kuliah literature references

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LITERATURE REFERENCES

using the Harvard System

There are several accepted conventions for citing bibliographic references. The method

described here is the Harvard System. It is the one most commonly used in scientific papers.

NB: Citations in papers submitted to scholarly journals should always follow the method

used by that journal.

Introduction

Citing references in a text

Creating bibliographic references

Part 1: Non-electronic sources

Book References

Journal ArticlesPapers from Conferences

Theses

Reports

Patents

British Standards

Personal Communication

Part 2: Electronic SourcesIndividual works

E-Journal Articles

Mailbase/Listserv email listsPersonal electronic communications (E-mail)

Introduction

In the course of your literature search you are likely to find many publications which contain

relevant information. It is important that you record their full bibliographical details in order

to be able to identify them easily at a later date. These details are known as bibliographical

references.

There are many different ways in which bibliographical references are set out by other

authors. In order to avoid producing an inconsistency in your own work it is important tochoose one style and stick to it. Therefore you should 'translate' any references you find into

your chosen style. If you are preparing a paper for a particular journal you must of course

follow the style used by that journal.

Remember the basic rule is that references should be correct, complete and consistent.

Within your own text you will be expected to acknowledge where you have used any sources

(e.g. books, journal articles, conference papers etc.) to provide ideas, support arguments or

for direct quotations, by citing the documents, from which you obtained the information, at

the point of use.
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At the end of your project or dissertation the bibliographic details of all documents cited are

listed under the heading References orMaterial Cited. Do not include any references which

are not cited in the text. If you wish to indicate other useful publications for background or

further reading these are included in a separate list entitled Additional Reading or

Bibliography.

Why you need to cite references

To acknowledge debts to other writers

To demonstrate the body of knowledge upon

which your research is based

To provide supporting evidence for your own

arguments

To enable all those who read your work to

locate your sources easily

NB: To include other authors' work in

your own, or to "borrow" others' ideas

without acknowledgement is known asplagiarism. This is easier to detect than

you might imagine and is regarded as a

serious misdemeanour.

Any evidence of plagiarism will

certainly count against you when your

work is being assessed, and could resultin you failing your course.

CITING REFERENCES IN A TEXT

The following guidelines explain :-

a) how to cite references in a text and

b) how to structure the references listed at the end of a text.

The Harvard System


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The author and the year of publication of the cited document are given in the text.

If the author's name occurs naturally in the text then the year follows in brackets, if not, then

both name and year are in brackets.

*ExampleA study by Gremillion and Jenking (1981)

showed that colour significantly improved

recall ability. However, we need to guard

against using distracting colours in order to

realise these benefits (Marcus, Cowan andSmith, 1989).


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CREATING BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

Part 1: Non-electronic sources

Book References

What is needed? Author/s or Editor/s surname, initials.

(Year of publication).

Title of book(in italics, or underlined or in bold type).

Edition (if other than first).

Place of publication: Publisher.

*Example

Sommerville, I. (1992). Software engineering. 4th ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

If there are two or three authors then all should be given, but if there are more than three then

only the first is given followed by et al. orand others. If the book has an editor then ed. is

added after the name.

* Example

Warren, D.H.D. and Szeredi, P. eds. (1990).Logic programming. London: MIT Press.

You may wish to refer to a chapter in a book. In this case the editor of the book is alsoacknowledged. In effect a double reference is required, with the more specific reference

coming first.

* Example

Smith, C. (1980). Problems of information studies in history.In: S. Stone, ed.Humanities

information research. Sheffield: CRUS, 1980, pp.27-30.

Notice that when referring to specific pages in a book 'pp.' is used. Use 'p.' if referring to a

single page.

For books without individual authors use the corporate author if possible, otherwise use the

title.

* Examples

British Computer Society (1991). Glossary of computing terms : an introduction. London:

Pitman.

Turbo Assembler: users' guide - version 2.0 (1991). Scotts Valley, CA: Borland.


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Journal Articles

What is needed? Author/s or Editor/s surname, initials.(Year of publication).

Title of article.

Title of journal (in italics, or underlined or in bold type),

Volume number, (Part number),

Page number/s of the article.

The title of the journal should be in bold oritalic type or underlined to distinguish it from the

rest of the reference. There is no need to put in the words 'vol' or 'part'. The inclusive page

numbers for the article should be given. If an article is interrupted by advertisements or other

features this should be indicated by showing all the page sequences.

* Example

Nicolle, L. (1990). Data protection: laying down the law.Management Computing, 13(12),

48-49, 52.

Papers from Conferences

If the conference is one of a series use a similar method to that for journals but including the

publisher if known, otherwise use the same method as for books.

* Examples

Feldman, D.S. (1993). Fuzzy network synthesis with genetic algorithms.Proceedings of the

fifth international conference on genetic algorithms.

Urbana-Champaign, IL., July 1993. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, pp.312-317.

Duchastel, P.C. (1992). Integrating hypermedia into intelligent tutoring. In: A. Oliveira, ed.

Hypermedia courseware: structures of communication and intelligent help: proceedings of a

NATO Advanced Research Workshop. Espinho, Portugal, April 1990. Berlin: Springer-

Verlag, pp. 198-204.

Theses

Use similar methods to those for books.

