f ea tu res o f co -m e m b e r s h i p ( s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e , i n t e r e s t s , v a l u e s ) w i t h G e g e o .Annana i s accommoda ted t o Gegeo as someone ] i ke h imse l feduca ted ove rseas , exposed to a w ide r wo r l d , w i t h know ledge o fA n g l o - E u r o p e a n w a y s . T o h i m , G e g e o i s p a r t o f ! h " . r i s i n g u r b a nmidd le c l ass , a supe ro rd ina te re fe rence g roup v i s -a - v i s r u ra lv i l l age rs . Badde l y accommoda ted t o Gegeo as someone l i keh i m s e l f - - v a l u i n g t r a d i t i o n a l K w a r a ' a e l a n g u a g e a n d b e h a v i o r ,w h o s e i d e n t i t y i s b a s e d i n t h e v i l l a g e . I n t h e s e d i f f e r i n gacco rnmoda t i on s t ra teg ies , bo th men ac ted cons j - s ten t l y w i t hthe i r chu rch a f f i l i a t i on . Annana i s conve rged t owards anassumed supe ro rd ina te ou tg roup ' s va lued no rms as i r n i t a ted i nh i s chu rch . Badde l y i n i t i a t ed a s t y l e sh i f t f r om Eng l r sh r /P i j i nt o Kwara 'ae , a s t r a tegy o f non -conve rgence t o ou tg roupa s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i s c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n .

M i r i ama Su l imaoma and Meshach Tomo : Ora to ry

W e r e c o r d e d M i r i a m a S u l i m a o m a ' s c o u n s e l i n g s p e e c h , h e rf i r s t o r a t i o n a t a f e a s t i n h e r n a t a l v i - 1 l a g e , i n J u I y 1 9 8 7 .N o w a n i m p o r t a n t l e a d e r i n h e r h u s b a n d ' s v i l l a g e , M i r i a m a ( 4 5y e a r s o l d ) i s A n g I i c a n , a n d a l t h o u g h u n s c h o o l e d h e r s e l f , h a sb e e n i n f l u e n t i a l i n h e r c h i l d r e n ' s s c h o o l s u c c e s s e s . A d i s p u t ei n M i r i a m a ' s v i l l a g e h a d s l o w e d a p r o j e c t t o b u i l d a s t o r m -p rob f chu rch i n t he wake o f Cyc lone Namu 's devas ta t i on a yea rea r l i e r . f n he r speech , M i r i ama counse led v i J - l age rs t ocooperate in f in ish ing the church and in new developmentpro j ec ts .

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Kwara 'ae w i t h no code -sw i t ch ing even f o r concep ts f o r wh i ch sheu s e s P i j i n i n e v e r y d a y s p e e c h ( e . g . , s e k s o n , s e c t i o n , , i sw i d e l y u s e d f o r d e s c e n t I i n e , a n d b a r a t a , b r o t h e r , f o r s a m e -/ c r o s s - s e x s i b l i r g , o r s i b J - i n g b o r n b e h i n d / a h e a d o fo n e s e r f / a n o t h e r ) . T h e f o r l o w i n g e x c e r p t s ( f r o m v a r i - o u s p a r t so f h e r o r a t i o n ) i l l u s t r a t e m a n y f e a t u r e s o f M i r i a m a , s h i g hr h e t o r i c :

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A i a ' ( . ) n a u k u t a i , s a e l e a ,J - o n g h u a : n a ( . ) s a i n a u . . . ( . )h a i n a i b u r i k u ( . ) k i a rh i u k k i a r d a o m a i ' k u kt u a t u a h a i n k a d a o a n k a ls a u ' l a i h n e ' k e a r k a r a i n g k i ao i l n a ' a n ( . ) Y t a d e / . . .

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T a i ' l i a i : ' n g w a e n a m s a n r a o a ,k a u l k i ( . ) h u a n h a o n k u l uIong/

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A l r i gh t , I am a I i t t l e happya f s o f o r r n y s i s t e r - i n - 1 a w . . .and the one behind rne( y o u n g e r s i b l i n g ) t h a t t h e ycame and have been s tay ingw i t h u s , a n d t h i s e v e n i n g - w eal l - get together wi th themas they w i l l be l eav ing onMonday / . . .

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Because I am the sen io r pe rsono f ou r baske t o f ma le peop le( o u r k i n I i n e ' s g e n e r a t i o n )and I very much want , in ourfam i j - y , you t o a l l be s tab le( m a t u r e , s e t t l e d , r a t i o n a l )and o f one n ind i n t hef a m i l y h e r e / . . .

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Le t us a l so l i ve l i ke t hosep e o p l e w h o l i f t u p t h e i rf am i l y t o some th ing good( i rnprove condi t ions in thev i 1 l a g e , g a i n r e s p e c t ) / . . .

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c o r r e c t l y u s e d h i g h - r h e t o r i c ' - i ' e n d i n g s a n d d i m i n u i t i v ee x p r e s s i o n s ( e . 9 . , o p e n i n g h e r s p e e c h w i t h , r r m n o t g o i n g t os a y a n y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t , ' f a n d d e s c r i b i n g h e r s e r f a s t i , is a e l e ' a , a , l i t t l e h a p p y , ) . S h e d e v e l o p e d a r g u m e n t -sys tema t i ca rJ - y , w i t h ca re fu r p l acemen t o f cohes ion andcohe rence rna rke rs . He r even , mode ra te pace was punc tua ted w i t hf requen t pauses a t t he i n t r oduc t i on o f s i gn i f i can t po in t s sotha t t he aud ience cou l -d re f l ec t ( a rhe to r i ca l f ea tu re ca l l edI t impo r tan t s i l ences r r i n Kwara rae ) . one such i ns tance was he rsecond - and ha l f - second - rong pauses whe re she c l a i r ned t heau tho r i t y t o counse l he r k i n l i ne by nam ing he rse r f as sen io r( f i r s t - bo rn ) desp i t e be ing a wo rn ln i n a pa t r i r i nea r r yo rgan i zed soc ie t y . As l oca r r y i n te rp re ted , he r manne r \ r asg e n t l e a n d d i g n i f i e d , h e r v o i c e q u a l i t y a n d p r o r o n g e d v o w e l s( i n t h e a b o v e s e g m e n t s , h u a : n a 1 f u a n a 1 , l i a i : , n g w a 6 :[ 1 i a ' i n g w a e ] , n e , e : I n e , e ] ) s o o t h i n g .

