1. Knowledge, networks and nationsGlobal scientific collaboration in the 21st century

2. Knowledge, Networks andNations: Global scientificcollaboration in the 21st centuryRS Policy document 03/11Issued: March 2011 DES2096ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9 The Royal Society, 2011Requests to reproduce all or part of thisdocument should be submitted to:The Royal Society69 Carlton House TerraceLondon SW1Y 5AGT +44 (0)20 7451 2500F +44 (0)20 7930 2170E science.policy@royalsociety.orgW royalsociety.orgCover photo: Strain in graphene opens up apseudomagnetic gap. Generated by the CondensedMatter Physics Group at the University ofManchester, this image is a representation of thework at Manchester lead by Professor Andre GeimFRS, a Royal Society Research Professor, andProfessor Konstantin Novoselov, a Royal SocietyUniversity Research Fellow. Professors Geim andNovoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physicsin 2010 for their groundbreaking experimentsregarding graphene, a form of carbon, which is thethinnest and strongest material ever isolated. Bothmen have been cited since their award as globalscientists; both were born and studied in Russia,spent time in the Netherlands, and are now basedhere in the UK, attracting funding and accoladesfrom UK, European, and international sources. Paco Guinea 2010. 3. ContentsExecutive summary .................................... 5 Part 2: International collaboration............ 45 2.1Patternsofcollaboration...................................46 .Recommendations ...................................... 8 2.1.1 Collaborationinanationalcontext ............47 . 2.1.2 Whoiscollaboratingwithwhom?.............49The Advisory Group .................................. 10 2.2Regionalcollaboration.......................................54 2.2.1 SouthSouthcollaboration:Conduct of the study .................................11 agrowingtrend............................................54 2.3Whycollaborate?...............................................57Introduction: going global ........................ 14 2.3.1Seekingexcellence......................................57 2.3.2Thebenefitsofjointauthorship..................59Part 1: Scientific landscape in 2011......... 15 2.3.3Capacitybuildingthroughcollaboration...61 .1.1Trendsanddevelopmentsinglobalscience... 16 2.3.4Thegeopoliticalpotentialof 1.1.1 Emergingscientificnations.........................19 scientificcollaboration.................................62 1.1.2 Assessingresearchqualityandimpact.....24 2.4Underlyingnetworks.........................................62 1.1.3 Globalscientists...........................................26 2.4.1 Tappingintotheglobalnetworks 1.1.4 Braingain,drainandcirculation.................26 ofscience......................................................63 1.1.5 Disciplinaryshifts?.......................................28 . 2.5Enablingcollaborationtopromote 1.1.6 Readingtheresearch..................................29. excellentscience................................................64 1.1.7 Openingaccess...........................................30 . 2.5.1 Technology....................................................641.2Applyingscience................................................ 31 2.5.2Fundingmechanisms..................................67 1.2.1 BusinessR&D ..............................................31.2.6Harnessingcollaboration .................................. 70. Is business R&D recession proof?...............32 Location of business R&D............................32 1.2.2Patentgrowth...............................................331.3Driversofresearch.............................................34 1.3.1 Securingprosperityand stayingcompetitive.....................................35 . 1.3.2Addressingglobalchallenges.....................36 1.3.3Nationalscienceinaglobalage.................361.4Centresforscience............................................37 1.4.1 Centresofresearchandinfrastructure......391.5Anewworldorder?........................................... 411.6Theworldbeyond2011.....................................42 Designsofvasesandteapotsthat wouldbefoundinahouseofa merchantinCanton,fromDesigns of Chinese buildings,byWilliam Chambers,1757.FromtheRoyal Societylibraryandarchive. Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 3 4. Part 3: Global approachesConclusions and recommendations: to global problems .................................... 71 Cultivating the global3.1Scientificsolutions.............................................73 scientific landscape................................. 1033.2Globalresearchgovernance............................. 74 3.2.1Challenge-ledresearchinitiatives...............75 Glossary of acronyms ............................. 