An open-air museum as a mediator of environmental

awareness. The case studies of Fredriksdal and

Miljöverkstaden

Master’s Thesis

Department of Service Management

Lund University Campus Helsingborg

May 2013

Supervisor: Torleif Bramryd

Author: Konstantinos Arzanas

Abstract

There is an increasing interest regarding environmental preservation and the proper use of

natural resources. In this debate, a quite promising element that gains currently more and

more supporters is this of the ecosystem services approach which constructs a

contemporary way to look on environmental preservation and economic growth. For many

years, the official school curriculums characterized by a normative and factual approach

were the main channels of transmitting environmental knowledge (Öhman 2008;

Wickenberg et al 2008; Kola-Olusanya, 2005). However the last decades, a quite promising

source of environmental awareness is the practical orientation of the outdoor

environmental education conducted in open-air museums and similar localities (Kola-

Olusanya, 2005). This study attempted to identify the relation between the ecological

message of the conducted environmental educational processes and the ecosystem services

approach. The empirical focus of the study rested on the cases of Fredriksdal and

Miljöverkstaden which are two Swedish open-air museums which provide environmental

education opportunities. The main findings revealed the existence of a quite strong

sustainability discourse that includes principles from the green economy movement and

subsequently is highly related to the ecosystem services approach.

Key words: environmental education, ecosystem services, sustainability, ecological message,

outdoor environmental educational processes, green economy, ecosystem valuation, nature

commodification.

Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Aim and research questions .......................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Scope of the study ......................................................................................................................... 4

1.4 Disposition ..................................................................................................................................... 6

2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF (OUTDOOR) ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION ............................................................................................................................................. 7

2.1 Defining environmental education ................................................................................................ 7

2.2 Environmental, societal and economic aspects of environmental education .............................. 8

2.3 Evolutionary steps in educative processes .................................................................................... 9

2.3.1 The environmental education from a Swedish perspective ................................................. 11

2.4 The outdoor approach in environmental education ................................................................... 12

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK-LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 15

3.1 Unpacking the ecological message deriving from (outdoor) educational processes .................. 15

3.2 Ecosystem services – A modern way of looking at environmental conservation ....................... 16

3.3 The controversial issue of economic valuation of ecosystem services ....................................... 19

3.4 Concluding remarks and aiming within the research field .......................................................... 21

4. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 23

4.1 Qualitative study and multiple case study with exploratory design ........................................... 23

4.2 The research context ................................................................................................................... 24

4.3 Data collection methods ............................................................................................................. 25

4.3.1 Semi-structured interviews .................................................................................................. 25

4.3.1.1 Interviewing academics of environmental education ................................................... 27

4.3.1.2 Interviewing employees in the localities ....................................................................... 28

4.3.1.3 Interviewing municipality employees (environmental-technical office) ...................... 29

4.3.2 Documents ........................................................................................................................... 30

4.4 Data analysis ................................................................................................................................ 31

4.5 Limitations ................................................................................................................................... 32

5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE CASE STUDY RESULTS .............................................................. 34

5.1 Environmental education and the city of Helsingborg ................................................................ 34

5.1.1 Advocating the importance of environmental education .................................................... 35

5.1.2 Vision and communicated message ..................................................................................... 36

5.1.3 The driving forces ................................................................................................................. 37

5.1.4 Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden as mediators of environmental education. ..................... 39

5.1.4.1 Educational targets in Fredriksdal ................................................................................. 40

5.1.4.2 Educational targets in Miljöverkdstaden ...................................................................... 41

5.2 Conducted environmental educational processes ...................................................................... 42

5.2.1 Characteristics of an effective environmental educational process .................................... 43

5.2.2 Theoretical vs practical approach......................................................................................... 44

5.2.3 Outdoor environmental educational processes ................................................................... 45

5.2.4 Environmental educational processes at Fredriksdal........................................................... 47

5.2.5 Environmental educational processes at Miljöverkstaden .................................................. 49

5.3 Deriving ecological message........................................................................................................ 50

5.3.1 The deriving ecological message through the intended developments in the localities ..... 54

5.4 Ecosystem services and their value aspects ................................................................................ 56

5.4.1 Worthiness of natural benefits............................................................................................. 56

5.4.2 A financial discourse for environmental preservation. ........................................................ 58

5.4.3 Valuation of ecosystem services and the risk of commodification ...................................... 59

6. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 61

7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE LOCALITIES ...................................................................................... 63

8. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 66

Appendix 1: Interview guides ................................................................................................................ 70

Appendix 2: Coding Matrix .................................................................................................................... 75

List of Figures

Figure 1: Alternative pathways to recapitulation of the resource-intensive stages of industrialization.

............................................................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 2: The overlapping cycles of sustainability. ................................................................................ 56

List of Tables

Table 1: Paradigms of environmental management within a spectrum of sustainability. ................... 16

Table 2: Interviewees ............................................................................................................................ 27

Table 3: Used documents ...................................................................................................................... 31

Table 4: Paradigm choices ..................................................................................................................... 53

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Currently, humanity faces one of its most difficult challenges that is related to fundamental

preconditions of its existence. There is a global conflict between environmental preservation

and resource use which serves the constantly expanding human needs and wants. This

ecology balance conflict is translated to the contemporary debate between those “who wish

to protect and preserve the natural heritage of the Earth and those who are more concerned

with safeguarding economic opportunity and growth”. (Axelrod, 1994)

The traditional conservation discourse approached environmental preservation and

economic development as two separated and opposite terms. Additionally, the traditional

conservation movement had “failed to preserve biodiversity and habitat loss”. Thus, the

response to these deficiencies was the re-emergence of the ecosystem services as a quite

promising discourse into the international environmental and policy agenda. (Gommez-

Baggethun & Perez, 2011) By definition “ecosystem services are the conditions and

processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain

and fulfill human life.” (Daily, 1997). Thus basically, the term ecosystem services includes all

the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. Those benefits can be provisioning,

regulating or even no-material while beyond their description there is always an implication

that deals with their intrinsic value. This value is often translated to financial terms which

depict the profits that humanity gains from their existence or the calculated cost of their

potential loss. (Braat & Groot. 2012; Salles, 2011) Even though, the explicit recognition of

ecosystem services is a rather new phenomenon, the notion of natural ecosystems and its

significance for the society are connected to the first steps of human intelligence. The first

precise reference of ecosystem services in the modern era belongs to George Perkins March

and dates from 1864. Since then, a series of scholars contributed to the growth and

development of the ecosystem services approach which by the end of the 1970’s was

considered as important unit to study. (Mooney & Ehrlich, 1997) The discussion on

ecosystem services reached a height on 1997 when Costanza et al (1997) highlighted their

economic perspective with the attempt to evaluate the exact economic value of a specific

number of ecosystem services. Today, and after a small gap the ecosystem services

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approach seems to gain more and more supporters who apply it to look on environmental

preservation subjects.

Practically, the ecosystem services approach proposed a swift in the existing logic that puts

the preservation opposite to development, to a new logic that sees preservation as a

structural element for development. On this way, natural ecosystems were portrayed as

precious and necessary capital stocks that provide diverse goods and services to human

societies. (Folke, 2006; Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011)

The growing popularity of the concept of ecosystem services made natural ecosystems a

common term in social debate. Undoubtedly, a quite efficient way to establish a deep

understanding about the value and the importance of natural ecosystems is the knowledge

deriving from education. More specifically, environmental education acquired gradually a

prominent position not only in the contemporary school curriculums but also into a range of

informal educative opportunities within the societies. (Ernst & Theimer, 2011; Kola-

Olusanya, 2005 & Fancovicova & Prokop, 2010)

One rather interesting way through which the environmental education is expressed, is the

informal/outdoor education within the context of natural parks, zoos or museums (Kola-

Olusanya, 2006). The educational processes in localities like these, are related to the concept

of ‘experience-based learning’ which according to many scholars make students to learn

better, while the first-hand experience with nature, helps in developing responsible

attitudes, and gain deep knowledge about the environment (Ballantyne & Packer, 2008;

Kola-Olusanya, 2006).

The series of conducted environmental educational processes are definitely supposed to

transmit a potential ecological message. The content of this ecological message can be

differentiating according to the aiming, to the quality or to the sort of ideological placement

of the mediator. Furthermore, the ecological message can be analyzed in terms of the

driving forces and the potential interests which are behind its sender or its manufacturer. As

Wals & Van der Leij (1997) indicate, in current reality environmental education can be

sponsored by a great number of different governmental or commercial sources, so the

ecological message may differ in terms of quality and targeting.

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Earlier research in the field of environmental education provides an adequate descriptive

picture of the contemporary environmental educational processes and evaluates their

results. But as Wals & Van der Leij (1997) criticize ”the world of environmental education

focuses too much on formulating the content and outcome of environmental education and

too little on the quality of the learning process”. Additionally, regarding the modern

preservation discourses, there is an increasing trend in adopting financial terminology in

order to construct the contemporary ecological message. There are a few researchers who

already tried to describe the value aspects of the natural benefits in societies. But since this

research field is quite new, there is still a lot of space for further investigation regarding how

and from where the contemporary ecological message is communicated, and to what extent

it is related with natural value aspects and the ecosystem services approach.

This thesis will attempt to assess the relationship between the ecological message that is

constructed through environmental educational processes and the approach of ecosystem

services. Firstly, it will focus on the qualitative investigation of the educational processes,

trying to identify the fundamental elements that construct the ecological message. This

procedure will help towards the understanding of the ecological message and then to the

effective classification of its notion according to sustainability discourse. The conducted

classification will reveal the value aspects of the ecological message and consequently its

relation to the ecosystem services approach.

The empirical focus of the study will rest on the cases of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden

which are two Swedish open-air museums that provide environmental education

opportunities. Their function is consistent with the most contemporary educational

processes and their orientation deals with the aiming to transmit an ecological message to

the local society of Helsingborg, Sweden. Both of them are cooperating with the academia

and they are mostly funded by the municipality of Helsingborg which promotes and uses

their services in multiple ways.

1.2 Aim and research questions

The aim of the thesis is to identify the ecological message of the environmental educational

processes in two open-air localities, and to discuss its relation with the contemporary

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approach of ecosystem services. On the basis of fulfilling the aim the following research

questions are asked:

(RQ) What is the relation of open-air museums’ environmental educational processes and

their ecological message to the ecosystem services approach?

(Sq-a) How do the environmental educational processes look like in an open air museum?

(Sq-b) What is the ecological message of the environmental education processes in an open-

air museum?

(Sq-c) What are the value aspects of the ecological message in the local society?

The overarching research question (RQ) outlines the basic research target of the study. It

seeks to illustrate the relation between the ecological message of the conducted

environmental educational processes with the ecosystem services approach. The three sub-

questions try to shed light in three successive focus areas in order to fulfill the answering of

the overarching question. The first sub-question (Sq-a) aims at the revealing of the intrinsic

characteristics of the environmental educational processes which ultimately construct the

ecological message. The second sub-question (Sq-b) requires an understanding and a deep

investigation of the communicated ecological massage. This procedure will be conducted

with the help of a critical theoretical tool of weak and strong sustainability (table 1) that will

classify the ecological message between the opposite discourses of economic progress and

deep ecology. This classification will reveal the standpoint of the ecological message about

subjects like natural benefits, nature exploitation and environmental preservation. Finally

the third sub-question (Sq-c) is posed in order to expose which are the values that the

ecological message proposes for the society. Then, the proposed values will be compared to

the sustainable definition of value included in the ecosystem services approach in order to

evaluate the level of relation of the transmitted ecological message with the ecosystem

services approach.

1.3 Scope of the study

As economies across the world have become more service oriented, it is of highly

importance to study and understand all aspects of managing service (Thomson Reuters,

2012). During the last decades beyond the traditional financial services like retail,

5

transportation, logistics, communication, etc., a great number of researchers include

education in the field of service industries and argue that it is crying out for serious and

further research (Larson 2009). Actually, the increasing demand for educational services is a

worldwide phenomenon that confers an economic interest next to the already existed

societal interest incorporated into education.

Environmental education is one among the many subjects which are communicated through

contemporary educational curriculums and processes. It adopts a series of discourses in

order to construct an ecological message and transmit knowledge to the society. One quite

promising approach is this of ecosystem services that highlights the benefits that people

obtain from ecosystems. Undoubtedly, this approach introduces a financial perspective plus

to the two mainstream environmental and societal discourses that were advocating

environmental issues and preservation. Already, the use of the word ‘services’ can be

controversial as it implies an anthropocentric and materialistic view in front of the values of

the nature, but according to many scholars it might be the only approach that can guarantee

the environmental preservation and simultaneously support the economic growth (Swart et

al 2007; Salles, 2011) that is requested by the existent hegemony of the neoliberal market

and enterprises.

Since this study tries to identify the ecological message of the environmental educational

processes, and discuss its relation with the ecosystem services approach, one can say that

there is a lot of space to consider the social constructiveness of certain discourses based on

the ideas of Foucault regarding the two conceptions of education: “education as

manipulation and education as communication” (Biesta 1998). Furthermore, it might be

plenty of space to assess the effectiveness of the tendency to evaluate natural benefits,

based on its results in the society (e.g. number of people with changed environmental

behavior). Instead, this thesis will pursue to describe the environmental educational

processes and identify the ecological message, in order to discuss its relation with the

ecosystem services approach and state its value aspects for the society.

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1.4 Disposition

At first, the introduction chapter (1) describes in detail the special background that intrigued

for the topic choice. Additionally, the aim and the research questions are presented. The

second chapter (2) includes a historical review of the development and the current

characteristics in the field of environmental education and especially its outdoor approach.

This chapter plays the role of a thematic background that promises to support the

understanding of the empirical case. Then, the third chapter (3) follows with the theoretical

framework-literature review. The theory section deals with concepts which are related to: a)

The notion of the message of the environmental educational processes, b) The ecosystem

services approach which is a contemporary way on looking natural preservation and c) The

controversial issue of talking about the environment on financial terms. The fourth chapter

(4) deals with the way that the empirical data were collected. There is a description of the

type of the study and the corresponding methods and techniques which were adopted.

Thereafter, the fifth chapter (5) presents the analysis and the discussion of the case study

results. Here the target is to depict the case study results and simultaneously analyze and

discuss on them in order to provide adequate answers to the research question and sub-

questions. The sixth chapter (6) includes the conclusions of the study, while the seventh

chapter (7) provides some recommendations for the localities. Those recommendations are

based on the conclusions and results of the conducted study and deal with the future of the

localities. Finally, the ninth chapter (9) contains the references from the used literature.

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2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF

(OUTDOOR) ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

2.1 Defining environmental education

In his effort to define the notion of environmental education Erdogan (2011) indicates the

development of environmentally literate individuals, and the building of responsible

environmental behaviors as the ultimate outcomes of environmental education.