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M i r i a m a ' s k i n e s i c s a n d g e s t u r e s a r s o r e f r e c t e d h i q h -r h e t o r i c s t y r e . l n d i c a t i n g h e r d e s i r e t o o r a t e , s h e s i o o d u pin t he shadows and j oked qu ie t r y w i t h t hose a round he r , wa i - t i ngto be i nv i t ed t o s tep i n to t he l i gh t . once u rged , she camefo rwa rd hes i t an t l y , he r sk i r t t ucked a round he i l egs ( t heIa t t e r a s i gn o f f em in ine modes ty ) . Th roughou t , he r ges tu resw e r e f l u i d b u t r e s t r a i n e d t h o u g h s h e s p o k e - f e a r l e s s r y . w i t hr e g a r d t o a f f e c t , t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f h e r f e e r i n g s ( s u b t l e a n dencoded i n d im inu i t i ves and vo i ce quaJ - i t y ) s tow ty un fo lded t ona tch t he rhe to r i ca l bu i l d t o a c r imax , and t hen re tu rned t oeno t i ona l de tachmen t p r i o r t o he r c l os ing sen tence , "My speechfo r a l l you my b ro the rs has now a r r i ved a t an end . " Thesea f fec t i ve cha rac te r i s t i c s a re assoc ia ted w i t h t he s tance o ff a l a fa l a ( t r ad i t i on ) speak ing t o t he add ressee t h rough thespeake r .

M i r i a n a ' s a d d r e s s e e s w e r e m e m b e r s o f h e r n a t a l v i l r a g e ,bu t she f ocused he r message p r ima r i l y on rnembers o f he ri m m e d i a t e d e s c e n t r i n e ( a d u 1 t b i o l o g i c a r a n d c r a s s i f i c a t o r ys ib l i ngs ) . He r aud i t o r s we re t he re io re o the r members o f t hef a n i l y ( e . 9 . , h e r a g i n g f a t h e r , h e r u n m a r r i e d a d u r t s i s t e r ) a n dIess c l ose ry - re ra ted descen t g roup members r i v i ng i n t hev i l l age . A l so i n a t t endance we re two o r t h ree un re la tedfan i r i es who had come ove r un inv i t ed f r om ano the r v i l l a9e , whenruno rs o f a f eas t r eached them. rn Be l r r s f r amework , t hey we reove rhea re rs ( known bu t no t r a t i f i ed o r add ressed ) . Thusl t i r i ama ' s aud ience s t ruc tu re was re ra t i ve l y

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( e l d e r s ) s k i l l e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l o r a t o r y a n d c o u n s e l - i n g . T h e s ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i m m e d i a t e a u d i e n c e w e r e m o r e s a l i e n t t ohe r t han t he aud ience cha rac te r i s t j - cs (u rban / f o re ign , ou tg roupv a l u e s , n a t i o n a r l i n g u a f r a n c a , e t c . ) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t o p i co f h e r s p e e c h , d e v e l o p m e n t . A l t h o u g h M i r i a m a i s v e r y f a m i t i a rw i t h t he Eng l i sh -P i j i n vocabu la ry o f deve lopmen t ( d i f l - opnen o rd i f l o m e n i n w e s t K w a r a ' a e ) a s u s e d i n r u r a l M a l a i t a , s h e d i dno t code -sw i t ch no r a re he r Kwara rae ph ras ings rne re l yt r a n s l a t i o n s o f d e v e l o p m e n t v o c a b u l a r y . I n s t e a d , s h ep r e s e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t i n t r a d i t i o n a l t e r m s ( e . g . , r r l i f t i n g u pthe v i l r age i n to some th ing good r r t h rough communa l - e f f o r t= i . r nd o i n g s o , s h e d i s p l a y e d h e r m a t u r e s k i l l i n h i q h r h e t o r i c a s au n j - v e r s a l d i s c o u r s e s u f f i c i e n t l y a b s t r a c t t h a t i t i s a p p l i c a b l et o a n y t o p i c o r s i t u a t i o n . B y s t a y i n g i n h i g h r h e t o r i c ,M i r i a m a s i g n a l l e d t h a t s h e w a s n o t c l o s i n g o u t a n y h e a r e r s f r o mthe ma in message even t hough she was f ocus ing on a sub -g roup o fc l o s e r e r a t i v e s . E a c h w a s t o i n t e r p r e t h e r s p e e c h t o f i th i s / h e r o w n s i t u a t i o n , a s t a n c e t a k e n b y t h e l e a d s p e a k e r i nf a ' a m a n a t a ' a n g a o r t r a d i t i o n a r c o u n s e l i n g ( r i t e r a l l y , " s h a p i n gt h e m i n d r r ; w a t s o n - G e g e o a n d G e g e o 1 9 9 0 ) . M i r i a m a , s s p e e c h i s asupe rb exa rnp le o f counse l i ng o ra to ry .

M e s h a c h T o m o ' s o r a t o r y c o n t r a s t e d s h a r p r y w i t h ' M i r i a m a r s .w e r e c o r d e d M e s h a c h ( c . 3 8 y e a r s o l d ) i n J u n e 1 9 9 4 a t a nimpo r tan t t r i ba l / c ran mee t i ng i n wh i ch h igh - rank ing ma leleade rs o f two descen t g roups we re ga the red t o t ape - reco rda c c o u n t s o f l a n d r i g h t s . o n e g r o u p h a d o r i g i n a l l y s e t t l e d t h el a n d , t h e n s o r d a r a r g e t r a c t o f i t t o t h e o t h e r . N o w , b o t hg roups we re t h rea tened by ano the r t r i be / c l an , s c l a im to t heen t i r e a rea . The pu rpose o f t he mee t i ng was t o reco rd t heoLde r gene ra t i on w i t nesses as t hey p rac t i ced t he t es t i -mony t heywou ld g i ve t he nex t day i n p rov inc ia r cou r t . one descen tg roups was sp r i t among Ang r i can , ssEc , and Roman ca tho r i cchu rches , t he o the r was Ang l i can . o f t he s i x teen men who gavespeeches , one was Roman ca tho r i c , f ou r we re ssEc , and t her e m a i n i n g 1 1 w e r e A n g I i c a n .