* Example

Levine, D. (1993).A parallel genetic algorithm for the set partitioning problem. Ph.D. thesis,

Illinois Institute of Technology.


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Reports

Similar method to that for books. Add all report numbers that appear on the document, plus

publisher or distributor details if known.

* Example

Koza, J.R. (1990). Genetic programming: a paradigm for genetically breeding populations

of computer programs to solve problems. Technical Report No. STAN-CS-90-1314,

Computer Science Department, Stanford University.

Patents

What is needed? Inventor/s

(Year). Assignee

Title

Patent number

*Example

Graham, C.P., Fonti, L. and Martinez, A.M. (1972). American Sugar Co. Tableting sugar

and compositions containing it. U.S. Pat. 3,642,535

British Standards

*Example

British Standards Institution (1981). BS 5930: 1981. Code of practice for site investigations.

Personal Communication

Can be used when one has cited unpublished information gained from a private letter,

conversation or interview.

*Example

Ross, D.E. (1991). Personal communication


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Part 2: Electronic Sources

No standard method for citing electronic sources of information has yet been agreed on.

The following citation formats outline the practices most likely to be adopted and are based

on the book by Xia Li & Nancy B. Crane (1995) and the draft of ISO standard 690-2.

References to electronic sources follow the same general pattern as for non-electronic

sources. Items from the Internet also use the URL (Internet address). The URL should only

be split after a forward slash, no further punctuation should be added, and the case of the

characters must not be altered. The examples given use the Harvard System, however these

basic rules may be customised for any standard citation style.

Individual works

What is needed? Author/s or editor/s.

(Year).

Title [online].

Edition.

Place of publication: Publisher (if ascertainable).

Available at: URL

[Accessed Date].

* Example

Holland, M. (1996). Harvard system [online]. Poole: Bournemouth University. Availablefrom: http://bournemouth.ac.uk/service-depts/lis/ LIS_Pub/harvardsyst.html [Accessed 15

April 1996].

The term [online]indicates type of medium and is used for all Internet sources. [Accessed

Date] is the date on which the document was viewed. This allows for any subsequent

modifications to the document. When referring to Internet sources the term publisher usually

applies to the organisation responsible for hosting the site, such as Bournemouth University.

If no specific author is cited ascribe authorship to the smallest organisational unit.

* Example

NRSWG (2000). In the mail: report of a survey of interlibrary loan delivery [online].

Canberra, Australia: National Resource Sharing Working Group Available at:

http://www.nla.gov.au/initiatives/nrswg/mailsurvey.html [Accessed 8 March 2000].
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E-Journal Articles

What is needed? Author/s(Year).

Title of article.

Journal Title [online] (title in italics, bold or underlined),

Volume number, (Part/issue number).

Available at: URL

[Accessed Date].

*Example

Caplan, P. and Arms, W. (1999). Reference linking for journal articles.D-Lib Magazine

[online], July/August. Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july99/07caplan.html [Accessed

27 Aug 1999].

Mailbase/Listserv email lists

These discussion lists generate email messages which are sent directly to the subscriber.

References to these messages should be treated in a similar fashion to journal references;

using the list name in place of the journal title and the subject line of the message in place of

the article title. For "Available at:", use the email address of the list administrator.

These details, together with the author, will appear in the message header.

What is needed? Author (Year).

Subject of message.

Discussion List[online].

Day Month Year.

Available at: list e-mail address

[Accessed Date].

*Example

Brack, E.V. (1995). Re: Computing short courses.Lis-link[online]. 2 May 1995. Available

at: [email protected] [Accessed 17 Apr 1996].

Jensen, L.R. (1995). Recommendation of student radio/tv in English.IASTAR [online]. 12

Dec 1995. Available at: [email protected] [Accessed 29 Apr 1996].

It should be noted that items may only be kept on discussion group servers for a short time

and hence may not be suitable for referencing.


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Personal electronic communications (E-mail)

The "subject line" of the message is given as a title and the full date is given. In place of

"Available at" use "E-mail to" and state the recipient's name and e-mail address.

What is needed? Sender (Sender's E-mail address)

(Year)

Subject of Message.

Day Month Year.

E-mail to: Recipient (Recipient's E-mail address).

*Example

Lowman, D. ([email protected]) (1996).RE: ProCite and Internet Refere. 4 Apr

1996. E-mail to: P. Cross ([email protected]).

References

Draft of ISO standard 690-2 (2001) Information and documentation: Bibliographic

references: Electronic documents or parts thereof.

Xia Li & Nancy B. Crane (1995)Electronic style: a guide to citing electronic

information, 2nd ed., Mecklermedia

Dianne Nelson, August 2001 (edited as web page by Tony Drewry)
http://www.fet.uwe.ac.uk/~tdrewryhttp://www.fet.uwe.ac.uk/~tdrewry


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Referencing

Table of Contents1. Introduction

2. Part 1: References and

bibliography

3. Part 2: Referencing the

literature in an

academic written text

1. The purpose of

academic

referencing

2. The practice of

academic

referencing4. Part 3: Introducing

another author's ideas

5. Part 4: Paraphrasing

and summarising

another author's idea

6. Part 5: Quoting the

exact words of another

author

7. Part 6: The rules for

presenting references

in an academic writtentext - primary and

secondary sources


presenting a list of

references at the end of

the essay

9. Closing comments

10.Back to Study Skills

Introduction

Part 2: Referencing the literature in an academic

written text

The reasons for utilising references in academic writing are

based on common sense. Referencing affects the quality of

your work. It informs the reader about the extent and type of

reading that you have undertaken. Also, the way incorporate

references into your text can make a difference to the grade

you receive for your assignment.