Additionally, environmental education helps towards the development of an understanding

of the relation between human and his biophysical environment, whereas through its

multiple educational aspects, gives a meaning to organisms and goes beyond to give a

meaning to the nature as a whole. (Erdogan, 2011). At the same time, UNESCO (1978)

defines environmental education as a process of developing: “a world population that is

aware of and concerned about the total environment and its associated problems, and

which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivation and commitment to work individually

and collectively towards solutions of current problems and the preservation of new ones”.

While, the above statement becomes clearer through the specific goals of environmental

education stated at the Tbilisi Conference (1977): “a) Fostering clear awareness of and

concern about economic, social, political, and ecological independence in urban and rural

areas. b) Providing every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values,

attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve environment. c) Creating a

new pattern of behavior among individuals and group towards the environment.”.

One quite crucial element of environmental education is the quality and the level of the

embedded ecological message that is transmitted. Williams (2011) discusses the ways of

transmitting the concept of a green message without pushing ideas on people or turning

them away. An adequate response on that, could be the approach of Singh & Rahman (2012)

which points out that “the environmental message must be accessible and tailored to the

existing knowledge and interests of the target audience and it must also be clear,

uncomplicated and empowering” (Singh & Rahman, 2010).

An interesting debate that is raised by some critical approaches towards environmental

education deals with the query whether environmental education can be regarded as

successful when it only increases the level of knowledge and makes people to think

environmentally but not to act environmentally (Kemmis & Mutton, 2011). In the same

8

pattern, Fancovicova & Prokop (2010) indicate that “environmental knowledge is an

essential precursor of attitude formation (Kaiser, Wolfing, & Fuhrer, 1999) but knowledge

and attitude usually have a weak link to behavior change” (Fancovicova & Prokop, 2010 in

Kollmuss & Agyeman 2002). However, at the end of their argumentation Fancovicova &

Prokop (2010) reveal that building positive attitudes towards the environment can at least

improve partly the effectiveness of nature protection programs and they point out that a

more experiential educative approach would be more beneficial in terms of behavioral

change and promoting action.

However, regardless the level of the transmitting ecological message and the specific

orientation of each method, environmental education is an integral part of contemporary

education and plays a significant role in developing attitudes and responsible actions of

current (adults) and future (children) citizens of the world. Whether it derived from a

popular movement to re-connect human with nature, or it emerged in response to growing

environmental concerns, it should not be approached as a trend but as an existing necessary

reality. As Duhn (2012) points out, the importance of engaging young children in

environmental learning has been recognized as a key factor for the construction of a life-long

disposition of care for environment.

2.2 Environmental, societal and economic aspects of environmental

education

Many scholars indicate a growing popularity in research about environmental education.

This could be characterized as the response of the academia towards the growing

environmental concerns that during the last decades led to a range of regulatory, policy and

educational efforts, aiming to address specific environmental issues (Ernst & Theimer. 2011).

Current environmental problems impel governments, conservation organizations and

international agencies to develop strategies in order to protect natural habitats. However, as

Prokop & Fancovicova (2010) argue, it is hardly possible to protect the nature without

increasing public awareness about the environment. Undoubtedly, one of the most effective

ways to built environmental awareness is the environmental education provided to younger

generations and adults as well. Current research indicates the multiple environmental

benefits and the conservation hope deriving from that process. For example, Barratt Hacking

9

et al (2007) point out the aiming to transform children through environmental education to

“environmental stakeholders”. Since environmental stakeholder is defined as “anyone who

is or might be affected by a decision relating to environment” (Barratt Hacking et al, 2007),

the result of this procedure would be the creation of responsible individuals who are able to

take part in decision making discussions related to the future of the environment.

Additionally, Ballantyne & Packer (2009) emphasized that “active citizenship” is a significant

societal element that could be gained through a focus on environmental issues. On this way

and in order to highlight the relation between the notion of nature and society Wickenberg

et al (2008) summarize Nyden (1997) by indicating that “Societal activities are spontaneously

resulting in effects in nature at the same time as activities in nature not spontaneously are

resulting in effects in society”.

However, apart from the environmental conservation and societal benefits which are

related to the aiming of environmental education described above, it seems that there is a

range of economic reasons that push different organizations, governments and

administrative authorities to invest in environmental education. These economic driving

forces seek for the added value deriving from the “externalities” of the environment and its

ecosystems. Apparently, only a few studies investigated this field till now, so a further

research regarding the pure financial incentives that support the environmental education

seems to be needed.

2.3 Evolutionary steps in educative processes

Research indicates that over the last two centuries there were significant evolutionary steps

regarding educational practices. Those practices were highly affected by the new thinking

patterns and the new ways of knowing that emerged as parts of the parallel processes of

evolution of human consciousness and the major societal change in global level (Gidley

2011).

The model of mass public school education that developed during the industrial era made

formal education widely accessible, while during the pre-modern era, school education was

only available to the elite (Gidley, 2011). From then, the quantity of students followed an

upward trend regarding almost all the different disciplines and educational levels. As Bireaud

10

(1994) argues, even regarding the higher education, the “new missions” to collect larger

number of students and give them diversified education, led to significant evolution of

pedagogical practices (Bireaud, 1994). Qualitatively, Gidley (2011) proposes three waves of

educational impulses since the beginning of the 20th century that have been contributed to

the educational evolution. The first occurred on the early 20th century and was expressed

through some imagination, aesthetic and creativity signals adopted in educational

approaches. The second is related to the dramatic consciousness changes triggered by a

series of “worldwide” events that occurred around 1970’s. Those were the student protests

in Paris in 1968, the 1969 Woodstock Peace Festival in the USA, and the youth peace

movement that rose against the Vietnam War. The “new age” movements of that period

began to swift the ideas about formal education and led to more alternative education

modes. The third wave of evolving education approaches was constructed by a plethora of

new-postformal or evolutionary pedagogies which have emerged particularly over the first

decade of the 21st century (Gidley, 2011).

The pedagogical swift whether it was triggered by societal evolution or contemporary

demands of the business sector is characterized by a move from a focus on traditional

cognitive-based learning to a focus on a skill-based learning (Kass & Grandzol, 2012). While,

new emerged experiential methodologies were constructing knowledge and meaning from

real-life experience (Yardley, Teunissen & Dornan, 2012). Thus, the educational message was

broaden “beyond the simple information-processing model, based on mechanistic view of

the human being ,to a more holistic, creative, multifaceted, embodied and participatory

approach” (Gidley, 2011).

Almost the same evolutionary pattern can be distinguished within the field of environmental

education as well. Although the history of nature studies goes back to 1980s (McCrea, 2006)

and the history of nature education to 1920s (Erdogan, 2011), the roots of modern

environmental education can be sited in 1970 when the first Earth Day is described as the

culmination of the public awakening towards pollution and general environmental problems

(McCrea, 2006). The raise of environmental and societal consciousness during that period

and the simultaneous emergence of alternative educational pedagogies constructed an ideal

context for the transition from a conservative-factual environmental education era to the

foundation for the modern environmental education. The “experience-based learning”

11

(Ballantyne & Packer, 2008) and the “free-choice/outdoor-informal environmental learning”

(Kola-Olusanya, 2005) are only some examples of the new emergent methodological tool-

box.

One quite significant turning point for environmental education worldwide is the tendency

that emerged after the Earth Summit of Rio in 1992. By then, environmental teaching has

changed from “the study of, in, and for the environment, to the expression learning for

sustainable development” (Wickenberg et al 2008). Within this swift from Environmental

Education (EE) to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Öhman (2008) indicates that

among the already existed teaching traditions of EE which were the fact-based, the

normative, and the pluralistic, only the pluralistic could be seen as a structural element of

the new-emerged approach. The reasoning of this was that the fact-based tradition could

not deal with the value aspects of environmental problems, the normative tradition was

found democratically problematic, and only the pluralistic was taking into account the value

dimensions and the different opinions within environmental discussion (Öhman 2008).

2.3.1 The environmental education from a Swedish perspective

Regarding the Swedish environmental education context, there are some similar

evolutionary characteristics too. Historically, the roots of environmental education in

Sweden are located in the early twentieth century, when the National School Plan was

introduced. Nature conservation and animal protection were among the basic objectives of

the Plan which was also concentrated on the social needs of the overwhelming rural-

agrarian Swedish society of that time. (Breiting & Wickenberg, 2010) Another fundamental

element that was incorporated in the Swedish environmental tradition was the concept of

outdoor life (friluftsliv *literally ‘free-air-life]) (Sandel & Öhman, 2010) which was already

very close to a sort outdoor education practices like excursions in the nature. During the late

1960s there was the rise of the new wave of Swedish environmentalism that was triggered

by the actions of a number of scientific experts who were inspired from a rather open-

minded and dynamic political system. Within a few years Sweden became one of the

pioneers of pollution prevention while it constructed a really strong environmental-friendly

reputation after the initiative to put environmental issues on the UN agenda (1970) and the

arrangement of the first major UN environmental meeting at the Stockholm Conference

12

(1972). (Laesssoe & Öhman, 2010) This new wave of Swedish environmentalism was

escorted by new educational approaches which replaced the traditional views of the natural

environment as a focal point and the habits of teaching based only on pure facts. As

Karlsborn (2007) indicates in her thesis, the factual based model started to be challenged

more and more, and by the beginning of 1980s it was replaced by the so called ‘standardized

method’ which was introducing the reality-based education. (Karlsborn, 2007). Thus, in the

1980s and 1990s the outdoor education was a fundamental element of Swedish

environmental education and its main aiming was to stimulate outdoor experiences, care for

nature and behavioral change. These real-based outdoor methods are adopting even more

pluralistic approaches in the contemporary Swedish schools in order to pursue the increased

complexity of environmental and sustainability issues within the international educational

debate. (Bradley 1999; Schindler 1999 & Sund2008)

But generally, there is no doubt that the results of the Earth Summit of Rio in 1992, affected

the Swedish environmental educational processes to a great extend. A series of changes

took place, based on the adoption of the Agenda 21 which led to a more active role of

individuals in local level. The orientation shifted from ‘agony and catastrophe’ to ‘activity

deficit’ on environmental issues (Wickenberg et al 2008). This shift is mirrored through an

evolution of processes and forming of norms in the Swedish school system (Wickenberg et al

2008).

2.4 The outdoor approach in environmental education

Another crucial sector of inquiry deals with the type of the provided environmental

education and the place where the educational processes are conducted. The evolutionary

steps in the general field of education occurred during the last century, moved the focus

from knowing to doing (Datar et al, 2007), and from learning, to practice (Kass & Grandzol,

2012). This fact affected the approaches in environmental education as well. Thus, there was

a swift towards the new pedagogy category of “experience-based learning” (Ballantyne &

Packer, 2008). This advance in the educative methodology led to the emergence of the

“‘place-based learning’ approaches in environmental education and expanded the focus of

teaching beyond the classroom and outward to the surrounding place in which they are

offered” (Johnson et al, 2011). Consequently, contemporary environmental education

13

research emphasizes the importance of learning experiences in the natural environment by

arguing that it increases the level of student motivation and achievement (Battersby, 1999).

This discussion adds great potential for further study in the sector of outdoor education

where academic research seems to be scarce.

According to Kola‐Olusanya (2005) the definitional spectrum of learning experiences can be

classified to three main categories. The direct experience that is characterized with an actual

physical contact, the indirect experience that is regulated and contrived, and the symbiotic

and vicarious experience that occurs in the absence of any actual or physical activity. A direct

experience can take place at a backyard of a house, at a neighborhood park, at a forest or a

ravine. During an indirect experience there could be a contact with creatures and plants

which are under human intervention and control. So an indirect experience can occur in a

zoo, in an open air museum, or in a house with domesticated or companion animals such as

cats, dogs and birds. Finally, the symbiotic and vicarious experiences deal with the learning

that is based on descriptions in television, internet, books and magazines. (Kola-Olusanya,

2005)

Meyers (2006) argues that “teaching requires the careful blending of theory and practice”

while “theory without practice is insufficient “and “practice unguided by theory is aimless”

(Meyers, R. B. 2006). The combination of these statements with the fact that learning can

happen only if the learner has a sort of relation with the learnt subject, leads to the

admission that firsthand experience of nature is one of the most significant ways to

understand the natural world and the problems or dilemmas deriving from the human

interaction with it. (Kola-Olusanya, 2005) Furthermore, there is a growing body of research

that indicates that environmental experience in childhood develops environmental concern

and makes children to learn better (Barratt-Hacking et al, 2007; Kola-Olusanya, 2005).

Typically, an environmental experience is related to a place, and many scholars highlight the

importance of the sense of the place in environmental education as it fosters pro-

environmental behavior, attitudes and emotions. The pedagogies of place can lead to ‘place

attachment’ or ‘place rootedness’ that are related to a sense of personal concern for each

place (Kudryavtsev et al, 2011).

14

The above discourses lead to the emergence of terms like outdoor, free-choice and informal

education. The settings where these educational methods are conducted are locations

(other than schools) where adults and children go alone or in groups. These places if they are

not pristine and natural can be socially mediated and stimulated by the needs and interest of

the learners. They adopt an educational approach quite different from the formal curriculum

which is based on the interaction between human and environment. (Kola-Olusanya, 2005).

One very common example of such a locality could be a nature center or park whose main

purpose is “to provide opportunities for healthy outdoor recreation, and serve as informal

setting of education”. Places like this provide their visitors with the great opportunity to

have a direct experience with more pristine environments, to learn about natural systems,

the flora and the fauna of each area. This procedure may increase the awareness of how

nature is threatened by human activity, while it develops a respect and a personal

connection with the natural surroundings. Another potential locality providing

environmental education or even environmental experience is a museum. A typical indoor or

an outdoor museum can be a place where people may gain environmental knowledge

through an engaging personal or group experience. Contemporary museums adopt diverse

exhibition and learning methods in order to facilitate participatory and interactive

experience, and promote lifelong learning. (Kola-Olusanya, 2005)

15

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK-LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Understanding the ecological message of (outdoor) educational

processes

Each educational process is supposed to have some results. On this way, Singh & Rahman

(2012) identify the objectives of a well structured environmental education program as

“awareness creation, knowledge accumulation, positive attitude inculcation, problem solving

skills acquisition and citizen participation” (Singh & Rahman, 2012). Those practical

implications are significant elements of environmental education processes and many

academic articles investigate their role and their potential. Certainly, the results of the

environmental educational process are part of the broad ecological message but before

investigating the results, there is space for further studying of the foundations and the

fundamental orientation that motivate the principles and the agents of environmental

education. Typically, the ecological message can be quite broad, so a critical approach is

needed in order to categorize it among the spectrum of different ideologies and point of

views which exist regarding the environmental subjects. Colby (1991) proposes five

fundamental paradigms of environmental management and human-nature relationships.