A n E v a n g e l j - c a I , M e s h a c h h a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a n A m e r i c a nB th g rade educa t i on supp lemen ted by t echn i ca r t r a i n i ng , and i se r n p l o y e d a s a s e n i o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r i n M a r a i t aP rov ince . H i s speech came nea r t he end o f t he mee t i ng .Meshach a t t e rnp ted t o speak h igh - rhe to r i c Kwara ,ae . H i s reng thyspeech was a p rea t o re tu rn t o c rose , t r ad i t i ona l k i nre la t i onsh ips and va lues i n o rde r t o p ro tec t l and r i gh t s . He rea r e a f e w e x c e r p t s i r l u s t r a t i n g a s p e c t s o f h i s d i s c o u r s e :

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K a I a l ' a n g t i t i ' ' u r i g o ' ( . )n i s a k m a i ' a u k ( . ) k a i d a ib a n i a ' ( . ) k o ' n a u n i ( . ) h a t' a i n a I ' a n g a n k w a i m a ' a n g asa ih tan ku lua ' /

S i h i t a l ' a n g a ' u r i n e ' n a u kI i s i a ' i n i n ' a i r k a l o h a o nn in ia ' kau l ho l i a ma kuk t uasaena i n i l i a ' u r : - /

D i a ' n e ' n o a ' k u i s d a u f e a 'hah ia na ngea l ne ' k i a r hua ta n k u l u a ' k i n i n i ' a b a e a nbae ku i dao r sa ih taku l ne /

N e ' n a u k h j . t a l ' u r i ( . ) s u i h a h a nd i a ' n o a ' k i a s l i a 1 i a 1 e a ' a n a i( . ) a n n g w a i ' n g e a l n i n k u l u m ak u i s ( . ) h a i ' n a o ' l e a ' a d a 's u l i a k w a i m a ' a n g n i n i a ' n g w a i 'o l k u l k i t u a m a i ' a n ( . )a o s ' i n a o ' k i m a i ' k a l e 1 e a k k ad a o ' i t a e ' e n a i ( . ) s i k w a i m a ' a n gn e ' e ( . ) n i m a m a n a o s a n ( . ) a nb a i l s - b a i l a n r n a i l m a e s b a i la n a ( . ) I i m a n s a S a i t a n b e r( . ) k i a r t u a ' a i n h u ( . ) s i k i a rt u a ' a i n t a i ' a k a o 1 , /

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fon in ma ta i n in ka seaman namta i n i n i a ' ka sek re ta r i nam ta in i n i a ' t oa u mdn ko rne t i ne ' e /

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I h a v e j u s t a l i t t l e s p e e c h /

Jus t a l i t t l e speech t ha tcame to me when ny grand-fa ther was ta l -k ing aboutIove among us/

Because i t i s t h i s conce rn Is e e , t h i s I i t t l e l a n d t h a tyou a l l bough t and v /e a I II i ve on i t i t l ooks t hus /

I f w e d o n ' t t a k e g o o d c a r e o fi t and t he ch i l d ren t ha t a rebo rn t o us , by and by wew i l l d i v i de i t among us /

f am wor r i ed t hus , because i fthey do not look a t i tca re fu l l y t h i s ou r baske t .o f c h i l d r e n , i f w e d o n o tt each t hem we l l abou t t h i sl ove t ha t ou r o1d peop leu s e d t o l i v e i n , i n t h edays up t o now , becauseth i s l ove i s t r ue , t hedays the s ide the enemyo f ( . ) i n t h e h a n d o f S a t a ne v e n t h e y l i v e d i n i t ( . )because t hey l i ved w i t h i n( t he wo rsh ip o f ) onesp i r i t /

Who formed th is commit tee andwho i s cha i rman o r who i ssec re ta ry o r who s tands i nth i s commi t t ee? /

T h a t ' s t h e l i t t l e t a l k , z

Desp i t e h i s e f f o r t s , Meshach ' s h i gh rhe to r i c was poo r l y f o rmed .His sentences were of ten run-on or confused, wi th cohes ion andcoherence markers genera l ly miss ing, and he made severa lm is takes i n r eg i s te r . Fo r i ns tance , h i s open ing s ta temen t usedan incongruent d iminu i t ive express ion for descr ib ing an orat ioni n h i g h r h e t o r i c : t i ' i t i ' i ' l i t t 1 e , ' r a t h e r t h a n t a ' i ( I i n i t e r )o r t a ' some . ' A comparab le m is take i n Eng l i sh wou ld be t o sdy ,r r l j us t wan t t o g i ve a t i ny speech r t i n p l ace o f ' t I j us t wan t t o

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1 7 3

o lde r ssEc members we re no t i ceab l y made uneasy . They gavesho r t speeches , i n cau t i ous h igh rhe to r i c .

The na jo r i t y o f Meshach ' s add ressees (o the rs who gaveo ra t i ons ) , aud i t o r s ( r ank ing k i n who accompan ied speake rs t othe nee t i ng ) , ove rhea re rs (non - rank ing k i n who a rso a t t ended ) ,and eavesd roppe rs (o the r l oca r v i l r age rs ) we re Ang l i can .Meshach accommodated to Angl icans as ingroup par t ly because thesenior ssEc members speak ing before h i rn had done so. Moreover ,he w i shed to s i gna l h i s des i re t o be i den t i f i ed w i t ht rad i t i ona l cu r t u re , espec ia r r y when h i s speech was a p lea f o rt he sp l i t k i n g roup t o reun i t e i n t he i n te res t s o f p ro tec t i ngt h e r a n d . r t i s p a r t i c u r a r l y i n t e r e s t i r g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t h i sc l os ing i nvo l ves ask ing abou t t he s t ruc tu re o f t he mee t i ng : whohad fo rmed the commi t t ee , and who was cha i rman , sec re ta ry , andthe menbe rsh ip . The rnee t i ng had been ca l l ed , as a l l _t r a d i t i o n a l m e e t i n g s a r e , b y a g w a u n g a r i , e l d e r , , a n d w h e npeop le a r r i ved , t hey we re expec ted t o engage i n d i scuss ion andspeech -nak ing . Meshach m is taken ry an t i c i pa ted a morebu reauc ra t i c , mode rn i zed s t ruc tu re , and he was hope fu r o f be inge lec ted cha i rman . Th i s i s t he way t ha t such t h i ngs a re a rwayshand led t oday i n SSEC v i t l ages .