The following sub sections are to help you consider the

purpose of academic referencing and the practice of academic

referencing.
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Table of Contents1. Introduction

2. Part 1: References and

bibliography

3. Part 2: Referencing the

literature in anacademic written text

4. Part 3: Introducing

another author's ideas

5. Part 4: Paraphrasing

and summarising

another author's idea

6. Part 5: Quoting the

exact words of another

author


presenting references

in an academic written

text - primary and

secondary sources


presenting a list of

references at the end of

the essay

9. Closing comments

10.Back to Study SkillsIntroduction

Introduction

This section is about using literature sources - a crucial part of

academic writing. Literature sources enrich your thinking and

help you to develop your ideas so that you can integrate them

into the culture of Nursing and Midwifery Studies.Consequently, they play a very important role in your

academic written assignments.

For further details, read through the college document 'Citing

References' from Information Services and Systems attached

to- http://www.kcl.ac.uk/content/1/c6/06/08/77/citing2009-

10FINAL1.pdf

The most important point about using references in an

academic piece of writing is understanding why they are used.

Then the way referencing should be done becomes clear

because it is simply a matter of basic, common sense.

An academic essay is a piece of writing about a specific topic.

It is the result of a great deal of thinking about the topic,

discussing the topic with others and reading what other writers

have written about the topic. So it is an original piece of work

that emerges from all these different learning experiences.

Reading published texts about a certain topic helps us to

develop our own original thoughts and thus enables us to

contribute new ideas to our academic community through ourwriting. In this sense, reading is a part of academic writing.

This section has seven parts and many activities to help you

develop your understanding of using references:

Part 1: References and bibliography

Part 2: Referencing the literature in an academic written text

Part 3: Presenting another author's idea

Part 4: Paraphrasing and summarising another author's idea

Part 5: Quoting the exact words of another author

Part 6: The rules of presenting references in an academic

written text

Part 7: The rules of presenting a list of references at the end of

the text

Copyright 2007. Florence Nightingale School of Nursing & Midwifery
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Part 2: Referencing the literature in an academic written text

The reasons for utilising references in academic writing are based on common sense.

Referencing affects the quality of your work. It informs the reader about the extent and type

of reading that you have undertaken. Also, the way incorporate references into your text can

make a difference to the grade you receive for your assignment.

The following sub sections are to help you consider the purpose of academic referencing and

the practice of academic referencing.

The purpose of academic referencing

The activities that follow will help you to deepen your understanding of why referencing is a

matter of common sense.

Choose a published article that interests you. It may be to do with one of

your courses. Read it and notice how the author has brought ideas, statements or arguments

from literature sources into the text. This will help you to develop your own writing style in

making references to the literature.

You may like to repeat this activity with other published articles to notice how different

authors use references to the literature in their texts.

1 Why reference in an essay?

Why do student writers really need to refer to points made in published texts in an

academic essay? Try and think of at least three reasons. Bottom of Form

2 Selecting references

What are the main criteria for selecting the best references to include in an essay?


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The practice of academic referencing

You are going to read seven extracts from the following published article:

Hollinworth H, Clark C, Harland R, Johnson L and Partington G (2005) Understanding the

arousal of anger: a patient-centred approach. Nursing Standard 19(37): 41-47

Each extract contains one or more references to the literature. In each case, decide why the

reference(s) has(have) been incorporated into the text by choosing one or more of the reasons

provided for each extract. You may find it helpful to download the whole article and skim

read it. This will help you understand the context for each extract. You may find that there

are overlaps. However, the most important aspect of this activity is to develop your

understanding of how references can be important to the writer.

Please note that 'Nursing Standard' is a popular UK journal publishing papers with a clinical

focus. This means that, while it reflects clinical practice in the UK, it is important that you

should not rely on this journal alone for your reading. You are expected to read and reference

articles from a broad range of academic journals in order to understand the full scope of

nursing research.

1 Extract A

.... Anger and aggressive behaviour has become a problem in acute healthcare settings (Winstanley

and Whittington 2004), .... (from p.41)

a) to put forward an interesting point for discussion

b) to give authority to an argument or statement that the writers want to make

c) to enrich the discussion by bringing in one or more outside perspective(s)

d) to support a point or argument by elaborating on it with details or examples

e) to make an important point about the topic

f) to develop an argument

2 Extract B

... it is important to recognise that anger does not always lead to violence. Friedman and Booth-

Kewley (1987) help to promote understanding when they define anger as immediate emotional

arousal, hostility as a more enduring negative attitude, and aggression as the actual or intended

harming of others. .... (from p.42)




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3 Extract C

... the patient who has undergone emergency surgical intervention and formation of a colostomy is

likely to have specific psychological and physical issues to deal with that may give rise to feelings of

anxiety, frustration and perhaps anger. Metcalf (1999) describes three main factors that influence

psychological adjustment following the formation of a stoma:

- The degree of satisfaction that a patient has with pre-operative preparation.