Those are described within a spectrum of moving from weak to strong sustainability (Table

1). The two edges are describing the “primordial dichotomy” of “frontier economics” versus

“deep ecology”, while in between, paradigms like “environmental protection”, “resource

management” and “eco-development” are evolving. The progression from weak to strong

sustainability involves an increasing integration of economic, ecological and social systems

into the principles of decision making and organization and human societies. (Colby, 1991)

This critical theoretical approach will help to understand and investigate the deep meaning

of the ecological message provided by environmental education. Furthermore it will help to

evaluate the content and criticize the aiming of their agents.

16

Table 1: Paradigms of environmental management within a spectrum of sustainability. Colby (1990)

3.2 Ecosystem services – A modern way of looking at environmental

conservation

There is clear evidence both in academic research and in real life that during the last decades

the agents of ecological messages try to connect the conservation with some economic

benefits in their discourses. As Gomez-Baggethun & Perez (2011) argue, there is a “dominant

ontological position in western cultures that conceives humans as being separated from the

environment, and nature conservation as a concession from economic development”

(Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011). This approach sees conservation and economics into

separate policy spheres and consequently decreases public interest in environmental and

biodiversity conservation. The response to this fact was the emergence of the ecosystem

services approach which is “proposed as a strategy for moving away from the logic of

‘conservation versus development’ towards the logic of ‘conservation for development’”

(Folke, 2006). While from the ecosystem services point of view, the conservation of

ecological systems is a necessary prerequisite for long-term economic sustainability.

(Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011). There is no doubt that the ecosystem services approach

17

might be a part of the ecological message of environmental education, and there is a big

potential in investigating their direct and indirect benefits to the society, their distribution

and their evaluation.

The term of ecosystem services includes all the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.

Those can be provisioning, regulating and recreational or other services. Provisional services

deal with food, clean water and raw material. Regulating services imply the natural

regulation of floods, droughts and in some cases transmitted diseases. While the last group

of ecosystem services includes recreational, spiritual, non-material and supporting services

such as soil formation and nutrient cycling. (Salles, 2011) Among the fundamental elements

in the notion of ecosystem services is the subsequent message of managing economic

development under the concept of sustainable development, the bridging between nature

and social science, and the acknowledgment of environmental pollution and resource

scarcity issues. The major aiming of ecosystem services is to demonstrate the significance of

biodiversity and to rationalize that a potential biodiversity decline affects ecosystem

functions which support critical services for human well-being. (Braat & Groot. 2012)

Baggethun et al (2009) locate the origins of the modern history of ecosystem services in the

late 1970’s. Then, there was a first effort for the utilitarian framing of beneficial ecosystem

functions as services in order to increase public interest in biodiversity conservation. The

evolving during the 1980’s provided some implications of managing economic development

under the concept of sustainable development. And in the 1990’s there was the creation of a

new integrating discipline called ‘ecological economics’ that strengthened the ties between

the economy and the natural environment. (Braat & Groot. 2012).

During the last two decades, it became quite common for environmental scientists to argue

for the conservation of biodiversity by employing political and economic approaches. They

acknowledge that their main audience includes urban citizens who might have limited

background of ecological subjects. Thus, they use the ecosystem services approach as a

‘common language’ and as an effective message-transmitting tool. In other words through

the ecosystem services approach the ecosystems are translated into ‘natural capital stocks’

that provide diverse goods and services for human societies (Bagethun & Perez, 2011). More

specifically, the ecosystem services are examined in relation to their benefits that are related

18

to three different economic categories, the goods the services and the cultural benefits. As

goods are defined the products obtained from ecosystems either for direct consumption or

as industrial inputs. The services refer to recreational benefits or certain ecological

regulatory functions. And finally, the cultural benefits are related to scientific knowledge,

heritage and feelings. (Salles, 2011)

Practically, the ecosystem services approach plays a crucial role at the implementation of the

green economy principles which are promoted from the United Nations Environmental

Program (UNEP). Green economy for UNEP is “one that results in improved human well-

being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological

scarcities” (UNEP 2011). This approach seeks to solve the fundamental conflict between

environmental preservation and resource use that was described at the introduction of this

paper. More specifically, it argues that the economic growth can coexist with sustainability

(Ten Brink et al 2012) as the economic growth can be decoupled from the environmental

degradation.

Historically, it has been proven that any potential increase at the level of development is

related with higher environmental risks and damages (Figure 1, environmental Kuznets

curve). The UNEP proposes the adoption of the ecosystem services approach which in

cooperation with some advanced eco-efficient technologies can avoid the resource-intensive

stages of industrialization. This scheme leads to the tunneling in the environmental Kuznets

curve (Figure 1, environmental Kuznets curve) and it is highly proposed to the new-emerged

global industrial powers. (Swart et al 2007)

Figure 1: Alternative pathways to recapitulation of the resource-intensive stages of industrialization. Retrieved from Swart et al (2007) based on Munasinghe (1999)

19

In other words, supporters of the green economy movement as well as official

representatives of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) argue that using the

ecosystem services approach, humanity can decouple the economic growth from the

environmental harms. Through the tunneling (or leapfrogging) which is depicted in the

above figure (Figure 1) the economy has the opportunity to reach higher levels of

development and skip the drawbacks that by definition accompany economic growth and

industrialization. Such drawbacks stigmatized the environment during the industrial

revolution and continue to threat different ecosystems around the world. Consequently,

ecosystem services seem to construct a really promising strategy that will allow the

coexistence of development and environmental preservation.

3.3 The controversial issue of economic valuation of ecosystem services

Actually, one quite controversial discussion is this of the economic valuation of ecosystem

services which many times opens the debate of monetizing the nature. Salles (2011) defines

ecosystem services as conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and their

biological constituents allow and sustain human life. According to that there are definitely

many reasons to consider that ecosystem services have both utilitarian and intrinsic values.

Additionally, during the last decade many “environmental scientists have advocated the

economic valuation of ecosystem services as a pragmatic short-term strategy to

communicate the value of biodiversity in a language that reflects dominant political and

economic views” (Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011). Based on that, some countries such as

Sweden are introducing methods like the “green GDP accounting” that entail treating

ecosystem services as a stock (Alexander et al, 1997). While, existing schemes in the public

dialogue like “PES Payment for Ecosystem Services” (Spangeberg & Settele, 2010) promote

the monetized concept of ecosystem services. Contrary to those, there is a range of

discourses indicating that economic valuation is likely to lead to the commodification of

ecosystem services with potentially counterproductive effects for biodiversity conservation

and equity of access to ecosystem benefits (Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011). This

controversy has a prominent position in the public debate and undoubtedly constructs an

interesting context for further research.

20

The emergence of this debate brings the need of a further investigation of the multiple

aspects of value in the core of discussion. Values are norms that allow judging if something is

good, beautiful, true or moral in an individual or collective level. While the analysis of value

can adopt objectivist approaches that tend to create an universal hierarchy among things, or

subjectivist ones that relate the value to its relatively desirability (Salles, 2011). Regarding

the valuation of ecosystem services there are two dominant approaches, the ecological

valuation that cares mostly about the environment, and the economic valuation which puts

human needs first (Spangenberg & Settele, 2010). Salles (2011) argues that the concepts and

methods of valuating ecosystems have progressively emerged having their roots in the core

of the economic theory of value. According to that, things should be valued based on their

utility or scarcity. However, this totally anthropocentric approach raise some queries,

because humans are only one among the many species in an ecosystem and the values they

place on it may differ significantly from the maintenance values of the ecosystem itself

(Farber et al, 2002).

The increasing efforts of contemporary science and policy to value ecosystem services in

monetary terms lead to the concept of commodification of nature. This refers to the

expansion of market trade to the field of nature which was previously a non-marketed area

(Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011). And as expected, that fact arises several lines of

criticism. Firstly, there is a series of ethical reasons pointing out that some things ought not

to be for sale. It also includes mystification notions as it transforms a symbolic value into an

objective and quantifiable relationship. Additionally, there are a few problems involved in

the treatment of things that are not produced by humans as commodities. Finally,

commodification addresses equity issues in the distribution of natural benefits, because

since something is transformed into commodity it can be accessed only by those having

purchasing power (Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011).

Consequently, the subject of whether valuation/monetization of ecosystem services can be

detached from commodification processes, seems to be a key query. To address that, many

scholars indicate a mandatory distinction between goods/services and commodities (Gomez-

Baggethun & Perez, 2011), while others point out the necessity to refer to the Aristotelian

discourse that first distinguished the difference between value in use and value in exchange

21

(Farber et al, 2002). Though, the ethical, mental and educational background of each society

plays a significant role in the way it views and treats its environment.

However, it should be admitted that nowadays the evaluation concept turns to be quite

effective and successful. More specifically, the economic discourse on ecosystem services

already holds a prominent position among the majority of the most well-known educational

institution, while more and more people start to use it in their everyday discussions.

Furthermore, the ‘evaluated’ ecosystem services place nature as a realistic value in the

‘econosphere’ (economic sphere). That means that the environment is converted into equity

and the right to pollute is available on the stock exchange. There is no doubt that these facts

escalate further the controversy and the ethical debate, but on the other hand many

scholars indicate that this approach might be the latest weapons to defend the environment.

And that because this evolving turns environmental preservation to a contemporary

financial subject and moves it beyond the interest only of activists and NGOs, while it pushes

towards a more effective legislation of environment preservation.

3.4 Concluding remarks and aiming within the research field

The conducted literature review revealed that there is a growing academic interest regarding

the functional aspects of environmental education. This interest includes the investigation of

the fundamental principles of environmental education and its significance for the society.

There are already many of researchers who tried to provide a detailed description of the

contemporary environmental education processes and evaluate their effectiveness in terms

of their impacts and results.

Additionally, it becomes obvious that contemporary ecologists tend to use more and more

financial terminology in order to advocate the need of environmental preservation and

construct an accessible and modern ecological message. This phenomenon of integrating

economic discourses in the ecological message can be described effectively through the

approach of ecosystem services. While till now, the valuation of the human benefits deriving

from nature was examined by several researchers who argued for its advantages as well as

for some of its challenges which are related to the debate of a commodified nature.

22

This study will attempt to make a further step in the investigation of environmental

education processes by recognizing how and to what extend the ecological message of an

open air museum, is related to the ecosystem services approach. Though, it will try to

describe qualitatively the environmental educational processes in order to identify the

ecological message of them. The ecological message will be classified according to a critical

theory of weak and strong sustainability (table 1 Colby 1999), and based on this evaluation

there will be an effort to discuss the level of relation between the ecological message and

the value aspects which are incorporated in the ecosystem services approach.

23

4. METHODOLOGY

4.1 Qualitative study and multiple case study with exploratory design

As mentioned above, this study aims to identify the relation between the ecological message

of environmental educational processes, and the approach of ecosystem services. This target

requires a thorough investigation of the environmental educational processes and the

ecological message itself. In other words, it attempts to build a holistic picture about the

processes that construct the ecological message and not to evaluate the results of those

processes in the society. Thus, the study will adopt a qualitative methodological approach

which by definition tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers (Bryman, 2001).

Only if the study would be orientated in the results of the environmental education (e.g.

number of people with changed environmental behavior) a quantitative approach could be a

potential method to chose.

More specifically, Bryman (2001) indicates that the qualitative research focuses on the

interpretation of the social word (Interpretivism) and approaches the social context as a

“result” constructed by individuals (Constructionism). According to these only a qualitative

approach can investigate the deeper meaning and the ecological discourse of the conducted

environmental educational processes which of course are constructed by individuals.

Additionally, the study adopts an inductive approach and this fact implies that any observed

similarity between the ecological message in the two localities can be considered as general

valid (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009). Although it will not be possible to draw general

conclusions about the ecological message in all the open-air museums, the inductive

approach will still provide the possibility to point out general valid connections.

Since the study attempts to describe a relationship through the building of a holistic picture

of the contemporary environmental educational processes, a multiple case study of two

organizations which provide environmental educational opportunities is appropriate.

Contrary to the view of Dryer & Wilkins (1991) (in Bryman, 2001) for multiple case studies,

here the focus is orientated to the specific context with no any tendency to contrast or

compare the cases. Consequently, the study adopts an exploratory research design which

will contribute in the field where research seems to be scarce.

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4.2 The research context

Fredriksdal is an open air museum in the city of Helsingborg. It extends over an area of

360.000 square meters very close to the city center, and it includes a number of buildings,

gardens and animals aiming to communicate the cultural heritage as well as the

characteristics of the flora and the fauna of Scania. It also hosts temporary exhibitions and

events which are related to traditional and environmental aspects of the area. One of the

main target groups regarding its visitors, are students and children with families who have

the opportunity to gain a firsthand experience of the traditional habits and of the original

natural landscape of their region. Fredriksdal attracts also tourists and provides guided tours

whose basic orientation is educational as well.

Miljöverkstaden is the “environmental workshop” of the city of Helsingborg. It could be

characterized as an alternative interactive open-air museum where city inhabitants have the

opportunity to gain sensory experiences which are linked to knowledge and understanding

of the environment. Almost every student of the city visits Miljöverkstaden between 3 or 4

times before finishing the basic education, in order to elaborate on the potential of a

healthier city environment in terms of public transportation, waste management, water and

energy consumption and many others. Additionally, since the last one and a half years,

Miljöverkstaden is a part of a program of the municipality according to which every single

employee of the municipality is supposed to visit the locality for an environmental

educational seminar.

The reason why Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden were chosen as the two cases of this study

is that they both offer environmental educational opportunities. More specifically, they

adopt contemporary outdoor and informal environmental educational processes in order to

promote the experiential learning about the environment. They include environmental,

societal and economic aspects in their discourses, while they are definitely transmitting an

ecological message to the local community. These facts make them two extremely

interesting cases in order to investigate how the ecological message of environmental

educational processes is related to the approach of ecosystem services.

25

4.3 Data collection methods

Before entering the empirical field and starting the data collection, some introductory

discussions with representatives of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden where conducted. Those

discussions accompanied with a guided tour in both localities, provided an initial

understanding of the two cases and allowed a first contact with the educational processes

which are adopted. This was followed by a discussion with a professor of environmental

studies, and a thorough literature review on concepts such as environmental education,

outdoor education, ecosystem services, valuation of ecosystems and others. The main

purpose of these initiatives was the gaining of a general understanding of the subject that

proved crucial during the data collection and the analysis procedure.

The two adopted methods in collecting the empirical material are personal interviews and

documents. The qualitative nature of the research and the need for a deep understanding of

the content of the ecological message of educational processes, make personal interviews a

suitable research technique for the study. As Smith (2010) indicates, queries about how

people think and feel about certain issues and experiences cannot be answered through the

use of structured questionnaires but only through personal interviews. Moreover interviews

are those which promise to yield rich insight into the opinions of people (May, 2001).