M i r i a m a ' s s p e e c h w a s h i g h l y p r a i s e d a f t e r t h e f e a s t , b u tMeshach ' s was me t w i t h an embar rassed s i l ence . An Ang t i can mano f Meshach ' s app rox i rna te age b roke t he s i l ence , t u rn ing t hefocus of the meet ing back to the cour t case (so Meshach nevergot an answer to h is quest ion about the ' rcommit tee" ) .Meshach 's speech was not tarked about ra ter when e ldersgathered in smar ler groups to d iscuss what o f impor tance hadbeen sa id a t t he mee t i ng . H i s speech and i t s r ecep t i oni l l us t ra ted t he d i f f e ren t i a r soc ia r consequences o i r anguages ty l e cho i ce i n Wes t Kwara rae .

DISCUSSION

Ear l i e r we po in ted t otheo ry and Be l l r s aud iencereturn to here.

seve ra l weaknesses i n accommoda t i ondes ign f r amework , f ou r o f wh i ch we

' 1 ) cho i ce o f d i scou rse s t y re and non -ve rba r pa t t e rns i s a tI eas t . as i r npo r tan t as cho i ce o f l i ngu i s t i c code i ; c ra im ingident i ty wi th a soc iaL group: Accommodat ion theory andaud ience des ign p r i v i r ege 1 - i ngu i s t i c code ove r d i scou rse s t y Ie ,pa ra r i ngu i s t i c s , ges tu re , k i nes i cs , and o the r non -ve rba lcharacter is t ics o f communicat ion. our s tudy has shown theimpo r tance o f exam in ing a l I t hese f ac to r s ana t he i r

d

L / L +

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S e l e c t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e si s o n l y p a r t o f w h a t i t t a k e s t o e n a c t b e i n g A n g l i c a n o rE v a n g e l i c a l , a n d e x a m i n i n g I i n g u i s t i c c o d e a l o n e i si n s u f f i c i e n t f o r u n a m b i g u o u s l y d e f i n i n g a b e h a v i o r a lp e r f o r m a n c e a s E v a n g e l i c a l o r A n g l i c a n . M o r e o v e r , t h e n o n -I i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d c a r r y h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n tsymboJ - i c messages abou t va lues and pe rsona l goa l s t ha t c l a r i f yt h e m e a n i n g o f c o d e c h o i c e i t s e l f .

2 ) I t canno t be assumed tha t speake rs co rnmand a range o fcompe tenc ies and can f r ee l y choose among the rn : Bo thaccommoda t i on t heo ry and aud ience des ign do make th i sassump t i on , ye t i n t he speake rs we examined , compe tence andc h o i c e w e r e d e f i n i t e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d , a n d p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v es o c i a ] o u t c o m e s w e r e d i s t r j - b u t e d a c c o r d i n g l y . T h i s p o i n t w a sp a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r i n M e s c h a c h ' s c a s e , w h e r e h i s p o o r s k i l l - s i nh i g h - r h e t o r i c K w a r a ' a e t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s m i s c o n s t r u e d f r a m i n go f t he even t ( as a Wes te rn -s t y l e ra the r t han t r ad i t i ona lmee t i ng ) unde rcu t t he message he i n tended to commun ica te , dsw e l l a s h i s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y s t e m .

3 ) S i g n i f i c a n t i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n i s a p p a r e n t i n w h e t h e ro n e ' s a u d i e n c e d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s r e m a i n r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e a n dreenac ted ac ross chang ing con tex t s , o r r e f l ec t genu ine cho i cesw i th i - n a repe r to i r e as shaped by immed ia te con tex tua li n f l u e n c e s : A s g r o u p s , E v a n g e l i c a l s a p p e a r t o r n a i n t a i n t h e i rr e fe rence -g roup o r i en ta t i on ac ross chang ing con tex t s , i ncompar i son w i t h Ang l i can t endenc ies t o respond to immed ia tec o n t e x t u a f i n f l u e n c e s . H o w e v e r , w € h a v e n o t i c e d c o n s i d e r a b l ei n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g o l d e r E v a n g e l i c a l s i n t h edeg ree t o wh i ch immed ia te con tex t i n f l uences cho i ce . Ano the rpa t t e rn i s i L l us t ra ted by Ph i l emon and o the rs l i ke h i r n who havec h a n g e d c h u r c h a f f i l i - a t i o n o n c e o r t w i c e . I n t h e s e c a s e s , al ong pe r i od w i t h a re l a t i ve l y s tab le aud ience des ign reenac tedac ross con tex t s a l t e rna tes w i t h ano the r l ong pe r i od o f mak ingcho i ces w i t h i n a repe r to i r e i n r esponse t o immed ia te con tex t .