108 3.2.2Integratingchallengesand maximisingresources.................................77.Acknowledgments ...................................110 3.2.3Buildingcapacityandresilience.................783.3Casestudies.......................................................79 3.3.1Theworldslargestwarningsystem: theIntergovernmentalPanelon ClimateChange(IPCC)................................80 3.3.2Centresofexcellenceinagriculture: theConsultativeGrouponInternational AgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)...................83 . 3.3.3Atransformativeimpactonglobalhealth: theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation.....86 . 3.3.4Towardssustainableenergy: theInternationalTokamak ExperimentalReactor(ITER).......................90 3.3.5CapturingtheinitiativeonCO2: theglobaleffortstodeploycarbon MapofChina,fromAn embassy from captureandstorage(CCS)technology.....93. the East-India Company of the United Provinces to the Grand Tartar Cham,3.4Co-ordinatedeffortstotackle byJohnNieuhoff,1669.Fromthe RoyalSocietylibraryandarchive. globalproblems.................................................97.4 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 5. Executive summaryScienceisaglobalenterprise.Todaythereareover Thereareparticularcountrieswherethisincreased7millionresearchersaroundtheworld,drawing activityisespeciallystriking,withinvestmentandonacombinedinternationalR&DspendofoverscientificproductivityoutstrippinggeneraltrendsUS$1000billion(a45%increasesince2002),and ofgrowth.TheriseofChinahasbeenespeciallyreadingandpublishinginaround25,000separate notable,overtakingJapanandEuropeintermsscientificjournalsperyear.Theseresearchersofitspublicationoutputinrecentyears.Beyondcollaboratewitheachother,motivatedbywishingto China,rapiddevelopmentshavealsotakenplaceworkwiththeverybestpeopleandfacilitiesinthe inIndia, Brazilandnew emergent scientificworld,andbycuriosity,seekingnewknowledgetonationsintheMiddleEast,South-EastAsiaandadvancetheirfieldortotacklespecificproblems. NorthAfrica,aswellasastrengtheningofthe Knowledge, Networks and Nationsreviews,basedsmallerEuropeannations.onavailabledata,thechangingpatternsofscience, However,the traditional scientificandscientificcollaboration,inordertoprovideabasissuperpowers still lead the field.TheUSA,forunderstandingsuchongoingchanges.Itaimsto WesternEuropeandJapanallinvestheavilyidentifytheopportunitiesandbenefitsofinternational inresearchandreceiveasubstantialreturnincollaboration,toconsiderhowtheycanbestbetermsofperformance,withlargenumbersofrealised,andtoinitiateadebateonhowinternationalresearcharticles,thelionsshareofcitationsonscientificcollaborationcanbeharnessedtotacklethosearticles,andsuccessfultranslation,asseenglobalproblemsmoreeffectively. throughtheratesofpatentregistration. FromSingaporetoSouthAfrica,newresearchers Thecontinuedstrengthofthetraditionalcentresandresearchcommunitiesarereshapingthe ofscientificexcellenceandtheemergenceofnewlandscapeforscienceandinnovation,solongplayersandleaderspointtowardsanincreasinglydominatedbytheUSA,JapanandEurope.This multipolar scientific world,inwhichthereportexploresthischanginggeographyofscience distributionofscientificactivityisconcentratedinandinnovation.InPart1,itmapsandinvestigatesanumberofwidelydispersedhubs.whereandhowscienceisbeingcarriedoutaround Beyond these hubs, science is alsotheworldandthewaysinwhichthispictureisflourishing.Therecognitionoftherolechanging. thatsciencecanplayindrivingeconomic Science in 2011 is increasingly global, development,andinaddressinglocalandglobal occurringinmoreandmoreplacesthanever issuesofsustainability,hasledtoincreased before.Scienceisaddressingquestionsofglobal researchactivityandtheapplicationofscientific significance.Itissupportedbygovernments, methodandresultswithinlessdeveloped business,philanthropistsandcharities. countries.Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 5 6. Part2revealstheshiftingpatternsofinternational Theconnectionsofpeople,throughformaland collaboration.Internationalscienceislargely informalchannels,diasporacommunities,virtualconductedthroughbottom-up,informalconnections,globalnetworksandprofessionalcommunitiesasscientistsbecomemoremobileandaslarge ofsharedinterestsareimportantdriversofandoftencomplexdataaresharedattheclickofa internationalcollaboration.These networksbutton.Buttop-down,solutions-orientedinitiativesspan the globe. Motivated by the bottom-uparealsohelpingtoshapetheresearchlandscape, exchange of scientific insight, knowledgeasscientistsorganisethemselves,orarebeing and skills, they are changing the focus oforganised,totacklesharedconcerns.science from the national to the global level. The scientific world is becoming increasingly Yetlittleisunderstoodaboutthedynamicsof interconnected, with internationalnetworkingandthemobilityofscientists,how collaboration on the rise.Todayover35%theseaffectglobalscienceandhowbestto ofarticlespublishedininternationaljournals harnessthesenetworkstocatalyseinternational areinternationallycollaborative,upfrom25%collaboration. 