According to Bryman (2001) researchers of social phenomena who conduct interviews, are

used to employ also another method in order to achieve greater confidence in findings and

to accomplish the so called triangulated knowledge. Thus, in this study, the second source of

data is a variety of documents that provide knowledge about the vision, the function, and

the historical evolution of the localities, as well as they describe specific educational

processes and the multiple engagements with environmental education.

4.3.1 Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were chosen to be the primary data collection method. “These

type of interviews are said to allow people to answer more on their own terms than the

standardized interview permits, but still provide a greater structure of compatibility” (May,

2001). Smith (2010) argues that semi-structured interviews give the opportunity to “explore

issues in much more depth than it is possible through structured questionnaires”. And

although the interviewer is freer to probe beyond the answers (May, 2001), Smith (2010)

26

guaranties that the voice and thoughts of the interviewee are those to be heard, rather that

the opinion of the interviewer.

As Bryman (2001) point out, according to a semi-structured interview manner, the

interviewer has a list of questions often refer to as an interview guide. In this study three

different interview guides were constructed which had the purpose to control and lead the

interview process in line with the relevant research fields. Thus, all the related concepts

described in the theoretical part were waved into the interview guides in order to reveal

their practical implication. Consequently, the biggest part of the interview was dedicated to

the theory-driven questions which were aiming to make the implicit knowledge of the

interviewees, more explicit (Flick, 2006).

As it can become obvious from the fact of the existence of three different interview guides

(appendix 1) the needs of the research, led to the emergence of three different interview

groups. These were the group of academics and professors of environmental studies, the

group of the employees in the localities, and the group of the employees at the technical

and environmental office of the municipality.

During the first stage of the informants’ selection a purposive sampling strategy was

adopted. As Bryman (2001) certifies, this strategy is able to establish a good correspondence

between research questions and sampling. So the criterion of selecting was a potential

relation with the environmental educational processes conducted in the localities or a deep

knowledge in the field of environmental education. The first contact info derived from the

social and academic network of the supervising team of the author of the thesis. Secondly,

and when the first interviews were already conducted a snowball sampling technique

(Bryman, 2001) was used for approaching other interviewees especially within the localities.

More specifically the first interviewees were asked to recommend some of their colleagues

after the end of each interview. This procedure led to the overall selection of the necessary

number of 13 interviewees presented in table below (table 2).

27

Title Length of interview recording

Number of transcript pages

Sinikka Neuhaus Dean of department of education at Lund University

52 min 11

Per Wickenberg Professor at Lund University

1h 17 min 15

Thorbjörn Laike Associate Professor at Lund University

49 min 9

Klas Nyberg Director/teacher in Miljöverkstaden

41 min 9

Ingemar Nyman Teacher in Miljöverkstaden

55 min 10

Annika Jonasson Teacher in Miljöverkstaden

48 min 11

Karin Hjelmér Teacher in Fredriksdal

52 min 10

Jakob Sandberg Scientist/botanist at Fredriksdal

54 min 11

Charlotte Alheim Responsible for guiding at Fredriksdal

44 min 8

Linnea Folkesson Environmental strategist at Miljöbyrå of Helsingborg

1 h 10 min 14

Sofia Mattsson Environmental strategist at Miljöbyrå of Helsingborg

1 h 5 min 14

Widar Narvelo City Ecologist at the technical office of Helsingborg

1h 2 min 12

Fredrik Bengtsson Ecologist at the technical office of Helsingborg

57 min 9

Table 2: Interviewees

Each interviewee was invited for the interview through an e-mail that was accompanied with

an attached file with a brief description of the study. All the interviews were took place at

the respondents’ offices or close by the office in a common area. Additionally, each

interview started with a brief presentation of the research aiming, and each interviewee was

asked for his or her consent in recording the interview.

4.3.1.1 Interviewing academics of environmental education

The choice of 3 academics engaged with environmental education studies and research, as

expected, proved quite beneficial for the evolution and the academic consistency of the

research. Among others, they verified essential definitions of used concepts and they

provided insights about contemporary environmental educational processes and discourses.

28

The posed questions targeted to elicit data related to the current environmental education

methodology, and the existing trends that affect the contemporary ecological discourse. For

this reason nine different thematic fields were included within the used interview guide.

These were related to: a) personal background, b) type of engagement with environmental

education, c) driving forces behind environmental education, d) contemporary

environmental educational processes, f) the outdoor perspective, g) the modern ecological

message, h) the ecosystem services approach, i) the debate of valuation of ecosystem

services, and j) their personal opinion about the future of environmental education.

After the first interview the questions and follow up question were re-examined. While,

there has been some necessary changes in order to meliorate the understanding and the

flow of the interview.

4.3.1.2 Interviewing employees in the localities

People who are working for Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden are regarded as the core

respondents for the aim of the study. They are teachers, guides, course and exhibition

developers who conduct the environmental educational processes and transmit the

ecological message. They had a catalytic contribution towards the understanding of the role,

the vision and the functional aspects of the localities.

The questions to them were targeting to investigate the aiming behind the educational

processes, and to understand the notion of the ecological message. The interview guide

maintained the nine thematic fields, but this time the followed up questions were

concentrated mostly to the conducted environmental educational processes and to the

characteristics of their ecological message. More specifically, the interview guide attempted

to shed light on the thematic areas of: a) role of the interviewee in the locality, b) type of

engagement with environmental education, c) discourses of environmental education, d)

conducted environmental educational processes, f) the outdoor activities in the locality, g)

the ecological message, h) the engagement with ecosystem services approach, i) the debate

of valuation of ecosystem services, and j) their personal opinion about the future of the

locality within the city context.

29

Despite the existence of the interview guide, in the majority of the interviews, the discussion

led to further and wider descriptions that revealed the targeting of the adopted educational

methodology, and personal insights of the interviewees.

4.3.1.3 Interviewing municipality employees (environmental-technical office)

One rather interesting group of respondents, at the effort to identify the notion of the

ecological message of the two localities, was this of the municipality employees. More

specifically, they are people who work for the municipality of Helsingborg and their main

aiming is to elaborate on ideas and implement practices which will lead to a more

sustainable future for the city of Helsingborg. They cooperate extensively with the localities

of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden and their actions reveal the interest of the municipality

to invest on environmental education.

The conducted interviews with them had the orientation to discuss the driving forces behind

the interest of the municipality for environmental education and to what extent these forces

were taking part in the construction of the ecological message. Furthermore, there were

questions trying to clarify how the city authorities valuate the nature and if there are

financial approached in this valuation. Consequently, the interview guide was mostly

focused on the above fields while its specific thematic areas were: a) position of the

interviewee in the municipality, b) experience with environmental education, c) significance

of environmental education, d) ideal environmental educational processes, f) the outdoor

approach, g) the ideal ecological message, h) awareness of the ecosystem services approach,

i) the debate of valuation of ecosystem services, and j) their personal opinion about the

environmental future of the city.

Sometimes, and especially during the first interview it was needed to provide further

explanation about the definition of two academic concepts in order to avoid

misunderstandings. After that there were some necessary changes as well as some essential

definitions were provided from the beginning.

30

4.3.2 Documents

As it was already mentioned, before entering the empirical field and start the data

collection, some introductory discussions were conducted in both localities. More

specifically, there were two arranged meetings, one in Fredriksdal and the other in

Miljöverkstaden. Apart from the interesting information that derived from the discussion

with the representatives, the author was provided with a series of documents related to the

localities. These were official documents such as annual reports, mission statements,

advertisements (Bryman, 2001), maps, and guides which were shaping an initial

understanding for the role and the function of each locality. Even if those documents “have

not been produced for the purpose of social research” (Bryman, 2001), they were extremely

useful complements offering a further understanding of the cases. Actually, they provided

essential “pre-knowledge” that supported the interview procedure and upgraded the level

of communication between the interviewer and the interviewee. The details of these

documents are presented in the table below (table 3).

Document Source of document

Content Language Nr. of pages

Scenario 2035: A colorful and forward-looking city!

Municipality of Helsingborg

Strategic plan that defines the objectives/priorities of the city till 2035.

Swedish 19

Environment Programme for the city of Helsingborg 2011-2015 / Energy Strategy 2035

Municipality of Helsingborg

Short guide of a five year environmental policy program. / Description of the strategic energy plan of the city till 2035.

English 38/32

Water and environmental quality in Jordbodalen-Gåsebäcken

Municipality of Helsingborg

Quality research and future potential of an implemented environmental project.

Swedish 25

Miljöverkstaden: Education and program school year 2012/2013

Miljöverkstaden The mission of the organization and description of a series of offered programs and events.

Swedish 31

ICLEI Case study of Helsingborg, January 2013

Miljöverkstaden\ Municipality of

Helsingborg

The role of Miljöverkstaden in environmental education and participation for sustainability.

English 8

Fredriksdal museum and gardens. Schoolprogram 2013.

Fredriksdal School guide regarding the different programs and events that offered during the year.

Swedish 18

31

Fredriksdal museum and gardens: Summary of operations 2012

Fredriksdal Description of the initial targeting. Implemented actions and partial evaluation of results.

Swedish 12

Annual report 2012 Fredriksdal Evaluation of the year in terms of number of visitors, goal achieving and mission of the organization.

Swedish 5

Table 3: Used documents

4.4 Data analysis

All the audio files from the interviews were completely transcribed in the exact wording. As

Smith (2010) argues content analysis can be used to analyze sources of text including sound

recordings. Since, coding “is a crucial stage in the process of doing content analysis”

(Bryman, 2001) thematic coding was chosen as the most appropriate for this study. The main

reason for this choice can be summarized in the fact that the initial aiming of the study is to

conduct an analysis based on the theoretical approaches raised in the literature review

(thematic analysis), thus thematic coding is the one appropriate (Given, 2008).

For convenience and efficiency reasons, a matrix (appendix 2) with core themes that were

anticipated to be founded was developed. Given that the empirical data for analysis were

collected through semi-structured interviews, “some themes will be anticipated in the data

set because those concepts were explicitly included in the data collection” (Given, 2008). For

this reason many of the codes are highly related to the literature review.

The practical coding of the transcribed interviews was divided into two stages. At first a

series of relevant statements and paragraphs were labeled according to the initial themes.

After that the labeled abstracts were placed to the relevant box of the coding matrix.

Although, “at this stage of the analysis the coding categories are more heuristic than

analytic” (Given, 2008), some necessary adjustments at the themes and sub-themes were

made.

The main target of the analysis was to depict the case study results and simultaneously

discuss on them in order to provide adequate answers to the research question and sub-

questions. Structurally, the analysis part follows the core thematic areas as they were

developed and emerged during the theoretical search. The empirical findings are presented

through specific quotes and the following discussion analyzes critically the facts according to

the needs of the study.

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4.5 Limitations

As it was already stated the study adopts a thematic analysis that tends to connect the

empirical findings with the initially formulated theoretical approach. That fact may arise

some limitations regarding the openness of the study towards new emerging findings. This

limitation and the risk to conduct an analysis only influenced by existing theories and

findings, could be overcame through an open stance towards the interpretations of the

respondents, and a careful elaboration of new emergent themes from spontaneous answers.

Both measures were adopted in the current study in order to overcome this potential

limitation.

While there was a significant effort to construct an interview guide that could guarantee the

neutrality from the side of the interviewer, the risk of subjectivity may remain due to the

existence of a range of follow up questions which raised spontaneously and along with the

flow of the discussion. Nevertheless, the expression of personal opinions or judgments that

could influence the interview was avoided from the side of the interviewer.

Another limitation could be related to the ‘language matter’. All the interviews were

conducted in the English language but English was neither the mother language to the

interviewees nor to the interviewer. Fortunately, both sides were proficient in English and

there was a proper communication during the whole process.

Finally, there is no doubt that the achievement of quality in social research is highly related

to the characteristic of trustworthiness. In other words two of the most prominent criteria in

evaluating social research are reliability and validity, while generally, validity presumes

reliability (Bryman, 2008). By definition reliability refers to the degree to which research

findings are similar to previous studies or can be similar to future ones. For this reason

reliability is more related quantitative research which is mostly concerned with stable or

repeated measurements. (Bryman, 2008). In the current qualitative research which deals

with personal opinions of different people and their interpretation from the author, validity

and reliability are difficult to assess. However, some specific measurements were taken in

order to enhance trustworthiness. Among them, particular attention was given at the

construction and the coherence of the interview guides as well as the clarification of vague

responses with follow up questions. Also there was a detailed description of every part of

33

the research process, while there was a cautious attitude in making general statements on

the empirical findings. (Flick, 2006)

34

5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE CASE STUDY RESULTS

5.1 Environmental education and the city of Helsingborg

There is no doubt that Helsingborg can be included in the list of the most active and

successful cities of Sweden regarding environmental preservation and sustainability. This

characteristic is almost a tradition for the city which was famous for its pioneering methods

in waste management already from the 80’s. In 2009, it was awarded from the

environmental magazine Miljöaktuellt as the most sustainable city in the country, while

currently, it is one of the twelve Swedish municipalities which are taking part in the

international action for biodiversity (ICLAY). On that way, Widar Narvelo one of the

respondents who is the city ecologist of Helsingborg pointed out the tendency of local

politicians to highlight the ‘environmental achievements’ of the city in their discussions:

“Our politicians are very eager to talk about Miljöbyrå, Miljöverkstaden and the

other things we do in Helsingborg when they are in other cities or they are

traveling abroad.”

Historically, one quite crucial period regarding the environmental debate among the city

stakeholders encountered in the late 80’s when the high levels of pollution in the Baltic Sea

led to big environmental problems. More specifically in 1988 a big number of seals were

found dead at the coastline of Helsingborg, the reason was unknown and bathing was not

recommended. It was that year when a local newspaper organized a demonstration for

environmental problems where 10.000 of citizens took part. (Narvelo, interview 2013).

According to the respondent Klas Nyberg who is the director of Miljöverkstaden, that

situation led to a noticeable incensement of interest for the environment with multiple

results at different levels of the social life:

“*…+ the social discussion made politicians here to thought and encourage more

school education towards the environmental direction.”

That period was significant for Miljöverkstaden as well, whose foundation was held in 1989.

Since then, it is engaged with the provision of environmental education to the students and

the citizens of Helsingborg. Its function is accompanied by the open-air museum of

Fredriksdal which apart from its remarkable recreational offerings, is also well-known for its

educative purposes. Both have multiple contributions to the local community but mainly

they can be characterized as essential tools of providing environmental education and

awareness.

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5.1.1 Advocating the importance of environmental education

Supporting the argument of Prokop & Fancovicova (2010) that it is hardly possible to protect

the nature without increasing public awareness about the environment, Per Wickenberg a

respondent and a professor in Lund University noted:

“In my view environmental education in a broader sense *…+ is of vital

importance, vital importance, otherwise we have no future. If we are not taking

care of the society, the nature and the resources in it, the threats are very big.”