4 ) Speake rs may be amb iva len t abou t t he soc ia l - va lue o ft he l i ngu i s t i c codes t hey know, abou t t he ex ten t o f t he i r owncompe tence i n t hem, and abou t t he re l a t i ve mer i t o f choos ing apa r t i cu la r code i n comp lex soc iaL c i - r cums tances : Amb iva lencei s no t t aken se r i ous l y by e i t he r accommoda t i on t heo ry o raud ience des ign f r ameworks , ye t i t p l ays an j -mpo r tan t r o l e no tonJ -y i n peop le ' s immed ia te i n te rac t i ona l cho i ces , bu t i n l ong -t e r m d e c i s i o n s o f s o c i a l g r o u p s . W e s e e t h i s i n K w a r a ' a e ,w h e r e l i n g u i s t i c a n d s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e c o n t i n u i n g t oc h a n g e .

il

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1 7 5

A l though i n t h i s pape r we have d rawn a sha rp d i s t i nc t i onbe tween SSEC and CM d i scou rse and behav io ra l s t y l es , l anguageu s e a n d s e J . f - p r e s e n t a t i o n i s c h a n g i n g r a p i d l y i n W e s t K w a r a ' a e .Espec ia l l y s i nce t he cha r i sma t i c movemen t among Ang l i cans andC a t h o l i c s i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s , w h i c h w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e P a c i f i cis lands by c lergy f rom England and other Commonweal thcoun t r i es , d i s t i nc t i ons be tween SSEC and CM have begun to b l u r .These changes have t aken two d i r ec t i ons .

One , as m igh t be expec ted , i s t ha t a younge r gene ra t i oniden t i f i es more and more w i t h con tempora ry soc ia l change andeconon i c deve lopmen t . Eng l i sh and P i j i n a re i nc reas ing l yi n f l u e n t i a l i n v i l l a g e I i f e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t heduca t i on wh i ch i s l ande rs a re eage r t o acqu i re , v i ew ingeduca t i on as t he way ou t o f t he i r i nc reas ing pove r t y . I n t hel a r g e , i n f l u e n t i a l - A n g t i c a n v i l l a g e s o f B i ' o a n d B u m a n o t e df o r t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l a r t , m u s i c , a n d d a n c ethe Evange l i ca l s t y l e o f m i x i ng P i j i n and Eng l j . sh wo rds andph rases i n to t a l k i s i nc reas ing l y popu la r . Peop le seem to beat tempt ing to c lose the growing gap they perce ive betweenthense l ves and t hose who have been o f f i s l and and a re r i s i ngeconomica l l y .

A t t he same t ime , some Evange l i ca l s have j o i ned Ang l i cansin co l l ec t i ng and reco rd i -ng genea log i ca l and o the r f o rms o ft r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e . O n o n e h a n d , t h e s e e f f o r t s a r e aresponse t o t he f ac t t ha t r r owne rsh ip " o f t r ad i t i ona l knowLedgeh a s v a l u e i n a r g u i n g I a n d c l a i m s i n l o c a l c o u r t s , w h e r e w r i t t e ndec i s i ons se t a power fu l p receden t aga ins t f u tu re hos t i l ec l a ims . On the o the r hand , Evange l i ca l s f f o r t s t o reco rd o the rk i nds o f t r ad i t i ona l know ledge revea l t he deg ree t o wh i ch t ha tknow ledge has a l r eady been l os t o r been rende red ha rm less , noI o n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g t h e i r c u r r e n t b e l i e f s . I n f a c t , p e o p l e ' sa t t i t udes t owards t r ad i t i ona l - know ledge i s as amb iva len t asthe i r a t t i t udes t owards t he l i ngu i s t i c codes i n t he i rcommuni ty .

Because P i j i n and Eng l i sh a re mode led and t hus p romo ted byop in ion l eade rs i n r u ra l a reas o f Ma la i t a , we expec t t ha tEvange l i ca l l i ngu i s t i c and i n te rac t i ona l i nnova t i ons w i l Icon t i nue t o make ga ins i n Kwara 'ae d i s t r i c t , and even tua l l yrep lace t he more conse rva t i ve l anguage and s t y l e o f Ang l i cans( a n d t h o s e f e w w h o f o l l o w t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n c e s t r a l r e l i g i o n ) .We th i nk t ha t t he key t o whe the r o r when P i j i n r ep lacesKwara 'ae i n r u ra l househo lds l i es w i t h Kwara 'ae women , who haveso f a r been more I i ngu i s t i ca l l y conse rva t i ve t han men , andwhose I i ngu i s t i c behav io r i s ve ry impo r tan t i n ch i l ds o c i a l i z a t i o n .

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NOTES

Acknow ledqemen ts : We a re espec ia l l y i ndeb ted t o Susan U .P h i l i p s , L a m o n t L i n d s t r o m , a n d D o n a 1 d B r e n n e i s f o r r a i s i n gi m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s w i t h r e g a r d t o G i l e s ' a n d B e I l ' smode l s i n r ead ing an ea r l i e r ve rs i on o f t h i s pape r (p resen teda t t he Assoc ia t i on f o r Soc ia I An th ropo logy i n Ocean ia mee t i . g ,M a r c h 1 9 9 0 , K a u a ' i ) . T h a n k s a l s o t o B a r n b i S h i e f f e l i n a n dWi lL i am Thu rs ton f o r t he i r sugges t i ons f o r r ev i s i on .

1 . T r y o n a n d H a c k m a n ( 1 9 8 3 ) c i t e 7 O l a n g u a g e s / d i a l e c t s i n t h eS o l o m o n s , e a r l - i e r s o u r c e s a s m a n y a s 9 0 . S e e H u d s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) f o ra c r i t i ca l r ev iew o f p rob lems i n de te rm in ing t he c r i t e r i a f o rr r l a n g u a g e r r v s . r r d i a l e c t t r .

2 . G i l e s e t a l - . ( 1 9 7 7 ) d o n o t d i s c u s s r e s p o n s e f r o m t h esubo rd ina te g roup when the poss ib i l i t y o f soc ia l change i sp e r c e i v e d u n f a v o r a b J . y b y t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p . F a s o l d ' s ( 1 9 8 4 )tab le t he re fo re has an emp ty ce I I he re , a l t hough he be l i evestha t t he l eas t p rog ress i ve members o f t he subo rd ina te g roupwou l -d conve rge (p . 191 ) . We have en te red r r va r i ab le r r i n to t h i sce l l t o i nd i ca te t ha t unde r such cond i t i ons , subo rd ina te g roupmembers may exh ib i t pa t t e rns o f conve rgence , nonconve rgence , o rd i ve rgence . Fo r i ns tance , t hey rnay d i ve rge , seek ing t os t reng then t he soc ia l and l i ngu i s t i c d i f f e rences be tween g roupsto i nc rease i n -g roup i den t i t y .