- Stoma-related factors, such as leakage, odour, sore skin and insufficient practical skills when

changing stoma appliances.

- The patient's expectation of regaining control of the current situation.

- Therefore it would not be surprising for a patient who has undergone emergency surgery.. (from

p.43)







4 Extract D

Women are often perceived to suppress their anger. Lerner (1988) reports that women tend to beinhibited in their expression of anger whereas men tend not to be. (from p.43)








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5 Extract E

Reasons for anger suppression in women are varied (Averill 1983). Several authors highlight

socialisation as an explanation for this behaviour (Collier 1982, Lerner 1988, Turkel 2000). Sharkin

(1993) considers that women are socialised to express their emotions more openly, with theexception of anger, which he suggests is viewed as 'unfeminine' by society. ... (from p.44)







6 Extract F

.... In fact, many people believe that expressing anger is healthy and necessary. However, this

widespread belief that anger will be harmful unless expressed is not supported by research (Tavris

1989). It is not the anger that is legitimate and right, but the stress that underlies the anger (McKay et

al 1989) .... (from p.45)








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7Extract G - A more helpful evidence-based strategy is to:

- Establish a trusting relationship with the patient. This is the most powerful aid to reducing stress in

most patients in the clinical situation (Ridner 2004).

- Remain calm, speak softly, and listen carefully to the individual's complaint (Thomas 1998).

- Actively engage with the person by developing simple counselling skills (Hollinworth and

Hawkins 2002), and using empathetic communication (Morse et al 1992). ... (from p.46)







Part 3: Introducing another author's ideas

An additional point to consider is how to introduce an author's ideas into your text. You may

want to use those ideas to help you describe something more clearly or in more detail: an

event, a situation or a condition perhaps. Or you may want to use them as a part of your

discussion, where you are examining something analytically and critically.

The following two sections will help you, firstly, to recognise description, analysis and

critical thought in the writing and, secondly, to understand the use of tentative expression in

critical analysis.


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Description, analysis and critical thought

This activity consists of 20 short extracts. For each extract, decide whether the writer is using

them to describe something, to indicate analysis or critical thought or to do both.

In the answers the words which help to promote the idea of description or critical

analysis/thought have been highlighted.

1 Extract 1 - Marks (1999) suggested that ...

a) Description

b) Analysis/Critique

c) Description and Analysis/Critique

2 Extract 2 - Despite some of the reasons mentioned, Coombes (2003) argues that ...

a) Description



3 Extract 3 - Consequently many authors now concur that this is outdated practice (Rowe 1999;

Mulligan 1999; Garcia 2003)...

a) Description



4 Extract 4 - Nevertheless, it can be seen that evidence based practice is not a recipe book asMcCulloch (2002) advocates ...

a) Description



5 Extract 5 - Another reason that Smith (1998) gives is that...

a) Description


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6 Extract 6 - Criticism by Mason (2002) has ranged from .... compared with Young (1998) whose

expertise is evident in that her ...

a) Description



7 Extract 7- Many students feel concerned about discussing issues in practice for fear of the effect

it may have on their practice assessment (Singh 2001).

a) Description



8 Extract 8 - The argument that Seipp (2001) puts forward is in stark contrast with Geodes (2203),

who suggests a misunderstanding occurs when ...

a) Description



9 Extract 9 - Compared to Ferguson's (2001) flawed argument Rowntree's (2003) point is much

more credible because it casts doubt on ...

a) Description



10 Extract 10 - It is this type of inconsistency in the methods used by both Jon (2000) and later Ellis

(2003) which makes the validity questionable.

a) Description




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11 Extract 11 - There is some debate in the literature such as the agreements proffered by

Weatherall (1999) which is in sharp contrast to Gordini (2002) ..

a) Description



12 Extract 12 - A number of explanations have been offered by some authors. However it is the

findings and recommendations of Scott's (2002) study which best fits the practice

setting.

a) Description



13 Extract 13 - Granite (2001) is the most consistent and convincing writer on this topic.

a) Description



14 Extract 14- It is worth remembering that Leicester (2000) describes it as inconsistent and Job

(2002) suggests that there is no validity in the argument.

a) Description



15 Extract 15 - It is interesting to note that Rowe (2003) agrees with John (2003).

a) Description



16 Extract 16 - Even more fundamental is the way that Fordham (2001) comments on the issue

compared with how Lancer (2002) draws the reader's attention to the inconsistencies.

a) Description



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17 Extract 17 - In the light of currently available evidence, the answer to the question as discussed

by Gomez (2002) appears to be imbalanced ...

a) Description



18 Extract 18 - A more significant study than Bryant's (2003), both in terms of methodology and

outcome, is that of Blake (2000) reported 3 years earlier.

a) Description



19

Extract 19 - Methodological shortcomings are demonstrated in the studies carried out by George

(2001) and Cline (2002).

a) Descriptionb) Analysis/Critique


Tentative expression 1

Critical thought is often expressed in a tentative manner to highlight the point that academic

writing is full of uncertainties. To develop your appreciation of this kind of writing in relationto referencing, try the following activity.

The seven extracts which follow are from four different articles about ethical issues:

Wainright P, Gallagher A (2007) Ethical aspects of withholding treatment. Nursing Standard,

21(33): 46-50.