In an effort to make a further step and connect environmental education with the potential

of action towards preserving the environment, Sofia Mattsson who is an environmental

strategist in the environmental office (Miljöbyrå), remarked:

“Absolutely! Environmental education is one of the most important things to

have. But it’s not the only important thing. Because I mean education -- If

education would be everything, no one would smoke today. *…+ So you have to

find the other motivating stuff that goes along, like inspiration.”

That fact is highlighted further by Thörnbjörn Leike, an associate professor of environmental

psychology in Lund University who pointed out during the interview that within the research

field:

“We understood that it’s not only a question about environmental education and

cognition, it’s also about the emotional relation. *…+ If you have a more positive

relation towards the nature, you seem to be more aware of your own behavior,

to behave in a more environmental way.”

As it was indicated in the theoretical part, there is no doubt that environmental education

has to be considered as a key factor for nature preservation as well as for the existence of

contemporary societies (Duhn, 2012). It is also quite interesting that the respondents

revealed another feature that deals with the need of something further, or something

deeper regarding environmental education. This discourse can be connected to the

“effectiveness discussion” that is expressed through the query whether environmental

education can be regarded as successful if it only make people to think but not to act

environmentally (Kemmis & Mutton, 2011). This vital connection between the

environmental awareness deriving from education and the tendency to act environmentally

36

seems to be a high priority for the authorities of the city of Helsingborg. Sofia Mattsson

indicated that:

“The goal is to make every person employed here in Helsingborg stad (city), to be

a good example, that we do the best, that we don’t create so much garbage, that

we save energy and so on”

This statement describes the orientation of the city aiming and justifies the initiative of the

municipality to offer to all its employees, environmental education seminars that are

conducted in the locality of Miljöverkstaden. Actually, this project concerns more than 7000

people and undoubtedly reveals the level of significance of an effective environmental

education according to the city authorities.

5.1.2 Vision and communicated message

One really remarkable fact that became clear during the interview process is that the vast

majority of employees who were interviewed in the two localities and in the municipality,

were aware of the vision of the city of Helsingborg and many of them described in detail the

objectives included in this. It seems that the vision is derived and transmitted from the

administrative authority level and it is expressed clearly through many official documents of

the municipality:

Helsingborg shall be Sweden’s most attractive city for people and companies”

(retrieved from the environment program for the city of Helsingborg 2011-2015,

p.4)

In order to achieve this vision the city adopts a long term environmental work where

different environmental programs are applied. Linnea Folkesson who is an environmental

strategist in Miljöbyrå stated:

“We have environmental programs that are running for 5 years *…+ in order to

achieve the city’s objectives and vision that reaches until 2035. *…+ We want to

become a sustainable city, this is our vision and it’s more long-term”

Currently, it is the Environmental Program 2011-2015 which is running and it is totally

aligned with some of the 16 national environmental objectives which were decided by the

Swedish Parliament (Riksdag) in 1999 (Narvelo, interview 2013). The six basic areas which

are prioritized in the current program are orientated towards inspiration and collaboration, a

37

sustainable transport system, a sustainable energy system, a healthier Helsingborg,

sustainable planning and care, and clean water (Retrieved from the environment program

for the city of Helsingborg 2011-2015).

While on the basis of fulfilling those objectives the long term vision of the city is:

By the year 2035 Helsingborg will be a vibrant, energy-neutral, attractive city

that exists in harmony with people and balance with nature. (Retrieved from the

environment program for the city of Helsingborg 2011-2015, p.4)

According to those, it should be admitted that the environmental discussion in the city of

Helsingborg is characterized by clear and specific goals, instead of broad and sometimes

disorientated discourses that characterize urban environmental programs in a global level.

The core message deals with environmental preservation and sustainable development,

while it is communicated through official documents as a clear vision with specific

objectives.

5.1.3 The driving forces

The noteworthy practical and theoretical engagement of the municipality of Helsingborg

with preservation issues and environmental education triggered some follow up questions

which would revealed the inner driving forces of this tendency expressed thought different

initiatives. Linnea Folkesson pointed out the luck of the city to have some really engaged

employees that proved to be the leaders of some pioneering projects and changes:

“I think that there are a lot of aspects that come together in a good way and I

would say there is a -- There is always one or two people that they will ‘burn’ for

a question -- the leaders of the issue that they will engage a lot of people. And we

have been very lucky to have those people in Fredriksdal and in Miljöverkstaden

that they developed the organizations into well functioning and into part of the

society.”

On the same pattern, Widar Narvelo stressed the role of some politicians:

“There have been a couple of very engaged officers and sometimes some

politicians as well. During the 90’s we had a politician very engaged with

environmental issues. He started some projects that are still ongoing, like

creating new wetlands.”

38

Those statements point out the catalytic role of the leader (Willner & Willner, 1965) and the

significant contribution of some individuals who promote developments according to their

personal vision or dream. Since those individuals can share their endeavor and work as team

players the results can be excellent.

When the respondents had the opportunity to describe the incentives of the municipality as

mainly environmental, societal, or economic, most of them chose to downplay the economic

interest at least as an initiative reason. However, some others talked about the economic

aspects in terms of the ecosystem services approach. For instance, Linnea Folkesson

highlighted the timeless interest of the municipality regarding societal and environmental

questions, but she excluded the economic paragon from the initial driving forces by saying

that when they started 20 years ago, there was no real financial pressure (Folkesson,

interview 2013).

And Fredrik Bengtsson who is an ecologist at the technical office of Helsingborg city

observed:

“I think that economic had not yet become a main driving force. *…+ But

right now we are trying to work on these ecosystem services *…+ and to try

to estimate the economic benefits from these ecosystem services.”

However, one other fact that reveals a subconscious tendency towards an economic

orientation is the obvious effort of the municipality to brand Helsingborg as a green

city. Linnea Folkesson an environmental strategist of the municipality argues:

“That’s our main objective to work with communicating Helsingborg as a

green city, as an environmental city. And we do that because there should

be an attractive city for companies, for inhabitants, for tourists, a lot of

different aspects. And it’s also for branding the city, it’s always good to

have a brand -- we are the environmental city!”

Here someone can identify a clear connection between the environmental preservation and

the economic benefits. The effort to brand the city as green, includes financial incentives and

it is related to the tension of the municipality to attract new-investments and growth.

As it was observed, the main reaction of the respondents was to justify and connect the

environmental engagement of the municipality mostly to pure environmental or societal

39

reasons, although, a deeper study of the answers revealed not only the existence of the

economic point of view but also the awareness regarding the economic and valuation

discourse of the nature via the approach of ecosystem services or through the financial

return that is promised by an eco-friendly brand. These findings certify the existence of the

environmental, the economical and the societal as the three elements which work as driving

forces and push towards the engagement with environmental preservation. (Prokop &

Fancovicova 2010; Ballantyne & Packer 2009) The responses revealed an interrelation

among them and it is obvious that all the three perspectives affect the decision processes

within the municipality.

5.1.4 Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden as mediators of environmental education.

The practical engagement of the municipality of Helsingborg with environmental

preservation which was discussed above is expressed mainly through the function of

Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden. Both localities have their own big history and they are

independent in terms of purposes and roles, but they are cooperating to a great extent

with the municipality which is their main funder. This cooperation is a successive

evolution that was supported from many successful results during the last decades. As

Linnea Folkesson argued:

“*…+ Environmental education is a very important aspect of the education in

Helsingborg, and especially since we have these very good locations

Miljöverkstaden and Fredriksdal which have ongoing projects for more than

20 years.”

The open air museum of Fredriksdal that was established on 1918, is under a

municipality ownership while it was donated to the city. Its educational purposes were

developed during the years but they were already included in the initial vision since

among the wishes of the donator was the founding of an open-air museum presenting

the biodiversity of Scania. Jacob Sandsberg who works as a botanist in Fredriksdal

pointed out:

“I think environmental education was included in the beginning as well as

developed during the years. *…+ Because there were such wishes from the

40

donator to be developed as a botanical garden *…+ and it happened in the

30’s when they shortly developed educational tools.”

At the case of Miljöverkstaden, environmental education was a fundamental part of the

initial vision as well. As Annika Jonasson stated:

“I think it (environmental education) was the aim from the beginning, to let

children know about their world they are living and also the little area they are

living.”

Both localities have multiple contributions to the local community and attempt to transmit a

variety of messages. Those are based on three core discourses: the environmental, the

societal and the economic discourse. All three discourses are fundamental elements of the

conducted educational processes (Sandberg, Hjelmer, interview 2013).

5.1.4.1 Educational targets in Fredriksdal

As it was declared by Jacob Sandberg and Karin Hjelmer who is also a teacher in Fredriksdal,

some of the main communicated messages in Fredriksdal are the integration of people and

time, the interdependence between human and nature and the significance of the

environment. More specifically, Karin Hjelmer said:

“We always think yesterday-today-tomorrow. *…+ We start with the historical,

but then today, how to use it today and tomorrow perhaps.”

Additionally the existent clear discussion about the interdependence between human and

nature targets to stress the negative impact of societies to the nature. It looks at the past

and tries to provide relevant tools and ideas which can be adopted in order to solve

contemporary problems (Sandberg, interview 2013).

Parallel to these, Charlotte Alheim who is responsible for the guiding in Fredriksdal stressed

that learning about the nature in a funny way, hopefully may increase the awareness of the

environment.

“*…+ they learn-- well it is education-- we make it easy for them and the aim is to

give them good time, but they should learn something also, it should be happy

learning *…+ what I hope it could give is that it could give some respect for the

nature.”

41

Regarding the societal contribution of Fredriksdal, all the respondents employed in the

locality agreed on the fact that Fredriksdal is a peaceful place very close to the city center

that provides recreation and experience learning opportunities. Moreover, they expressed

positively towards the use of economic discourses in the effort to preserve the nature, and

pointed out the ‘attractiveness’ of ecosystem services approach and some queries as well.

Jacob Sandberg said:

“*…+ well ecosystem services is a very attractive way of thinking. Sometimes it is

good to put values on things but sometimes it is maybe a way to make it simpler

than it is.”

5.1.4.2 Educational targets in Miljöverkdstaden

The core message that is transmitted from Miljöverkstaden deals with the subject of

sustainability and tries to provide an understanding as well as to promote a close relation to

the environment. Annika Jonasson a teacher in Miljöverkstaden mentioned:

“I think sustainability is really important to think about, what to use and use it in

a good way.”

While, Ingeman Nyman who is another teacher in Miljöverkstaden remarked:

“The message could be to the schools and to the local community that the local

environment is so important for our future ,…+ so we have to understand it and

have a close relationship with it.

Furthermore, the societal contribution to the local community is identified as the deep

experiential knowledge and the provided educational opportunities to different groups of

city inhabitants, such as students and municipality employees. In Miljöverkdstaden each

visitor has the opportunity to gain an understanding of different phenomena. While the

main adopted methods are targeting to experiential and not only factual knowledge (Nyman,

interview 2013). This pioneering approach of environmental education turns the locality into

a crucial environmental stakeholder of the city of Helsingborg and into a close partner of the

municipality which uses it for the environmental education of the municipality employees

(Nyberg, interview 2013).

Finally, regarding the use of any economic discourse within the educational processes the

respondents expressed both the positive and the negative aspects of that fact. More

specifically, Ingeman Nyman said:

42

“It’s good for the economic as well *…+ but I also think that there could be a

danger in promote this environmental approach just to the economic reasons.”

Evidently, both localities are pretty aware of the social responsibility that accompanies their

role as educational mediators. Their orientation is divided to the three pillars which are

mirrored by environmental, societal and economic discourses and it seems that they

highlight the environmental and societal purposes. But certainly, the economic perspective

is taken into serious consideration, while it is remarkable the awareness of the respondents

regarding the ecosystem services approach. This approach may not always be

communicated in a direct factual or analytical way but it is also included in the used

discourses as well as it characterizes the orientation of the adopted activities. The existence

of the environmental the societal and the economic perspective characterizes the vast

majority of the contemporary environmental educational processes and according to many

researchers, it promises the construction of a multidimensional and comprehensible

ecological message for modern citizens (Fancovicova & Prokop 2010). As it was proved this

fact is a reality in both localities too, and based on that someone can argue that their

ecological message can be quite promising and easy-accessible to the contemporary citizens

and students who visit them.

5.2 Conducted environmental educational processes

Among others, both Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden can be characterized as localities that

offer informal educational opportunities. Almost everyone from the employees in

Miljöverkstaden and a few of those in Fredriksdal are teachers with experience at the

Swedish national education level. But as it was turned, their engagement and their

pioneering point of view, made them to distinguish some further needs and some gaps at

the field of environmental education which seek to fill through the provided education

within the localities. Thus, the majority of the conducted environmental educational

processes are proved to adopt an alternative and pioneering philosophy as a starting point.

43

5.2.1 Characteristics of an effective environmental educational process

In many cases, there is a lot of discussion regarding the level of the provided environmental

education and more specifically about certain characteristics that can enhance the

effectiveness of the environmental educational processes (Fancovicova & Prokop, 2010).

Two of the respondents coming from the academia, voiced some concern regarding some

examples of superficial or ineffective approaches in the Swedish educational system even if

there have been some quite good attempts concerning the literature and the steering

documents in the field of environmental education. Per Wickenberg noticed:

“We could look at all the steering documents, *…+ the new curriculum and the

new course plans. They are quite advanced, they are good. But in reality what is

happening at school? That’s another question. We have many good examples but

overall I think it’s not so deep.”

Sinikka Neuhaus who is the Dean of department of education in Lund University mentioned:

“*…+ it’s complex--I think it’s a problem if it is just information, I think you have to

understand it in a deeper way.”

Some practical insights which can promise the coveted deeper engagement, proposed by

two respondents of the environmental office (Miljöbyrå) of Helsingborg. An individual

approach and an effort to inspire and motivate each person were pointed as essential

elements (Mattsson, interview 2013). Also, the real engagement can be managed only

through a democratic dialogue where the environmental topics would be connected to other

societal areas. This dialogue should aim to provoke an inner discussion and not to preach the

right and the wrong (Folkesson, interview 2013).

Additionally, according to Thörnbjörn Leike who is an associate professor of environmental

psychology, the starting in a young age, the positive approach, and the experiential learning

are identified as three very crucial elements of an effective environmental education

process:

“First of all it’s important to start early I think -- To start to teach early in school.

Then you should point the positive solutions never use the bad and say you are

not allowed to do this and that. This I think is more efficient and you get people

with you. *…+ And attitude change, we know from social psychology, not only

from factual knowledge. I think experiential learning could be a much valuable

tool in environmental education.”