3 . Among those no t t o be d i scussed fu r t he r he re , t he RomanC a t h o l i c m i s s i o n ( e s t a b l i s h e d 1 8 9 8 ) u s e d l o c a 1 v e r n a c u l - a r s a n dP i j i n u n t i l a f t e r W o r l d W a r I f ; t h e M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n ( : - 9 O 2 ) i nthe Wes te rn So lomons used l oca l l anguages and Eng l i sh ; and t heS e v e n t h D a y A d v e n t i s t m i s s i o n ( 1 9 1 4 ) u s e d m a i n l y E n g l i s h( p r i m a r i l y t o a t t r a c t c o n v e r t s ; s e e T r y o n ) , 9 7 9 ) .

4 . The ' SSEC/CM compe t i t i on i s r ep resen ta t i ve o f compe t i t i on onMa la i t a be tween CM and the Roman Ca tho l i c Chu rch (ne i t he r o fwh i ch p rose l y t i ze ) on one hand , and t he SSEC, Seven th DayA d v e n t i s t s , a n d J e h o v a h ' s W i t n e s s e s ( w h o u s e p r i m a r i l y P i j i nand Eng l i sh ) on t he o the r . A long t he Ma la i t a Road i n Wes tK w a r a ' a e , a v i l l a g e r r e c e i v e s v i s i t s f r o m J e h o v a h r s W i t n e s s e sas of ten as a suburban Amer ican rece ives thern. Wi th regard tote rms used t o re fe r t o t he chu rches , t he Kwara rae ca l l SSECs i k o s o / s i k o s ( s r P i j i n ) , r e f l e c t i n g i t s f i r s t e s t a b l i s h r n e n t(people coming down f rom the mounta ins to a t tend a serv ice sa idtha t t hey we re go ing t o t he s i kos ) . The CM i s s t i l l I oca I I yca l l ed me lanes ian m ison (p ronounc ing each vowe l o f r fme lanes ian t ls e p a r a t e l y , a n d n o t p a l a t a l i z i n g t h e r t s r r ) , o r s i m p l y

t 1 7

n i sono /m ison . O the r chu rch l abe1s i nc lude ka t l i k i / ka t l i k( R o m a n C a t h o l i c ) , d i o h a ( J e h o v a h ' s W i t n e s s ) , a n d S D A ( S e v e n t hDay Adven t i s t ) . Con t ras ted w i t h Ch r i s t i an l - abe l s i s t o l , o( f o l l o w i n g a n c e s t r a l r e l i g i o n ; l i t e r a l l y , m o u n t a i n o u sin te r i o r ) .

5 . I n K w a r a ' a e , a m i s s i o n a r y o r c a t e c h i s t s e n t t o a n o n -C h r i s t i a n i z e d v i l l - a g e i s s a i d t o ' i f i n g i a , ' o p e n i t , ' i . e . ,open ing c l osed m inds t o Ch r i s t i an i t y . An a l t e rna t i ve t e rm i s' o i a , ' b r e a k i t , ' m e a n i n g t o s e v e r t i e s t o t r a d i t i o n . T h ela t t e r t e rm re fe r s t o bo th re l i g i ous and po l i t i ca l t i es , and

' thus neans to become subjected to the hegemony of the co lon ia l( now na t i ona l ) gove rnmen t . Du r i ng rn i ss i on i za t i on , t heAng l i cans sen t members o f t he Me lanes ian B ro the rhood (a t f i r s t

' c a l l e d T a s i u [ M o t a ] ) t o r r o p e n r t K w a r a ' a e v i l l a g e s . T h e B r o t h e r swere So lomon I s l ande rs ( t r a i ned a t t he Me l -ans ian B ro the rhoodcen te r nea r r audbu ) who wo re a spec ia l un i f o rm . Once a v i l l agewas r ropened , f r a pe r rnanen t ca tech i s t ( t r a i ned a t No r fo l k I s l ando r t he Me lanes ian M iss ion headqua r te r s a t F iu i n Wes t Kwara 'ae )would take over , and the Brother who had r ropenedrr the v i ) - Iagewould move on to another . Th is systern a l l -owed the MM to expandrap id t y . A t f i r s t t he SSEM used i nd i v i dua l m iss iona r i es w i t hweak f o l l ow-up when a m iss iona ry I e f t . La te r t hey im i t a ted t heA n g l i c a n s y s t e m b y c r e a t i n g I i f u r o n g o ( I i t . , s p r e a d t h ernessage , i n t h i s case t he Gospe l ) g roups wh i ch f unc t i oneds in i l a r l y t o t he Me lanes ian B ro the rhood .

5 . An exanp le o f k i n ob l i ga t i ons i s t he b r i dep r i ce(b r i dewea l t h ) sys tem. Ang l i cans con t i nue t he t r ad i t i ona lb r i dep r i ce o f she1 l r nan i (money o r va luab les ) and an exchangeo f p i gs , wh i ch Evange l i ca l s have f o rb idden as " s i n fu l r r andr rpagan . r r Ye t wha t has ac tua l l y occu r red i s a reo rgan i za t i ono f t he b r i dep r i ce sys tem. On one hand , t he CM condonest rad i t i ona l p rac t i ces bu t has seve re l y l im i t ed t he s i ze o f t hebr idepr ice. Demanding more resu l ts in temporaryexconmun ica t i on . On the o the r hand , t he SSEC fo rb ids w i t hthe t h rea t o f excommun ica t i on pay ing o r r ece i v i ng she l lnoney and exchang ing p igs . Bu t t he b r i de ' s pa ren t s can demanda l av i sh pa t i ( pa r t y ) and g i f t s . As t he re a re no chu rch -se tl im i t s on e i t he r , t he cos t o f an SSEC mar r i age can f a r exceedtha t o f an Ang l i can mar r i age . Thus , bo th chu rches a l l ow abr idepr ice (whatever i t may be ca l - led) , but : f - ) the CMregu la tes i t s s i ze and t he SSEC does no t ; and 2 ) t he SSECcons ide rs t he CM 's p rac t i ces t o be f r pagan r rand t he CM cons ide rsthe SSEC 's p rac t i ces t o be d i sc r i n i na to ry (aga ins t Ang l i cans )and ve ry expens i ve .