Chaloner C (2007) Ethics in nursing: the way forward. Nursing Standard, 21(38): 40-41.


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Chaloner C, Sanders K (2007) Euthanasia: the legal issues. Nursing Standard, 21(36): 42-46.

Gallagher A, Wainright P (2007) Terminal sedation: promoting ethical nursing practice.

Nursing Standard, 21(34): 42-46.

All seven extracts contain some tentative expressions. In each case, read the extract and then:

1. decide which expressions are tentative by selecting one or more of themultiple choice answers.

2. for each tentative expression you have chosen, decide who displaystentative behaviour: the writer(s) of the extract, the referenced author(s)or the mentioned author. If you think it is unclear, write 'unclear'.

1 Extract 1- Identify the tentative expressions in the extract

below:

Personal autonomy, which refers to a person's ability to be self-governing and to make

decisions (Beauchamp and Childress 2001), although important, cannot always be an

overriding ethical principle. (Wainright and Gallagher 2007: 47)

a) Personal autonomy

b) which refers to a person's ability to be self-governing and to make

decisions

c) although important

d) cannot always be

e) an overriding ethical principle

2 Q1b - In Extract 1 tentative behaviour is displayed by:

a) the referenced authors, Beauchamp and Childress

b) the writers, Wainright and Gallagher


1 Extract 2 - Identify the tentative expressions in the extract below: TheHouse of Lords debate on assisted dying attracted significantmedia coverage (Wilson 2006, Woodward 2006), although it isarguable whether some of the enthusiastic, but one-sidedappeals (Toynbee 2006), served to inform the debate ordetracted from balanced ethical deliberation on the complexand sensitive issues. (Chaloner 2007: 44)

a) The House of Lords debate on assisted dyingb) attracted significant media coverage


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c) although it is arguable whether some of the enthusiastic,

d) but one-sided appeals

e) served to inform the debate or detracted from balanced ethical

deliberation

f) on the complex and sensitive issues

2 Q2b - Tentative behaviour in Extract 2 is displayed by:

a) the writer, Challoner

b) the referenced authors, Wilson / Woodward

c) the referenced author, Toynbee

3 Extract 3 - Identify the tentative expression in the extract below: ...some nurses may regard ethics as a remote concept that is oflittle practical value and associate it with theories andguidelines that have no immediate relevance to their role.(Chaloner and Saunders 2007: 40)

a) some nurses may regard ethics as a remote concept

b) that is of little practical value

c) and associate it with theories and guidelines

d) that have no immediate relevance to their role.

4 Extract 4 - Identify the tentative expression in the extract: Hurwitz

(2003) states that pain is probably the most common symptom

that causes people to consult doctors.(Gallagher and

Wainright 2007: 43)

a) Hurwitz (2003) states

b) that pain is probably the most common symptom

c) that causes people to consult doctors.

5 Q4b - Tentative behaviour in extract 4 is displayed by:

a) the writers, Gallagher and Wainright

b) the referenced author, Hurwitz



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1 Extract 5 - Identify the tentative expression in the extract : Pain is a

complex phenomenon. It can be protective as it indicates that

all is not well in the body and that there may be a dysfunction,

which could be remedied (Hurwitz 2003).

(Gallagher and Wainright 2007: 43)

a) Pain is a complex phenomenon

b) It can be protective

c) as it indicates that all is not well in the body

d) and that there may be a dysfunction

e) which could be remedied

2 Q5b - Tentative behaviour in Extract 5 is displayed by:


b) the referenced author, Hurwitz

3 Extract 6 - Identify the tentative expression in the extract below:

Hurwitz identified the difficulties in articulating and understanding painexperiences. More visual approaches may be helpful. In Padfield's (2003)photographic work, patients experiencing chronic pain were invited to attemptto articulate their pain and responses to it. (Gallagher and Wainright 2007: 43)

a) Hurwitz identified the difficulties in articulating and understanding pain

experiences.

b) More visual approaches may be helpful.

c) In Padfield's (2003) photographic work,

d) patients experiencing chronic pain

e) were invited to attempt to

f) articulate their pain and responses to it.

4 Q6b - In Extract 6 tentative behaviour is displayed by:


b) the mentioned author, Hurwitz

c) the referenced author, Padfield


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5 Extract 7 - Identify the tentative expression in the extract below:

Woods (2004) asks whether sedation at other stages should be termed 'nonterminal sedation'. However, this seems to miss the point.

(Gallagher and Wainwright 2007: 43)

a) Woods (2004) asks

b) whether sedation at other stages should be termed 'non terminal

sedation'.

c) However, this seems to miss the point.

6 Q7b - In Extract 7 tentative behaviour is displayed by:a) the writers, Gallagher and Wainright

b) the referenced author, Wood


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Part 4: Paraphrasing and summarising another author's idea

While you are reading it is a good idea to make notes of any interesting points you might

want to include in your essay. This will help you to paraphrase and summarise those points so

that you can use them to develop your essay. 'Paraphrasing' means expressing the same ideain a different way. 'Summarising' means expressing the same idea in a condensed form,

leaving out any unnecessary detail and just making the main point. The following activity

provides you with some practice in paraphrasing and summarising.

Here are four extracts from published articles, with the references given

first. Try paraphrasing and summarising the extracts. Remember to reference them as well.