44

Furthermore, Per Wickenberg during the interview, suggested a connection with the three

pillars of sustainable development while he highlighted the demands of the learners and the

significance of the ability of the teachers:

“In my view we should work on the three perspectives of sustainability, the

ecological, the social and the economic. *…+ but also the learning process should

be based on the demands of the learners, not preaching it from a teacher point of

view. *…+ The ability or the competence is very important, you have to involve and

inspire the learner.”

A targeting towards a more individual and deeper elaboration, the starting from an early

age, and the connection of the environmental education to some other perspectives of the

society described from the interviewees as some fundamental elements for an effective

environmental educational process. Clearly, those observations imply some potential

failures or deficiencies within the traditional approaches of the official curriculum. In other

words it seems that the respondents can distinguish a gap in the mainstream school

education and the take specific initiatives to fill this gap. However, it should become clear

that in the case of the two examined localities, the main orientation is to support the school

curriculum in a supplementary way and not to replace it.

5.2.2 Theoretical vs practical approach

Traditionally, the vast majority of educational processes were dominated by theoretical

approaches, methods and discussions. The practical engagement with the taught subject

was limited even concerning the topics which were highly related with the everyday

experience and life. The pedagogical evolution that occurred mostly during the second half

of the 20th century (Gidley, 2011) led to the gradual adoption of more practical and

‘experience-based’ learning practices (Ballantyne & Parker, 2008).

It is well admitted that nowadays the practical approaches construct a trend in many

educational fields and there are even examples of tutors who almost underestimate the

need of a decent theoretical basis before entering the experimental level. Contrary to that,

the adopted practices in Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden seem to aim for an ideal

equilibrium between the practical and the theoretical approach (Meyers 2006).

45

Undoubtedly, they are engaged to a great extend with the new emerged practical methods

but still they do not undervalue the need of the factual knowledge. Thus, they are presented

as the ideal complement to the official courses that are taught inside the school class. On

that way, Ingeman Nyman a teacher in Miljöverkstaden, answered at the question whether

it is more effective to adopt theoretical and factual or more practical approaches:

“Oh I think both in a way. You cannot say the one or the other, you must have

both. But the danger is if you emphasize at the factual part *…+ it can be much

funnel if you have the practical approach. It’s easier for the students to

understand something when they do is with their hands--easier to remember.”

While Jacob Sandberg the botanist of Fredriksdal added:

“I think you need both. I am not sure which should be introduced first but if you

have the theoretical background you can create more knowledge by doing things,

*…+ and the practical application will help to inspire yourself.”

Finally, pointing out the complementary cooperation between the localities and the schools,

Karin Hjelmer a teacher in Fredriksdal mentioned:

“Often at schools they are working with a big theme *…+ I think it is good when

they are coming here at the end, having good questions and practice it.”

The “careful blending of theory and practice” (Meyers, 2006) seems to attach to the

localities of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden a reputation of pioneering educational

establishments where contemporary educational processes are adopted. Certainly, both

localities can be examined as successful cases and their example can be used by other

institutions that provide environmental educational opportunities.

5.2.3 Outdoor environmental educational processes

Unquestionably, the pedagogical swift that moved the educational focus from factual to

more practical knowledge, affected the field of environmental education as well. Among

others, the emergence of outdoor environmental educational practices was a result of this

progress (Kola-Olusanya, 2005). Successively, outdoor environmental educational processes

are adopted by teachers, educational institutions and official curriculums. Fredrik Bengtsson

an ecologist at the technical office of Helsingborg stressed that fact in the case of Sweden:

46

“The new teaching plan for the whole Sweden, I think stresses the outdoor

experience. Your personal experience on the nature when you are learning or

teaching about these things.”

Advocating the significance of the ‘place-based learning’ (Johnson et al, 2011) Annika

Jonasson a teacher from Miljöverkstaden indicated the role of the outdoor experience in

environmental education:

“I think it’s really important to be at the place you are talking about. If you want

to talk about garbage and how to do recycling, you need to be able to see the

dumpsite.”

The effectiveness of the outdoor educational processes was stressed in many ways by the

respondents. The most significant element that justifies that fact is the engagement of the

senses which is managed by the outdoor processes and leads to better results (Nyberg,

interview 2013). The advantages of this sensory approach are innumerable as it promises to

reach not only the people who are already interested in environmental preservation

discourses but also those who are less informed or engaged to the environment. Actually,

the outdoor processes could be described as almost the only way to get easy in touch with

the part of the population that is away from the environmental debate or is not interest to

get the theoretical background related to environmental issues (Mattsson, interview 2013).

As Kydryavtsev et al (2011) argued, an environmental experience related to a place fosters

environmental behaviors, attitudes and emotions, while it may lead to ‘place attachment’ or

‘place rootedness’. Both localities attempt to highlight the special characteristics of the

region and the advantages of the surrounding environment. On this way, they strengthen

the bonds of the inhabitants with their area of living, by communicating that their lives are

highly depended on it. There is no doubt that this procedure is quite beneficial for each city

as it can transform a common inhabitant to a contentious citizen who is aware of the

ecological impact of different actions and has an active participation in the contemporary

social environmental debate.

One rather interesting observation that emerged from the interviews is the potential

difficulties in the implementation of the outdoor environmental educational approach in

different countries or cultures. As it was mentioned by the respondents the Scandinavian

nations are highly related to the nature, a fact that becomes obvious from the friluftsliv

47

tradition. Thus, ‘Scandinavian students’ might be closer or more familiar to the outdoor

methods as well. As Sinikka Neuhaus, the Dean of department of education in Lund

University, indicated:

“*…+ in Scandinavia you have this historical tradition of putting your identity in

the nature. If you look at Swedish, Finnish, Norwegian poems and religious songs

*…+ they are very much about woods, forests, flowers, *…+ we relax to be

outdoors.”

Maybe this could be one of the reasons of the early emergence of open-air museums in

Sweden like Skansen (1891) in Stockholm and Fredriksdal (1918) in Helsingborg which both

were so early engaged with outdoor activities. As Widar Narvelo said:

“Outdoor education in Fredriksdal is a long tradition, so it started before the

more common environmental discourse, *…+ before the big environmental

problems and the Brundtland report in 1987.”

This observation may be helpful for many teachers and scientists who seek to promote

environmental education through alternative ways. Actually, there is a worldwide interest

towards the adoption of outdoor environmental education methods in the context of open-

air museums or similar localities. Thus, it is quite crucial for all who are involved to have in

mind the special features of each place and to connect the adopted discourses with the

different needs of each area. In the specific cases of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden it

seems that there was a great effort to adopt and use the special societal, cultural and

natural characteristics of the surrounding environment. And certainly, this fact enhances the

authenticity and the legitimacy of the ecological message they communicate.

5.2.4 Environmental educational processes at Fredriksdal

The open-air museum of Fredriksdal is already a well-reputed locality which is highly related

to the history of the city of Helsingborg. Apart from the recreational contribution, this ‘lung

of the city’ fulfils a series of purposes in the educational field. Karin Hjelmer said:

“You can come here and just walk or relax. *…+ You can have a rather silent place

in the middle of the city. On the other hand this is an educational place. We have

always something to teach in our activities.”

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The majority of the conducted educational processes at Fredriksdal are targeting to the

sensory understanding and engagement. All visitors have the opportunity to construct

something their hands or to become the audience of a theatrical play or a concert which are

taking place during special events in the summer. The greatest number of the activities has

an outdoor orientation and they are also targeting to engage people from different ages and

promote the knowledge transmission between generations (Hjelmer, interview 2013).

Equally important is the role of the guided tours where someone can smell, touch, and see

the biodiversity of the Scania region, while there is an opportunity to understand the use of

the wood and the significant role of pollination in contemporary societies. Regarding those

Jacob Sandberg highlighted:

“I think the botanical garden is very basic *…+ it has the biodiversity you can see in

hundred kilometers from here and it’s like a kind of awakening that it’s not only

the rainforest that we have values to preserve and keep. *…+ There is this wooden

trip that you can walk around with small glass displays where you can see what

the woof is used for. *…+ And there is some ecology also, this pollination thing is

very important and this is also an ecosystem service.”

The respondents highlighted the ‘quasi-educative’ orientation of the locality. In that sense

even the special days and events like the Christmas Market that are organized every year can

be described as educational opportunities and that because “there is always something to

learn” (Hjelmer, interview 2013). One additional interesting aspect regarding the educational

processes in Fredriksdal is the use of the heritage. The whole landscape is organized based

on historical architectural facts and techniques while the use of traditional agricultural

methods with meadows and pastures emphasize the importance of biodiversity and the

respect of the natural cycle in the environment. Ultimately, the visitors are not just informed

about all those, but they have the opportunity to hang around and have a firsthand

experience of the traditional landscape of Scania. The historical aspect provides authenticity

to the sensory experience and gives useful examples and potential solutions to

contemporary problems. Subconsciously, all those processes are highly related to the

ecosystem services approach, since they describe how the traditional society was adapted to

the natural cycles and was using all the benefits of its environment. Obviously, the

combination of these elements differentiates Fredriksdal from the majority of the traditional

49

open-air museums which are engaged in the field of environment and heritage. The

integration of interactive guided tours and events with the existence of new-emerged

discourses that connect nature and economy make it to fulfill the contemporary

requirements of environmental education.

5.2.5 Environmental educational processes at Miljöverkstaden

As also evidenced by its name, Miljöverkstaden is the environmental workshop of the city of

Helsingborg. It was an initiative of some highly engaged teachers who wanted to expand the

educational experience and create more things regarding the environmental educational

field. Their pioneering methods attracted special funding from different companies while

their success made happy the authorities of the city as well. Today, they are educating

students from the schools of the city, they are providing environmental seminars for the city

employees, and they are running in cooperation with Lindköping University courses of

outdoor education.

The teachers Ingeman Nyman and Annika Jonasson described that the conducted

environmental educational processes in Miljöverkstaden are following a combination of

indoor and outdoor methods with a special focus on the practical and experiential learning.

More specifically Ingeman Nyman said:

“We have a classroom, yes, and we are talking to the pupils, but we also connect

these facts to experience, outdoor experience. That is very practical approach.

And we are trying to use as much as we can the senses.”

And Annika Jonasson added:

“We have themes and different types of programs according to the age. *…+ Here

it’s mainly outdoor education.*…+ Children see butterflies in the microscope and

talk how they are contributing to life.”

Parallel to the active engagement of each student inside the workshop, Klas Nyberg noted

the use of different localities and the visits to other places like waste or water supply station:

“It’s very much workshops and we want them to be active *…+ try to look, think

and solve the problem and then we discuss. *…+ And we have different localities

that they don’t look like ordinary classrooms, and we take them with buss to the

waste station, the water supply station and so on.”

50

These activities increase the interactive notion of the education, while the visits and

excursions are the definition of the outdoor first-hand experience. The outdoor approach

and the evolving discussions target to an acquaintance with all the benefits deriving from the

surrounding ecosystems, thus all the students are becoming familiar with the ecosystem

services approach and at the same time they construct strong links with the surrounding

social and natural environment.

5.3 Ecological message

There is no doubt that the conducted environmental educational processes in Fredriksdal

and Miljöverkstaden are supposed to have multiple results. At the first stage, those results

can be summarized under the construction of a general ecological message that is

communicated to the local society. As it was already mentioned, the city of Helsingborg has

a clear-stated vision and some specific objectives regarding the environmental sustainability

and preservation. So, given that the two localities share the same vision as parts of the city,

someone can claim that the ecological message must be absolutely identical with the

orientation of the official vision.

The empirical material collected through the interviews certified identification in general

terms, but each educational process is characterized by a democratic progress where the

personal view and experience of the teacher plays a significant role. Thus, there was an

effort to investigate and include the personal opinion of the teachers since they are the

actual mediators of the ecological message. Additionally, as it was mentioned by Linnea

Folkesson the construction of the official orientation from the city authorities is also

following a democratic procedure where different attitudes and opinions are taken into

account:

“I would definitely say that there is not just one vision that stands for all the

employees in Helsingborg. They are frontier economists that maybe don’t see any

limits and then there are also deep ecological thoughts. *…+ We get both views of

weak and strong sustainability and we try to merge to what is the medium for

the city.”

The critical lens which was used to identify and classify the ecological message was a

spectrum with five fundamental paradigms of environmental management and human-

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nature relationships, proposed by Colby (1991). More specifically the table below (table 1)

was showed to all the interviewees and they were asked to classify the ecological message of

the localities or to point the ideal situation according to their opinion.

Table 1: Paradigms of environmental management within a spectrum of sustainability. Colby

(1990)

The interviewees from the academia were asked to classify a potential ideal and realistic

ecological message in the context of the contemporary environmental educational

processes. Also, they were invited to comment the consequences of an exaggerating

ecological discourse. Two of them connected the ideal ecological message to the paradigm

of Resource Management, while both admitted that an exaggerating ecological discourse

can provoke skepticism. The associate professor Thörnbjörn Leike said:

“I think something realistic is Resource Management even if I think that now we

are only in Environmental Protection. *…+ As I said when you are forbidding

different things, then I think you will get some skepticism.”

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On the same way Sinikka Neuhaus pointed the potential realistic discourse at the paradigm

of Resource Management. While she admitted that every single exaggerating approach can

provoke a reaction of resistance against its power to change (Neuhaus, interview 2013).

On the other hand, Per Wickenberg expressed some doubts towards the definition of ‘the

ideal’ and suggested that an effective environmental educational process should cover all

those paradigms:

“*…+ and who is defining what is ideal? *…+ I could say that education should

cover the understanding of all different stages here, to understand it --

understand the conflicts of interest between them.”

At the question to classify the existent ecological message, interviewees from the

municipality pointed mostly at the paradigm of Environmental Protection, even if they

highlighted that they would like to have it closed to the Deep Ecology. Sofia Mattsson

argued:

“In my opinion it should be close to Deep Ecology, but of course we can’t. Maybe

now it’s somewhere here at Environmental Protection.”

Similarly, Fredrik Bengtsson an ecologist in the municipality pointed the paradigm of

Environmental Protection but he also expressed his wish to have more discussions in order

to stimulate towards some further steps for a greener city. His opinion was followed by a

justification that some more steps towards strong sustainability do not mean that the

society will return back to caves (Bengtsson, interview 2013).

Finally, the teachers of the localities which are the actual mediators of the ecological

message seem to classify it at the level of Eco-Development. For instance Annika Jonasson

said:

“I think we need to go to strong sustainability, then again I think this is quite

difficult to be able to achieve, so hopefully we are somewhere here to Eco-

Development.”

Here the answers had some more absolute and decisive characteristics. The respondents

were aware of the possibility to meet some practical objections but at the same time they

were pointing their flexibility and they were relating their educational duty with the ethical

target of environmental preservation.