15yearsago. Collaboration brings significant benefits,both Collaboration is growing for a variety of measurable(suchasincreasedcitationimpact reasons.Developmentsincommunication andaccesstonewmarkets),andlesseasily technologiesandcheapertravelmakeiteasier quantifiableoutputs,suchasbroadeningresearch thaneverbeforeforresearcherstowork horizons.Thefacilitationofcollaboration,therefore, together;thescaleofresearchquestions,and hasapositiveimpactnotonlyonthescience theequipmentrequiredtostudydemandsconducted,butonthebroaderobjectivesfor thatresearchersaremobileandresponsive.anysciencesystem(bethatenhancingdomestic Collaborationenhances the qualityofprosperityoraddressingspecificchallenges). scientificresearch,improves the efficiency and effectivenessofthatresearch,andis increasingly necessary,asthescaleofboth budgetsandresearchchallengesgrow. However,the primary driver of most collaboration is the scientists themselves. Indevelopingtheirresearchandfindinganswers, scientistsareseekingtoworkwiththebest people,institutionsandequipmentwhich complementtheirresearch,whereverthey maybe.6 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 7. Part3ofthisreportexplorestheroleof Globalchallengesarebeingaddressedviaainternationalscientificcollaborationinaddressingnumberofdifferentorganisationalmechanisms:someofthemostpressingglobalchallengesofourthroughintergovernmentalorinternationaltime.Thereportconcentratesonfivecasestudies, bodies,throughnationalsystems,andbyprivateandconsidersthestrengthsandshortcomingsindividualsandcorporations.Thesemechanismsofexistingmechanismswhichbringscientific oftendeploynovelandinnovativeformsofcommunitiestogethertoaddressglobalchallenges.partnership,someofwhichworkwell,othersIPCC, CGIAR, the Gates Foundation, ITER andlessso.Valuable lessons can be drawn fromefforts to deploy carbon capture and storage existing models in designing, participatingtechnologydemonstratehowscienceisalready in and benefiting from global challengebeingusedtorespondtothesechallenges,andresearch.providemodelsandlessonsforhowitmightbe Science is essential for addressing globalbetterdeployedinthefuture. challenges, but it cannot do so in isolation. TheglobalscientificcommunityisincreasinglyAwiderangeofapproacheswillberequired, chargedwithordrivenbytheneedtofind includingtheappropriateuseoffinancial solutionstoarangeofissuesthatthreaten incentives,incorporatingnon-traditionalformsof sustainability.These global challenges haveknowledge,andworkingwiththesocialsciences received much attention in recent years, andandwiderdisciplines.Scienceiscrucialbutit are now a key component of national and isunlikelytoproducealltheanswersbyitself: multinational science strategies and many thescienceinfrastructureworksbestwhenitis funding mechanisms. supportedby,andenables,othersystems. Global challenges are interdependent and All countries have a role in the global effort interrelated:climatechange,water,foodandto tackle these challenges,bothindefining energysecurity,populationchange,andlossofandprioritisingthemandinusingglobalresearch biodiversityareallinterconnected.Thedynamic outputtoinformlocal,nationalandregional betweentheseissuesiscomplex,yetmanyresponses.Thisneedisincreasinglybeing globalassessmentandresearchprogrammesacknowledgedforinclusivityandcapacitybuilding aremanagedseparately,oftenreflectingalackof acrossregionsandcontinents,inhelpingto co-ordinationinthepolicysphere.Governments, meet(national)needs,andindevelopingaglobal civilsocietyandtheprivatesectorneedtotakeainfrastructurethatisresilienttonewchallenges. broaderperspectiveonglobalchallengesinorder toappreciatehowtheyareinterrelated.Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 7 8. Knowledge, Networks and Nations Commitments to multinational research concludes with a set of recommendationsefforts and infrastructures should not beto further strengthen global science.Thisseen as easy targets for cuts during a periodreportcallsformorecreative,flexibleandbetter- of economic turbulence.Tocutsubscriptionsresourcedmechanismstoco-ordinateresearchtojointresearchendeavours,withoutdueacrossinternationalnetworksandtoensurethatdiligenceandassessment,isafalseeconomy.Byscientistsandsciencecanfulfiltheirpotential.Italsodisengagingfromtheseefforts,countriesrunthecallsformorecomprehensiveandinclusiveways riskofisolatingtheirnationalscienceandlosingofmeasuringandevaluatingthesciencewhichisrelevance,qualityandimpact.deliveredandappliedinallitsformsaroundtheworld.Finally,thereporthighlightstheimportance 2. Internationally