1 Extract A - (from Macleod Clark J (1993) From sick nursingto health nursing. in Wilson-Barnett & Macleod Clark(eds.) Research in Health Promotion and NursingBasingstoke: The Macmillan Press Ltd: 256-270)

'A health model of nursing encompasses the fact that each individual's need for care is

different, and that, whenever possible, patients and clients should be involved in decisions

about, and be able to participate in, their care. Health nursing focuses on maximising the

potential for health and independence. It builds on people's existing knowledge and

experience, helps them to become more autonomous and empowers them to take

responsibility for their health.' (Macloed Clark 1993: 258)

2 Extract B - (from Macleod Clark J (1993) From sick nursingto health nursing. in Wilson-Barnett & Macleod Clark(eds.) Research in Health Promotion and NursingBasingstoke: The Macmillan Press Ltd: 256-270)

'Enhanced life expectancy, the rising number of elderly in the population, and the focus on

community care will increase the importance of the nurse's role as a resource and support to

lay carers. Growing economic constraints and the market place ethos in health care will

place the emphasis on cost effectiveness. Current trends in terms of skill mix mean that

professional nurses will find themselves supporting large numbers of less qualified care

assistants. The growth of consumer awareness and the desire to improve their health, remain

healthy and be actively involved in their care, constitutes additional but more positive

changes.' (Macleod Clark 1993: 258)

3 Extract C - (from Duncan P, Dealey C (2007) Patients'feelings about hand washing, MRSA status and

patient information. British Journal of Nursing 16(1):34-38.)

'Research undertaken in other studies supported the finding from this research that patientswould feel more confident about asking staff and staff would feel more confident about


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being asked to wash their hands if there was a cultural change in attitude to make such

practice routine in hospitals. To that end, the profile surrounding a 'Clean Your Hands

Campaign' should be maintained constantly. Undoubtedly, the current drive to involve

patients in shaping the future of health care through the foundation trusts and parent

associations, for example, should be continued so that something as critical and fundamentalas hand hygiene becomes beyond the need to question.' (Duncan and Dealy 2007: 38)

4 Extract D - From Dunne K (2005) Effective communication inpalliative care. Nursing Standard. 20(13): 57-64.

'Communication is the medium through which interpersonal interaction takes place. It is

necessary in the daily lives of almost every human being. In palliative care the uniqueness

of the situation to the individuals in the family can never be overlooked and highlights the

need for effective patterns of communication between them and the professionals with

whom they come into contact. However, the communication process is complex and

involved. It is well recognised that communication is central to the nurse-patient

relationship, but in practice there is significant evidence that many nurses experience

difficulties when caring for the patient and his or her family during the palliative stage of

disease.

In addition, many patients have fears and anxieties about death and find it a problem to talk

about it, not only with professionals, but also with their loved ones. The family's level of

awareness about diagnosis and prognosis has been highlighted as an important variable in

the communication process, although it has been demonstrated that even when an open

awareness context existed, communication difficulties were apparent for patients and family

members.

The evidence demonstrates the need for nurses and other health professionals to develop

their communication and interpersonal skills so that they can facilitate the process of

communication with the patient, rather than engaging in blocking and distancing tactics that

hinder effective communication. The skills of active listening, open questioning and

reflection promote better communication and encourage empathy building. When these

skills are used, they enhance the communication process and help to ensure that events

leading up to death are well managed. This is a central factor in helping bereaved

individuals cope with grief following the death of their loved one.' (Dunne 2005: 62-63)

Part 5: Quoting the exact words of another author

Sometimes you may want to incorporate a quotation from another author into your text. The

important points to remember about doing this are:

1. Quotations should never be allowed to dominate your text. Therefore theyshould be short and very infrequent.

2. Quotations can be shortened by omitting some of the extract to be quotedand inserting three dots (...) to indicate each omission. But be very carefulnot to omit something if it changes the original sense of the extract!

3. One good reason for incorporating a quotation is to do with helping your

text to develop. But this needs to be made clear to the reader. Everyquotation should add to the flow of your text, not interrupt it. Each one


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should be introduced first and followed up with a comment to show why itis important.

4. Another good reason for incorporating a quotation is that the quotationseems to you to expresses your exact thoughts very effectively. If this isthe case, you need to explain why.

In the following extracts, the quotations (including those which are shortened using ...) are

incorporated into the writer's text. Explain how the quote is introduced and followed up.

Check your explanation with the explanation given.

1 Extract 1 - Hurwitz (2003) states that pain is probably the mostcommon symptom that causes people to consult doctors and

that responses to the experience of pain are part of medicalpractice. He describes the variety of ways that pain isexpressed:

...silently in shivers, gazes, winces, and in the stretching, twitching, writhing movements of the

body; acoustically in shrieks, screams or whimpers; onomatopoeically in sighs, moans and groans;

verbally in strangely figurative descriptions; and socially by withdrawal from the world (Hurwitz

2003).

Pain is a complex phenomenon. It can be protective as it indicates that all is not well in the

body and that there may be dysfunction, which could be remedied (Hurwitz 2003). Pain is a

subjective experience. It is difficult to articulate and the nature of the experience may bedoubted by others, including health professionals. (Gallagher, Wainright 2007: 43)

2 Extract 2 - Reflective practice has been defined by Cattini

and Knowles (1999) as:

A dynamic process in which an individual practitioner actively considers the various

components of a given task, with a view to learning from and using the lessons learnt to

improve practice.