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Unsurprisingly, it was proved that there was a slight difference regarding the view of the

ecological message between the respondents from the municipality and the respondents

from the localities. More specifically, the count of the responses (table 4*) revealed that the

municipality respondents connected it with the paradigm of Environmental Protection, while

the respondent from the localities placed it mostly at the Eco-Development level. Someone

can describe that fact as a malfunction or a misunderstanding of the initial vision of the city

but actually, it reveals the long distance that each society needs to cover in order to agree

and reach the ideal situation, while also shows the democratic characteristics of the

educational processes.

Frontier Economics

Environmental Protection

Resource Management

Eco-Development

Deep Ecology

Academia responses

2

Municipality responses

2

Localities responses

2 3 1

Table 4: Paradigm choices (*3 out of 13 respondents did not point at a specific paradigm)

Furthermore, it should be admitted that both respondents from the municipality and the

localities talked about the need of sustainable development and especially those from the

municipality expressed their wish to move a little bit further within the sustainability

spectrum of the showed table. However, they pointed that this development can be proved

costly and time consuming, and both those elements are deterrents for the politicians. Sofia

Mattsson said:

“It’s a long way to get to the Deep Ecology and I don’t think they know how to do

that. It will cost too much money and other things. It takes long long time and the

politicians-- they have four years until the next election and they want to stay on

the power.”

On that discussion the academics placed the realistic situation somewhere in the middle

(Resource Management) and that could be summarized as the actual meeting point between

54

the teachers of environmental education and the authoritarian perspective (municipality).

This “meeting” is a trouble-free result as in both sides there are no exaggerating or extreme

discourses. As Annika Jonasson argued:

“I think it’s a good cooperation. *…+ In a city you have all the needs, they need to

build roads… *…+ But again you can always discuss.”

Moreover, the definition of the ecological message can be broader than expected. Ingeman

Nyman noted:

“There is not a quite obvious message so to speak. Perhaps it’s more to lifting up

questions and the attitudes and how do we really -- what do we really know and

how do we act. It’s not just come with a message. This is so -- It’s an approach!”

And as Per Wickenberg pointed out, an effective environmental education should provide

knowledge for all the different discourses, provoke an inner dialogue and give the space to

the learner to make a democratic choice.

Certainly, the effort to identify a single and specific ecological message proved to be quite

difficult and demanding. As it was already mentioned the democratic characteristics of the

educational processes and the personal background of each teacher in the two localities may

differentiate slightly the communicated message. But in general terms, the deriving

discourse can be characterized sustainable with a tendency towards strong sustainability.

More specifically, it could de said that the choices of the respondents meet at the Resource

Management paradigm proposed by Colby (1991), while the majority of the answers include

a positive attitude to move further to more sustainable levels. The inhibitors of that

evolution are related to some priorities and stereotypes that accompanying the image of the

contemporary city. The concerns of the politicians who “have only four years and they are

waiting for fast results” (Mattsson, interview 2013) and the needs for “financial

development” seem to create some social constructed obstacles on the road to deep

ecology.

5.3.1 The ecological message through the intended developments in the localities

A clearer picture regarding the practical aspects of the ecological message of the localities

was gained through a series of questions related to the current positive elements and to the

55

anticipated developments towards the target of an upgraded function within the localities.

More specifically, the interviewees were asked to express their dreams and their ideas about

the future of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden.

Parallel to the admittance that both localities are already successful examples of provided

environmental education, the respondents stressed the need to continue to promote the

democratic dialogue and orientate towards a more sustainable development the future for

the city (Folkesson, interview 2013). At this effort the localities are invited to integrate even

more the economic, the societal, and the environmental discourses (Mattsson, interview

2013) in order to upgrade the average level of awareness in contemporary preservation

subjects. Additionally, they are called to highlight the necessity of a greener city and connect

their activities to local nature reserves, presenting their function and talking about their

importance (Bengtsson, interview 2013). This could be managed by the portrayal of the

practical value of the ecosystems. Fredriksdal already adopts this method as well as it seeks

to continue the development of the botanical garden and the historical landscape and

moreover start to produce some biological products in order to present the quality results of

a preserved environment (Sandberg, interview 2013). Finally, teachers from Miljöverkstaden

expressed their willingness to strengthen the relationship with the official school curriculum

and set up a more intensive communication regarding environmental questions of everyday

life (Nyberg, Nyman, interview 2013). In the case of Fredriksdal one of the future

communication channels with the children will be the “sustainability playground” which is

supposed to transmit the ecological messages in a funny way (Hjelmer, interview 2013).

The expressed opinions revealed for one more time that Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden are

perceived as significant transmitters of environmental awareness in the city of Helsingborg.

The majority of the respondents stressed that the already adopted pioneering educational

processes should evolve further, while both localities should continue to integrate societal

economic and environmental discourses in their effort to construct the communicated

ecological message. This message is broad since it is a result of democratic procedures but

its main orientation deals with an aiming towards strong sustainability. That seems to be a

target for the city at the authoritarian level too and consequently the value aspects of the

environment and the ecosystem services approach gain even more prominent place.

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5.4 Ecosystem services and their value aspects

While the evolving procedure within the field of environmental education brought to the

surface the idea of sustainable development, the big discussion of the integration of

environment, society, and economy started. That because “the core mainstream

sustainability thinking has become the idea of three dimensions, environmental social and

economic sustainability.” (IUCN 2006) This is visualized successfully with the three

overlapping cycles (Figure 2).

Figure 2: The overlapping cycles of sustainability. (Retrieved from Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting, 29-31 January 2006 www.iucn.org)

Subsequently, apart from the environmental and social aspect each discussion about

environmental educational processes is supposed to shed light on the economic perspective

as well. During the interviews there were many respondents who first mentioned this aspect

and more specifically connected it to the quite promising approach of ecosystem services. A

series of followed up questions revealed the connecting linkage between nature and

economic benefits while they helped towards the investigation of the value aspects for the

society.

5.4.1 Worthiness of natural benefits

Already from the four first interviews conducted with the municipality respondents, it

became clear that the city of Helsingborg is able to distinguish the benefits deriving from the

57

natural environment, while it is eager to act in order to preserve its resources. Fredrik

Bengtsson mentioned some advantages enjoyed by the city inhabitants as well as the efforts

to preserve them:

“We try to focus on that -- I mean that’s the fields, rural areas and the water --

we have good drinking water in the city. *…+ We have the fishing at Oresund and

recreational and health from the green areas.”, “We have many small specific

projects of protection of environmental areas, natural reserves and so on. We

participate in an international project called local action for biodiversity (ICLAY),

*…+ we try to get more people to go by bus or cycle and so on.”

Linnea Folkesson described in detail the multiple advantages of the existence of the

coastline, saying that it provides an understanding of the sea as well as enjoyment and

relaxation to the city inhabitants. She connected the function of the trees in the city with the

most common ecosystem services of the clean air, mentioning that sometimes it is

underestimated. While furthermore she highlighted the active role of the municipality

towards the way of sustainability by mentioning the H+ project which deals the planning of a

new city area and targets to integrate the social, economic and the environmental aspects in

the most efficient and effective way (Folkesson, interview 2013).

The driving forces of the tendency to protect and preserve the environment can be

described as a mixture of different incentives. Among them there are pure environmental,

societal but also economic incentives. As Linnea Folkesson indicated:

“I think so. Maybe you don’t think of it in economic term, but I would definitely

say so. For example we have a new nature reserve that called Örby Fältet and this

is quite a vital park of cleaning the water for Helsingborg. And if this wasn’t

preserved, it would cost quite a lot if we lose it.”

Those certify the tendency of the local community to adopt the worldwide trend that sees

the environment from an economic perspective (Gommez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011). The

environmental benefits are evaluated as advantages for the society (Salles, 2011) and their

value aspects can be translated in economic terms. There is no doubt that the existence of

this discourse can be supported perfectly by the ecosystem services approach.

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5.4.2 A financial discourse for environmental preservation.

At the question about the level of awareness regarding the ecosystem services approach,

the respondents themselves proved to be quite informed but some of them admitted that

the term is not yet well-spread in the society. Annika Jonasson answered:

“Yes I think it is a common term. *…+ I think we have been talking about it quite a

lot. *…+ I think most people are not familiar with the term and hopefully it will

come more and more”

Parallel to that it was mentioned that the term of ecosystem services is common for a

decent number of municipality employees and a corresponding number of politicians

(Mattsson, interview 2013). While Fredrik Bengtsson mentioned that the city authority is

working on the way to spread the knowledge of ecosystem services and the same

phenomenon take place in the whole country since more and more people are getting aware

of it (Bengtsson, interview 2013).

Additionally, the teachers from the localities indicated that they are using the ecosystem

services approach during the educational processes, and they expressed a positive stance

towards the trend to use financial discourses to advocate environmental preservation.

However, there were some small objections which were pointing towards a ‘deeper danger’.

More specifically Klas Nyberg pointed that they discuss about ecosystem services and that

he believes that it is quite interesting to approach and connect some natural aspects with

the financial discourse (Nyberg, interview 2013). On the other hand, Ingeman Nyman

admitted that the economic approach is used but he tried to depict a limit since he talked

about a “tricky situation” which sometimes may be proved a little dangerous (Nyman,

interview 2013).

Finally, many of the respondents agreed that using financial discourses to advocate

preservation may be quite effective since a contemporary citizen can understand easier an

economic approach comparing to an ecological one. So the economy can be used as a

common language to communicate environmental preservation. Based on that, Charlotte

Alheim said:

“Of course people think in money! *…+ so there has to be some money into it. And

if they can be more friendly to nature -- I mean it’s fantastic!”

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From those it becomes clear that the ecosystem services approach is a fundamental part of

the existing discourses and of the conducted educational processes as well. However, that

fact provokes further discussion since by definition the term of ecosystem services gives an

anthropocentric dimension at the relationship between human and environment. In other

words, it implies a flow of benefits from the side of the nature to the humanity without any

reference to the equality or respect elements, while the word services includes mainly

financial and economic implications (Farber et al, 2002). So among the many supporting

opinions about this approach, there are also those who express their skepticism. The existing

debate about the ecosystem services approach reveals the crucial role of the teachers who

are responsible for transmitting their message in a balanced and effective way.

5.4.3 Valuation of ecosystem services and the risk of commodification

Even if the city of Helsingborg does not follow currently a general and official method of

valuating ecosystem services, the conducted interviews proved the high level of awareness

regarding the economic value of ecosystem services (Gomez-Baggethun & Perez, 2011),

among the people working at the localities and at the municipality. Widar Narvelo the city

ecologist, stated:

“No I don’t think so yet (if the municipality follows any valuation method of

natural resources). But in this report -- the city biodiversity report (ICLAY) we are

showing some examples of evaluation of ecosystem services.”

Similarly, Sofia Mattsson an environmental strategist in the municipality, pointed out the

economic value enclosed in the environment:

“It’s nature -- Absolutely it costs money if you destroy it.”

But at the same time the respondents expresses their concern of the potential risk of

commodification deriving from the tendency to talk about the environment in financial

terms. For instance Fredrik Bengtsson said that there is always a risk if someone talks about

nature in financial terms. According to him, the main reason for the existent dangerous

situation is the fact that the vast majority of the people who are responsible for decisions in

a worldwide basis are businessmen and economists who are not environmentally educated

(Bengtsson, interview 2013).

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Charlotte Alheim went a step further and claimed that in contemporary societies, many

environmental values are already commodified:

“Isn’t already a price tag on it? Well people who cut down -- If somebody sees a

tree, they don’t look it as a tree, they look it as a furniture. Because there are

some people who want to buy furniture *…+ and they don’t think about the forest

they only want to buy a furniture!”

On the other hand Annika Jonasson admitted the risk of commodification but she stressed

that the use of financial discourse might be the only way to make even the not

environmentally concerned, to act in an environmentally friendly way:

“No but I think it could be a way to persuade people who are not

environmentalist -- to make them feel better by taking care of the nature. *…+ I

think that people who care about the environment *…+ see nature as a resource

anyway, but people who don’t -- if this is the only way to get them into the train

to look after nature, I think it’s a good idea.”

Undoubtedly, this approach reveals some basic characteristics of the contemporary societies

where the main incentives for a great number of people can be only related to the economic

field. Thus generally, the expressed opinions lead the discussion to the fundamental

skepticism related to the use of the ecosystem services approach and to how ethical is to

adopt financial discourse to describe the nature. The risk of a commodified nature comes to

the surface and it provokes a big debate in the societal context. (Gomez-Baggethun & Perez,

2011). Nevertheless, these kind of queries exceed the boundaries of environmental

education as they reach deeper principles and pathogeneses of contemporary societies.

However, it is historically proved that the education can be a starting point towards the

solution of many problems. So some talented and engaged teachers as well as the adoption

of balanced educational methods are two of the most promising elements that, fortunately,

already exist in the two examined localities.

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6. CONCLUSIONS Undoubtedly the conducted research revealed the existence of an active environmental

debate not only in the two localities of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden but also in the entire

city of Helsingborg. The municipality motivated by a series of preservation, societal and

economic reasons adopts a clear vision for the environmental future of the city and

highlights the significance of environmental education in the effort of fulfilling this vision.

The two localities operate as basic mediators of environmental awareness and using a

number of pioneering educational processes construct and communicate a remarkable

sustainability discourse.

The adopted environmental educational processes are influenced by the very latest

developments launched by United Nations Earth Summits as well as by contemporary shifts

in pedagogical methods and techniques. It was proved that Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden

are using a careful blend of theoretical and practical approaches in order to fill a gap, while

traditionally, the educational practices were dominated mostly by theoretical and factual

approaches. Thus, among the essential characteristics of the quasi-educative profile of the

localities there is an outdoor orientation which is accompanied by sensory and interactive

activities. Furthermore, experience and place based learning techniques strengthen the links

with the surrounding environment, while non-normative descriptions arise an inner

discussion which seek to find solutions about existing environmental problems. The main

discourse is based on the three pillars of environmental, societal and economic interest and

the core aiming is to transmit to current and future citizens, knowledge about the multiple

values of ecosystems.

The ecological message is constructed through democratic procedures where different point

of views, experiences and priorities are merged. It could be characterized as broad but at the

same time it is close both to the vision of the city and to the aims of its actual agents who

are the teachers of the localities. So in brief words it is orientated towards environmental

awareness and preservation, it communicates the economic significance of the environment,

and it tries to maintain the social cohesion while it educates future citizens to adopt

responsible attitudes. The classification effort within the spectrum of sustainability (Colby,

1990), placed the ecological message at the Resource Management paradigm (table 1) and

revealed a tension towards stronger sustainability levels. The Resource Management

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paradigm is related to the discourses of the green economy movement where preservation

is a fundamental element of development and growth. Consequently, the ecological

message includes the ecosystem services approach which is central within the green

economy standpoint.