7 . The nos t popu la r mus i cs i n t he So lomons cu r ren t l y a re

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Gospe l r ock and Reggae . Gospe l r ock by l oca l bands i s p l ayedda i l y on So lomons Rad io and i s r ead i J - y ava i l ab le f o r pu rchaseon casse t t t e aud io tapes . Marana tha , one o f t he mos t popu la ra n d p o l i s h e d l o c a l g r o u p s , i s a p p a r e n t l y a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h ewor l d -w ide f undamen ta l i s t Ch r i s t i an you th g roup Marana tha ,w h i c h h a s b e e n s a i d t o h a v e r r c u l t i c r r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( G a z d i k1 e 8 e ) .

B . We have no t conduc ted a sys te rna t i c su rvey o f l anguagea t t i t udes i n Kwara 'ae . Ra the r we a re bas ing ou r d i scuss ion onseve ra l yea rs o f f i e l dwork i n wh i ch de ta i l ed no tes we re t akenon s ta temen ts abou t I anguage behav io r made i n ou r p resence o rrepo r ted t o us . We have a l - so t ape reco rded seve ra l hund redhou rs o f d i scou rse da ta i n Kwara 'ae i n a w ide range o f p r i va teand pub l i c con tex t s . I n 1979 , w€ fo rmed the Kwara 'ae Languageand Cu l t u re Commi t t ee , w i t h members f r om SSEC and CMc o m m u n i t i e s , t o a s s i s t u s w i t h p r e p a r i n g a K w a r a ' a e d i c t i o n a r yand g rammar . Commi t t ee mee t i ngs e l i c i t ed l eng thy d i scuss ionso f l a n g u a g e a t t i t u d e s i n W e s t K w a r a ' a e ( a l l t a p e r e c o r d e d ) .F i n a l l y , w e b a s e s o m e o f o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o n G e g e o ' sknow ledge as a cu l t u ra l i ns i de r . We a re con f i den t t ha t asys tema t i c su rvey wou ld suppo r t ou r desc r i p t i on .

9 . P lan ta t i on wo rke rs re tu rn ing f r om F i j i may have b rough tF i l i a n I i t u r g i c a l t e r m s , o F F i j i a n w o r d s m a y h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e di n t o M o t a a t N o r f o l - k I s l a n d . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s J a c kGwau fungu re tu rned t o t he F iu a rea o f Wes t Kwara 'ae f r om F i j i ,whe re he had wo rked on a p lan ta t i on and t hen se rved as po l i cecons tab le f o r seve ra l yea rs . A l t hough the CM was a l r eady a tF i u , G w a u f u n g u ' s a c t i v e r o l e a s m i s s i o n a r y f o l l o w i n g h i s r e t u r nl e d t o h i s b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o , e v e n t o d a y , d S t h e p e r s o n w h oI ' b rough t t he chu rch t o F iu r r ( even t hough peop le a re aware o ft he t r ue ch rono logy o f even ts ) . T ransc r i p t i on conven t i ons f o rTab le 4 and o the r Kwara 'ae examp les i n t h i s pape r : bo ld face =word w i t h Eng l i sh roo t o r de r i va t i on , o r So lomons I s l andsP i j i n . O t h e r t r a n s c r i p t i o n c o n v e n t i o n s f o r t h i s p a p e r : : =e longa ted o r he ld vowe l ( nu rnbe r o f co l - ons f o l l ow ing t he vowe li n d i c a t e s a p p r o x i m a t e l e n g t h o f h o l d i n h a l f s e c o n d s ) ; + =b o u n d m o r p h e m e ; c a u s : c a u s a t i v e p r e f i x ; C L = c l a s s i f i e r i g € D =gen i t i ve ; nom : nom ina t i ve su f f i x ; poss : possess i ve p ronouns u f f i x ; s g = s i n g u l a r ( p r o n o u n ) ; S M : s u b j e c t m a r k e r .

1 0 . F o r e x a m p l e , D e c k t r a n s l a t e d t h e b i b l i c a l s e n t e n c e " i ft hey pe rsecu te you i n one c i t y , f l ee un to ano the r r r as f o l l ows ,a t t enp t i ng t o exp ress t he mean ing i n eve ryday Kwara ,aed i s c o u r s e :

k ike ma,udukamuthey+SM des t roy ou t o f

1 7 9

ana ta taoneh a t e + y o u o f + 3 s g , p o s s s o m e ( E n q 1 . )

, uana t a t aonet o w a r d + 3 s g , p o s s s o m e ( E n g I . )

muke ta f iyou+sM run away

I a r uagai -n

K i ke (Rade ) i s h i gh l y i n fo rma l con t rac t i on f o r k i r a ka andmuke fo r kaumu lu ka ; muke i s r edundan t ; l a ' u ' aga in ' comb inedw i th ano the r t a t aone does no t c l ea r l y exp ress t he i dea o fg o i n g t o a n o t h e r c i t y . T h e A n g l i c a n t r a n s l a t i o n i s :

d i r i a k i r a ka marudukamu ana tai f t hey SM des t roy ou t o f ha t red+you o f+3sg ,poss some

fanoa ta f i , uana t a f anoa ma tama tav i l l a g e r u n a w a y t o w a r d + 3 s g , p o s s s o m e v i l l a g e d i f f e r e n t

11 . Kwara 'ae wo rds i n t he t ex t o f t h i s pape r a re i n unde r l y i ngfo rn . Mos t wo rds unde rgo a p rocess o f me ta thes i s o ran t i c i pa to ry vowe l copy ing i n speech . Thus , t r ansc r i p texce rp t s a re rep resen ted as ac tua l l y spoken .