The learner is therefore enticed to self-question an uncertainty that has caused antagonismbetween the ideal and the reality, thus inspiring further enquiry and instigating the learner to

attain new knowledge. This new knowledge ideally leads to the pursuit of effective

strategies to resolve the practice-related problem.

(from Duffy A (2007) A concept analysis of reflective practice: determining its value to

nurses. British Journal of Nursing, 16 (22): 1402)

3 Extract 3 - Mezirow (1991b) warranted the bond betweenreflection and problem-solving as a deliberate


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process:

As we assess our assumptions about the content or process of problem solving and find

them unjustified, we create new ones or transform our old assumptions and hence our

interpretations of experience. This is the dynamic of every day reflective learning.

Therefore, reflection needs to be a conscious and deliberate strategy aimed at understanding

and learning from clinical practice. (from Duffy 2007: 1403)

4 Extract 4

In this extract there are two short quotes. Numbers [1] and [2] have been inserted to identify

them:

Johns and Freshwater (1998) ... argued that we live in a world short of imagination, and

suggested that reflective practice is a therapeutic process that 'gives us wings to soar as we

emerge from our cocoons' [1] to make the journey of personal transformation and growth.

Johns (2002) further argued that the reflective journey should be a collaborative process - a

journey of now to where one wants to be - '...the being and the becoming' [2].

Unfortunately, in practice this is not always the case, as demonstrated by Mantzoukas and

Jasper (2004), ...(from Duffy 2007: 1403)


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Part 6: The rules for presenting references in an academic written text -

primary and secondary sources

Primary sources are the references that you have read for your assignment. Secondary sources

are references that you have not read but want to include in your assignment because you

have read about them and you think they should be mentioned. However, you are advised to

avoid including references to secondary sources as far as possible.

In this section we will examine the rules for presenting both types of references, beginning

with primary referencing. The most important rule for all types of referencing is being

consistent, ie, using the same format every time. This will avoid the danger of any

misunderstandings arising.

Primary references

The rules for presenting primary references are easy to understand because, again, they rely

entirely on basic common sense.

The two most popular approaches are: author-date (the Harvard system) and numeric (the

Vancouver system). See Citing References (Information Services and Systems -

www.kcl.ac.uk/iss) for further details. You will come across both types in your reading.

The more widely used system is the Harvard system because it is more compact than the

Vancouver system. Several references to the same article or book only need to be listed once

in the list of references and bibliography at the end. If a page number needs to be referenced,

this appears in the text, after the date. The Vancouver system is useful for articles aboutcollaborative scientific research, where the articles that are referenced are mainly about

studies conducted by a team of researchers, sometimes more than six members. Each member

of the team will have contributed to the article and is mentioned as one of the authors in the

list at the end. But in the Vancouver system not every name is mentioned in the article.

Sometimes the only reference is a number. Thus the flow of the content is not disturbed.

Throughout this section on Referencing only the Harvard system is used because this is the

system you need to use in your written assignments.

Activity - You have already seen several examples of primary referencing in the text. Butyou may not have noticed how it was done. Here are six extracts. Decide if they are correctlywritten or not. Write the correct version where necessary.

Extract 1

**Steinbock argues that active and passive euthanasia are indistinguishable because omitting

to treat a patient is as potent as actively killing a person (1980).

Extract 2

Ethics is central to health care. Seedhouse (1998)
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/isshttp://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss


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Extract 3

"Postal surveys and telephone interview surveys can both cost roughly half as much as

surveys using personal interviews, but telephone surveys have the additional advantage of

greater speed" (Hakim 1987, p59)

Extract 4

A study in the Journal of Advanced Nursing (2002) showed that toothbrusheswere better at removing dental plaque than foam swabs.

Extract 5

This finding is also reported in other studies (McKenna, Keeney, Glenn, Gordon2000; Atwal 2002; Watts, Gardner 2005).

Extract 6

C Cullen (2000) argues that some nurses are reluctant to function as advocates.

Extract 7

According to (Arber 2001, in Gilbert 2001, the choice of sampling approachdepends on the aims of the study.

Secondary references

Secondary references should be avoided as far as possible. They can only be tolerated when

the original reference is definitely unobtainable. They must be used very infrequently.

The two standard rules for including secondary references are:

1. Acknowledge in your text both the secondary reference and the referenceof the literature source that you read, ie, your primary reference. See theexample below:

Walker et al. draw attention to Maslow's hierarchy of human needs, which had a significant

influence on humanistic psychology in the 1950s. Maslow constructed a hierarchy of human

needs and argued that basic, lower-order needs would have to be satisfied before higher-

order needs could be fulfilled (Maslow 1970, cited in Walker et al. 2004: 9).

2. Include only the primary reference in your list of references at the end. Forexample, the primary reference for the above short text would be:

Walker J, Payne S, Smith P, Jarrett N (2004) Psychology for nurses and the caring

professions (2nd Ed.) Maidenhead: Open University Press

The secondary reference, Maslow 1970, is not included in the list of references.

1 Q1 Read the following example. Then decide which is the primary

reference and should be included in the list of references atthe end.