The dominant approach in the localities is orientated towards pure ecological benefits and

preservation discourses; however a deeper study revealed an influence by the contemporary

tension to valuate ecosystems and talk about nature in monetary terms. The communicated

ecological message distinguishes the ecosystem values and highlights the economic potential

resulting through environmental preservation. This fact justifies the existing debate about

the further benefits which are expected for the local society through the green branding or

similar efforts. Parallel to that, a series of ethical queries are expressed regarding the risk of

commodification and the danger of monetizing the nature. In front of these questions, the

respondents admitted the potential risks but, on the other hand, they pointed out that a

financial discourse about preservation might be the only way to reach and engage the vast

majority of the contemporary citizens in order to meet the final target of preservation. In

any case, the safety net that guaranties the ideal equilibrium in environmental valuation

discourses is the quality and balanced education provided by talented teachers.

Ultimately, the ecological message of the environmental educational processes conducted in

the localities of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden is highly related to the ecosystem services

approach. Actually, the ecosystem services approach is included as fundamental element in

the communicated ecological message. Its dominant discourse adopts the contemporary

principles of the green economy movement where environmental preservation and

economic growth are not conflicting concepts. This fact, in cooperation with a number of

pure environmental and societal educational provisions, constructs the sustainability toolbox

which is a basic element for the sustainable development of the city of Helsingborg.

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7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE LOCALITIES It is well-admitted that the current operation of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden can be

characterized as quite successful and effective. Widar Narvelo as the city ecologist of

Helsingborg expressed it briefly by saying that both localities “are doing a tremendous job!”.

However, there is always space for improvements and developments in qualitative and

quantitative level.

A common need and demand that emerged for both localities has to do with their potential

expanding. More specifically, as it was mentioned during some interviews Fredriksdal should

be used more in public situations and include more city areas in its message (Narvelo,

interview 2013), while it would be nice if Miljöverkstaden would expand its operation

towards more adult inhabitants of the city (Folkesson, interview 2013). Obviously, these

recommendations are deriving from a wish to communicate the ecological message and the

sustainability vision to more people and to include more city areas into the potential options

of social interaction and environmental experience.

Moreover, a simple comparison with similar localities around the world revealed a number

of ideas that could be adopted by Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden in order to upgrade the

quality of the offered services. Of course, in that case there should be a critical approach

before the implementation effort, while as it was already discussed each method and

technique should fit in the geographical and cultural context of each region.

So at Fredriksdal:

The ongoing attempt to develop the historical landscape can be accompanied by

some technological improvements in guiding. The option for audio guiding in

different languages could be offered to groups and individuals who do not chose the

traditional guiding. Different narratives can be connected to signs and specific

scientific information in order to provide a pleasant tour and present the locality to

each visitor.

The opening of the restaurant/cafe and its operation on an annual basis can increase

the reputation of the locality as a visiting destination, while it will be another channel

to communicate the advantages of the biological products which are produced in a

sustainable way. Parallel to that, a souvenir shop can provide an additional income to

64

the locality and most important to strengthen ties with the visitors as everyone

would have the opportunity to keep a small souvenir of Fredriksdal after the visit.

The target to include more natural areas in the ecological message could be achieved

by an effort to connect some natural reserves or forests around the city with the

flora and fauna exposed in the locality. Some maps could be provided to the visitors

and the interesting areas would be marked as potential destinations during different

periods of the year.

The effort towards the practical environmental engagement of more citizens and the

attempt to convince them to adopt sustainable habits could be enhanced by the

provision of more ideas and samples which could be easily implemented in the

everyday life. Some printed guides with instruction of how to grow their own

vegetables in their balcony can be a good example.

Finally, the improving procedure can become more efficient if Fredriksdal could

collect and evaluate the feedback from the visitors. This can be managed though

some surveys of questionnaires at the exit of the locality and undoubtedly, it can lead

to the detection and the correction of potential weaknesses.

And at Miljöverkstaden:

One quite beneficial step would be the activation at the “on-line level”. The creation

of a unique website will establish a new channel of communication with schools,

students and other potential visitors. It could include a forum for questions and

discussions, while it could collect ideas and proposals for activities from teachers or

student communities.

The aim to expand the provision of environmental education to more city inhabitants

could be achieved though the targeting to specific groups. For instance, after the

completion of the seminars for the municipality employees, the exhibition in Atmos

could be presented to the employees of the private companies of the city or to the

separated visitor group of children with parents.

Some additional special events with free admission during the Christmas or Easter

holidays could be a quite promising effort as they would strengthen the relationship

with the visitors and they would transmit the message that someone should think

about the environment during all the days of the year. Furthermore, another idea

65

could be the option of some visiting hours for individuals and groups even during the

summer holidays.

Finally, as at the case of Fredriksdal the possibility to collect and evaluate the

feedback from the visitors would give the opportunity to detect some potential

weaknesses and make corresponding improvements. The feedback could be

collected through surveys, questionnaires or even on-line.

Actually, one big obstacle in achieving those objectives is the funding. Currently, both

localities are well-funded by the municipality and the state but as it was mentioned during

the interviews “it would be nice to have more money” (Folkesson, interview 2013). Thus an

effort to attract some sponsors from the private sector and the local companies might be

effective in order to achieve financial prosperity. And of course the financial strength could

give the opportunity to develop the infrastructure of the localities, to hire some more

employees for different projects, and to educate further the existing teachers.

However, beyond the equipment and the infrastructure, it was proved that the basic reason

of success in both localities deals with the human capital which is reflected to the pioneering

and highly engaged teachers. This characteristic should be maintained while the teachers

and the employees should be provided with the necessary means to work. As it was

mentioned during an interview “they are inspired people, they always develop, let them

with free space in order to be creative” (Mattsson, interview 2013).

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Appendix 1: Interview guides

Interview Guide Academics

Thank you for accepting my interview invitation + Ask for permission to record the interview.

A. Aim and reason of the study

This study is aiming to investigate the characteristics of environmental education processes

provided in the context of an open-air museum. It targets to identify the ecological message

of the educational processes and distinguish its value aspects for the local society. The two

main cases of the study are the open-air museum of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden. Both

are localities of the city of Helsingborg which provide environmental education

opportunities.

B. Information about the interviewee and his/her relation with the locality (Fredriksdal/

Miljöverkstaden)

1. Can you please describe briefly your background?

2. Have you ever had any experience related to environmental education in the past? (What

is your relation to environmental education?)

C. Engagement with/role of environmental education.

3. Which is the level of significance of environmental education in contemporary societies?

4. How you would evaluate the level of provided environmental education nowadays?

5. Is there any major or specific message within the contemporary approaches of

environmental education?

D. Driving forces that lead to environmental education (societal, environmental, economic)

6. Two of the most mainstream and traditional discourses within the field of environmental

education are orientated to preservation and societal approaches. What is your opinion

about the emergence of some financial approaches that try to advocate preservation

through environmental education?

7. Can the environmental education be biased or institutionalized if it derives or is related

with financial interests?

E. Contemporary environmental educational processes

8. In your opinion, what should be the characteristics of an effective environmental

education process?

9. How does the evolution of environmental education methods affect the balance between

the traditional factual learning and the new-emergent experience learning?

10. Would you promote a more theoretical or a more practical approach regarding the

environmental education processes in localities like Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden?

F. Outdoor environmental education

11. Which are the advantages of the outdoor practical educational methods comparing to

the traditional factual learning about the environment?

71

12. Are there any challenges in the implementation of the outdoor educational processes in

different places, cities, or countries? (outdoor tradition, friluftsliv).

G. The ecological message deriving from environmental education

13. Within the spectrum of weak and strong sustainability (show the table), where should

you place the realistic ecological message that should derive from contemporary

environmental educational processes?

14. Are there any cases where an exaggerating ecological discourse may provoke skepticism

in the public interest for environmental preservation?

H. Ecosystem services as a contemporary way to promote the ecological message

15. Do you think that a potential connection between the financial benefits deriving from

nature to the need of environmental preservation would be more effective in managing

preservation?

16. How you would characterize the emergence of ecosystem services approach in the

contemporary environmental discourse?

I. The controversy of valuation of ecosystem services.

17. Do you believe that any connection of ecosystem services to financial benefits may lead

to commodification of the nature?

J. Personal vision for environmental education in the city.

18. What is your personal vision regarding the contemporary environmental education?

19. What you would like to change or what you would like to pose as a priority regarding the

environmental educational processes conducted in open-air museums and localities like Fredriksdal

and Miljöverkstaden

Interview Guide Localities

Thank you for accepting my interview invitation + Ask for permission to record the interview.

A. Aim and reason of the study

This study is aiming to investigate the characteristics of environmental education processes

provided in the context of an open-air museum. It targets to identify the ecological message

of the educational processes and distinguish its value aspects for the local society. The two

main cases of the study are the open-air museum of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden. Both

are localities of the city of Helsingborg which provide environmental education

opportunities.

B. Information about the interviewee and his/her relation with the locality (Fredriksdal/

Miljöverkstaden)

1. Can you please describe briefly your background and your position-role in the locality

(Fredriksdal or Miljöverkstaden)?

72

2. Have you ever had any other experience with environmental education in the past?

C. Engagement with/role of environmental education.

3. For what reasons is environmental education important nowadays?

4. Is environmental education one of the most significant offerings of your organization?

(And id yes, why? Was it a part of the initial vision of the organization or it emerged during its

function?)

5. Is there any specific message you want to transmit through the environmental education

you provide?

D. Driving forces that lead to environmental education (societal, environmental, economic)

6. What is the main contribution of your locality to the local society through the

environmental education you provide?

7. Two of the most mainstream and traditional discourses within the field of environmental

education are orientated to preservation and societal aiming. Do you use only those or you

may use any financial approaches to advocate preservation through environmental

education?

E. Contemporary environmental educational processes

8. Based on your experience, is it more effective to adopt more theoretical and factual, or

more practical approaches in environmental education?

9. What are the main environmental educational processes you adopt in your locality? (and

how do you construct and evaluate them?)

F. Outdoor environmental education

10. Which are the advantages of the outdoor educational methods you adopt, comparing to

traditional-factual learning about environment?

11. When did the outdoor educational orientation emerge in your organization, and how the

outdoor educational processes are constructed?

G. The ecological message deriving from environmental education

12. Within this spectrum of weak and strong sustainability (show the table), where would

you place the ideal equilibrium between economic development and sustainability? (Is this

the position of the deriving ecological message as well?)

13. Which is the role of the municipality (which is the main economic supporter of your

organization) in the construction of the deriving ecological message?

H. Ecosystem services as a contemporary way to promote the ecological message

14. What are the most significant benefits that the city and its inhabitants gain from the

environment?

15. Do you think that a potential connection between the financial benefits deriving from

nature to the need of environmental preservation would be more effective in managing

preservation?

73

16. To what extend you connect the financial benefits of nature with the need of

environmental preservation in your discourses?

17. Is the term of ecosystem services a common term among the employees in your

organization?

I. The controversy of valuation of ecosystem services.

18. Do you believe that a potential connection of ecosystem services to the financial benefits

deriving from nature, may lead to the commodification of nature?

J. Personal vision for environmental education in the city

19. What is your personal vision regarding the future of the locality?

20. What you would like to change or what you would like to pose as a priority regarding the

environmental educational processes conducted in the locality?

Interview Guide Municipality

Thank you for accepting my interview invitation + Ask for permission to record the interview.

A. Aim and reason of the study

This study is aiming to investigate the characteristics of environmental education processes

provided in the context of an open-air museum. It targets to identify the ecological message

deriving from the educational processes and distinguish its value aspects for the local society.

The two main cases of the study are the open-air museum of Fredriksdal and

Miljöverkstaden. Both are localities of the city of Helsingborg which provide environmental

education opportunities.

B. Information about the interviewee and his/her relation with the locality (Fredriksdal/

Miljöverkstaden)?

1. Can you please describe briefly your background and position in the municipality?

2. To what extend do you cooperate with the localities of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden?

C. Engagement with/role of environmental education.

3. Is environmental education an important subject in municipality’s agenda, and if yes why?

4. Is there any specific ecological message that the municipality would like to transmit to the

city inhabitants?

D. Driving forces that lead to environmental education

5. Which are the driving forces of the municipality’s engagement with environmental

education? (societal, environmental, economic)

6. What does the municipality target through environmental education? (Apart from

preservation and societal reasons, is there any financial aiming as well?)

E. Contemporary environmental educational processes

7. In your opinion, what should be the characteristics of an effective environmental

education process?

74

8. Would you promote a more theoretical or a more practical approach regarding the

environmental education processes in localities like Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden?

9. Is there any interest within the municipality to invest more money in promoting

contemporary approaches of environmental education?

F. Outdoor environmental education

10. It seems that the municipality tries to support and promote outdoor environmental

education methods through Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden. Is this initiative a part of a

broader plan regarding direct experiences with the nature?

11. When did this outdoor perspective in environmental education emerged? Was it a choice

of politicians or did it come through a collaboration with some academics?

12. Do you think that the outdoor environmental education has more advantages comparing

to the traditional factual learning about the environment?

G. The ecological message deriving from environmental education

13. Within this spectrum of weak and strong sustainability (show the table), where the

municipality identifies the ideal equilibrium between economic development and

sustainability?

14. Does the municipality take part in the construction of the sort of ecological message

deriving from the localities of Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden?

15. Does the municipality propose methods and processes of transmitting this message at

the localities?

H. Ecosystem services as a contemporary way to promote the ecological message

16. Are there any practical examples or current projects which can reveal that the

municipality combines economic development and environmental preservation?

17. Which are the most significant benefits that the city and its inhabitants gain from the

environment?

18. Is the term of ecosystem services a common term among the politicians and the

employees in the municipality?

I. The controversy of valuation of ecosystem services.

19. Does the municipality expect any financial benefits from its existing efforts for

environment management and preservation?

20. Does the municipality follow any valuation method of the city’s natural recourses?

21. Do you believe that any connection of ecosystem services to financial benefits may lead

to commodification of the nature?

J. Personal vision for environmental education in the city.

22. What is your personal vision regarding the environmental future of the city?

23. What you would like to change or what you would like to pose as a priority regarding the

environmental educational processes conducted in Fredriksdal and Miljöverkstaden?

75

Appendix 2: Coding Matrix Core themes Quotes Source

A. Backgroung Information about the interviewee and his/her relation with the locality (Fredriksdal/Miljöverkstaden)

B. Engagement of the person with environmental education/role of environmental education

C. Driving forces within environmental education (societal, environmental, economic)

D. Contemporary environmental educational processes

E. Outdoor environmental education

F. Unpacking ecological message deriving from environmental education

G. Ecosystem services as a contemporary way to promote the ecological message

H. The controversy of valuation of ecosystem services.

I. Personal vision for environmental education in the city