12 , A speech wh i ch bu i l ds t o a concep tua l and emo t i ona lc l imax , and t hen l i ke Meshach ' s ends ab rup t l y r a the r t hanw i n d i n g d o w n , i s c a l l e d n g u r u r u , c u t - o f f t h i n g , i n K w a r a ' a e .M e s h a c h ' s s p e e c h w o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d i n K w a r a ' a e a s a " p o o r l ywoven baske t . I '

r

1 8 0

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B e n n e t t , J . A . ( 1 9 7 9 ) S o l o m o n I s l a n d s P i d g i n . I n S . A . W u r m( e d . ) , N e w G u i n e a a n d t h e n e i g h b o r i n g a r e a s : a s o c i o -I i ngu i s t i c l abo ra to ry . The Hague : Mou ton .

B o u t i l i e r , J . A . , D . T . H u g h e s , a n d S . W . T i f f a n y ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 7 8 )M iss ion . chu rch and sec t i n Ocean ia . ASAO Monog raphN o . 6 . L a n h a m , N e w Y o r k : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s o f H a w a i i .

B u r k e , K . ( 1 9 6 9 ) A r h e t o r i c o f m o t i v e s . B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t yo f C a l i f o r n i a .

E r i c k s o n , F . D . ( 1 9 7 5 ) G a t e k e e p i n g a n d t h e r n e l t i n g p o t :in teract ions in counsel ing encounters . Hgl fyg-1qg Educat iona lR e v i - e w 4 5 ( 1 ) : 4 4 - 7 O .

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G a z d i k , T . ( 1 9 8 9 ) S o r n e c o l l e g e s w a r n s t u d e n t s t h a t c u l t - l i k eme thods a re be ing used by Ch r i s t i an f undamen ta l i s t g roups .C h r o n i c l e o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n 3 6 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 5 N o v e m b e r ) :A 1 , 4 4 2 .

G i l e s , H . ( 1 9 7 3 ) A c c e n t r n o b i l i t y : a m o d e l a n d s o m e d a t a .A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s 1 5 : 8 7 - 1 0 5 .

G i l e s , H . , R . B o u r h i s , a n d D . T a y l o r ( 1 9 7 7 ) T o w a r d s a t h e o r yo f l a n g u a g e i n e t h n i c a r o u p r e l a t i o n s . I n H . G i l e s ( e d . ) ,Language , e thn i c i t v and i n te rq roup re l a t i ons . London :A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

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H i l l i a r d , D . ( 1 9 7 8 ) G o d ' s g e n t l e m e n : a h i s t o r y o f t h eM e l a n e s i a n M i s s i o n 1 8 4 9 - ] - 9 4 2 . S t . L u c i a : U n i v e r s i t y o fQueens l -and P ress

H u d s o n , R . A . ( 1 9 8 0 ) S o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s . C a m b r i d g e :Cambr idge Un i ve rs i t y P ress .

1 8 1

J o u r d a n , C . ( 1 9 8 6 ) S a p o s y u m i m i t i m y u r n i : u r b a n i z a t i o n a n dc reo l - i za t i on i n t he So lomon I s l - ands . Unpub l i shed Ph . D .t h e s i s . A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y .

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M c G a v i n , P . A . , a n d K . G a n n i c o t t ( 1 9 8 9 ) C e n t r a l o r l o c a l ?nanagemen t po l i c y f o r schoo l i ng i n t he So l -omon I s l - ands .Economics and Managemen t Work ing Pape r No . I / 1989 , Ap r i l .Campbe l l , ACT : Depa r tmen t o f Economics and Managemen t ,U n i v e r s i t y C o I l e g e , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w S o u t h W a 1 e s ,A u s t r a l i a n D e f e n c e F o r c e .

S e a r l e , f . ( 1 9 7 0 ) E d u c a t i . o n i nM ineog raphed Wh i te Pape r .T r a i n i n g C o I l e g e .

S i e g e l , J . ( 1 9 8 6 ) P f a n t a t i o nL i n q u i s t i c s 2 I : I - 7 2 .

T r y o n , D . T . ( 1 9 7 9 ) R e m a r k s o n

t h e B S I P : H i s t o r y a n d s t r u c t u r e .H o n i a r a : B r i t i s h S o l o m o n s

P i d g i n F i j i a n . O c e a n i c

the language s i t ua t i on( e d . ) , N e w G u i n e aS o l o m o n I s l a n d s . I n S . A . W u r m

in t heand the

Then e i q h b o u r i n q a r e a s : A s o c i o l i\ vs . , r a :_=_: :

u i s t i c I a b o r a t o r y .Hague : Mou ton .

T r y o n , D . T . , a n d B . D . H a c k m a n ( 1 9 8 3 ) S o l o m o n f s l a n d sl a n q u a g e s : a n i n t e r n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . P a c i f i c L i n g u i s -t i c s S e r i e s , C - ' 7 2 . C a n b e r r a : A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r -s i t y .

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W a t s o n - G e g e o , K . A . , a n d D . W . G e g e o ( 1 9 8 8 ) S c h o o l i r g , k n o w l e d g eand power : Soc ia l t r ans fo rma t i on i n t he So lomon I s l ands .U n i v e r s i t v o f H a w a i ' i W o r k i n g P a p e r s i n E S L 7 ( 1 ) :1 1 9 - 1 4 0 .

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' D i s e n t a n g l i n q : C o n f l i c t d i s c o u r s e i n P a c i f i c S o c i e t i e s .I n p r e s s , . S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

W h i t e , G . M . , D . A k i n , D . W . G e g e o , a n d K . A . W a t s o n - G e g e o ( 1 9 8 8 )The b ig dea th : So lomon I s l ande rs remember Wor ld War f I .Suva : Un i ve rs i t y o f Sou th Pac i f i c P ress .

r

rB2

W h i t e , G . M . , a n d L . L i n d s t r o m ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 8 9 ) T h e P a c i f i cT h e a t e r : i s l a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f W o r l d W a r I I .H o n o l u l u : U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a i ' i P r e s s .

W h i t e m a n , D . ( 1 9 8 3 ) M e l a n e s i a n s a n d m i s s i o n a r i e s : a ne t h n o h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y o f s o c i a l a n d r e l i q i o u s c h a n g e i nt h e S o u t h w e s t P a c i f i c . P a s a d e n a , C A : W i l I i a n C a r e y .