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For Schn (1983, as cited in Duffy 2007, p.1401) there are two kinds of reflection:

'reflection on action' and 'reflection in action'.

a) Duffy 2007

b) Schn 1983

2 Q2 Read the following example. Then decide which is the primaryreference and should be included in the list of references atthe end.

According to Duffy (2007), Dewey (1933) strongly argued for the need to appreciate the

complexity of the reflective process (in Duffy, 2007, p. 1401).

a) Dewey 1933

b) Duffy 2007


A good example of how empowerment works through shifts in power is given by Friere

(1970, in Christensen and Hewitt-Taylor, 2006, p. 698).

a) Friere 1970

b) Christensen and Hewitt-Taylor 2006


Archibald (2006, p. 50) cites the work of Hodkinson (1972), who developed the

Abbreviated Mental Test.a) Archibald 2006

b) Hodkinson 1972

Practising citing secondary references

In each of the following extracts, a reference is made to the work of another author. Assume

that this work is unavailable but that you wish to refer to it in your essay. In the space

provided, show how you could do this.


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1 Extract 1.. Pain is a subjective experience. It is difficult to articulateand the nature of the experience may be doubted by others,including health professionals. This is articulated well by Scarry(1985) who states that: 'Whatever pain achieves, it achieves

through its unsharability , and it ensures this unshareabilitythrough its resistance to language ... to have great pain is tohave certainty; to hear that another person has pain is to havedoubt.' ... (Gallagher and Wainright 2007 p.43)

2 Extract 2.. At the early stages of nursing education in the late 1800sand early 1900s, ethics was equated with expected professionalconduct. It was essential for students of nursing to bring certaincharacteristics to their work. Aitkens (1937) noted that the mostimportant characteristics that a nurse must have above andbeyond the expected ones of "courage, tolerance, steadfastness,faithfulness, sincerity, loyalty, tolerance, generosity, patience,[and] courtesy" was truthfulness. ... (Lewenson et al. 2005, p.89)

3 Extract 3 - .. The laws of nursing were, for Nightingale, synonymouswith the laws of health (Nightingale1859). The task of nurseswas to identify the laws of health, and manipulate conditions andcausal mechanisms affecting both the sick and the well, in orderto optimize the health of the population. She was highlysuspicious of curative interventions ... (Porter 2001, p. 20)

Part 7: The rules for presenting a list of references at the end of the essay

These rules are very important to observe because they provide the reader with an easy way

of finding a reference. Again, they are really just basic, common sense. But remember that

absolute consistency in the formatting of references is essential.

See Citing References (Information Services and Systems - http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/ir/refs/)

for further details.

The following tasks will help you to remember how to write a list of

references at the end of an essay.
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/ir/refs/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/ir/refs/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/ir/refs/


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1 Writing a reference to a book

Using a couple of your own textbooks or some from the library, identify the following information

and either write it on a piece of paper or use the notes facility below.

1) Author's (or authors') name(s) and initial(s)

2) The year the book is published

3) The title of the book

4) The place of publication - note that this is usually a town and not a country

5) The name of the publisher

2 Writing a reference to a dissertation

Use the following information and write out a full reference for this dissertation written by a Masters student:

Title of dissertation: A survey of views of doctors and nurses on the use of computerised records.

Student's name: Jackie Brand - Year of dissertation: 2001

3 Writing a reference to a web document

You have read some useful guidelines on the web about assessing children with fever. The web page

is:

http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=430964The year is 2007 and you accessed the article on May

23rd. It is a press release issued by NICE under the NHS. The title is: NICE issues guidance to helpassess children with fever.

Write a correct reference for it.

4 Reference List List

the following seven references in the correct alphabetical order.

1) Korgoankar G and Tribe D (1995) Law for Nurses. London: Cavendish Publishing Limited

2) Muir Gray J A (1997) Evidence-based Healthcare. New York: Churchill Livingstone 3)

Taylor H (2003) An exploration of the factors that affect nurses' record keeping. Online BritishJournal of Nursing 12(12): 751-758 [online] Available: http://www.internurse.com/cgi-

bin/go.pl/library/article.htm?uid=8135 [accessed 2.9.03] 4)

Johnstone M-J (2000) Bioethics: a nursing perspective. 3rd ed. Sydney: Harcourt Saunders

5) Bond M and Holland S (1998) Skills of clinical supervision for nurses. London: Open University

Press 6)

Bosque E M (1995) Pulse Oximetry and intuition in the neonatal intensive care unit. Critical Care

Nursing Clinics of North America 7: 219-225 7)

Guiliano K K, Scott S S, Brown V, Olson M (2003) Backrest Angle and Cardiac Output

Measurement in Critically Ill Patients. Nursing Research 52(4): 242-248

Closing comments
http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=430964http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=430964http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=430964


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If, when you have completed this section, you still have concerns about some aspects of referencing,

contact your personal tutor or lecturer for further support.

You can also find out more information about referencing under the WebCT Course List: Information

Literacy - ISS206 Information Retrieval Skills for Nursing and Midwifery.

Citing references (February 2008) is a user guide available from the ISS resources web site

http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/about/pubs/userguides.html This document is revised before each academic

year and is also found in programme handbooks.
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/about/pubs/userguides.htmlhttp://www.kcl.ac.uk/iss/about/pubs/userguides.html

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