collaborative science should beofscienceandthewiderevidencebasein encouraged, supported and facilitatedunderpinningrobustpolicymaking,especiallyaround Research funders should provide greatersharedglobalchallenges.support for international research Understandingglobalsciencesystems,theircollaborationthroughresearchandmobilitymechanismsandmotivations,isessentialifwearegrants,andothermechanismsthatsupporttoharnesstheverybestsciencetoaddressglobalresearchnetworks.challengesandtosecurethefutureofourspecies National border agencies should minimiseandourplanet.barriers to the flow of talented people, ensuringthatmigrationandvisaregulationsareRecommendationsnottoobureaucratic,anddonotimpedeaccess1. Support for international science should be forresearcherstothebestscienceandresearch maintained and strengthened acrosstheworld. Evenindifficulteconomictimes,national National research policies should be flexible governments need to maintain investment and adaptiveinordertoensurethatinternational in their science basetosecureeconomic collaborationbetweentalentedscientistsisnot prosperity,tapintonewsourcesofinnovationand stifledbybureaucracy. growth,andsustainvitalconnectionsacrossthe globalresearchlandscape.Sustainedinvestment 3. National and international strategies for buildsanationscapacitytoassimilateexcellent science are required to address global science,whereveritmayhavebeenconducted,challenges forthatcountrysbenefit. Recognisingtheinterconnectednessofglobal International activities and collaborationchallenges,funders of global challenge should be embedded in national scienceprogrammes should devise ways to better and innovation strategiessothatthedomestic co-ordinate their efforts, share good practice, sciencebaseisbestplacedtobenefitfromtheminimise duplication and maximise impact. intellectualandfinancialleverageofinternational Wherepossible,theseshoulddrawonexisting partnerships. infrastructureorsharedtechnology.8 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 9. National research funding should be 5. Better indicators are required in order to adaptive and responsive to global challenges, properly evaluate global science supportingtheinterdisciplinaryandcollaborative UNESCO (and other agencies such as the natureofthesciencerequiredtoaddressthese OECD) should investigate new ways in which issues. trends in global science can be captured, In devising responses to global challenges,quantified and benchmarked,inorderto governments worldwide need to rely onhelpimprovetheaccuracyofassessmentsof robust evidence-based policy making,andthequality,useandwiderimpactofscience, bringexcellentscientistsintothepolicyadvisory aswellastogaugethevitalityoftheresearch process. environment. There is a specific lack of data on the flow4. International capacity building is crucial toand migration of talented scientists and ensure that the impacts of scientific research their diaspora networks.UNESCO,OECDand are shared globallyothersshouldinvestigatewaysofcapturingthis Researchers and funders should commit to informationasapriority,whichwouldenable building scientific capacity in less developed policymakerstobetterunderstand,nurtureand countriestohelpimprovetheirabilitytoconduct, overseeglobalscienceforthebenefitofsocietyas Instructivememoireonthenew access,verifyandusethebestscience,andto awhole.chronologicaltableofthehistoryofChina,bytheViceroyofCanton, ensurethattheycancontributetoglobalscientific1724.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive. debatesanddeveloplocalsolutionstoglobal problems. Scientific capacity building must involve financial support for authors in developing countries to publish in open access journals. Openaccesspublishinghasmadeawealthof scientificliteratureavailabletothedeveloping world,butconverselyhasmadeitharderfor theirscientiststopublishundertheauthorpays model. National academies, learned societies and other similar institutions should actively promote public and wider stakeholder dialogue to help identify, shape and respond to global challenges and their local manifestations.Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 9 10. The Advisory GroupAdvisory GroupRoyal Society Science Policy Centre ProfessorSirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS(Chair), LukeClarke,PolicyAdviserDirectorofEnergyResearch,UniversityofOxford LauraDawson,SeniorPolicyAdviserProfessorSirLeszekBorysiewiczKBEFRS,Vice NatalieDay,SeniorPolicyAdviserChancellor,UniversityofCambridge DrTraceyElliott,HeadofInternationalProfessorLornaCasseltonFRS,ForeignSecretary HarrietHarden-Davies,InternandVicePresident,TheRoyalSociety TonyMcBride,HeadofStrategyProfessorSirGordonConwayKCMGDLFRSFRGS,JamesMeadway,SeniorPolicyAdviserProfessorofInternationalDevelopment,Imperial SarahMee,PolicyAdviserCollegeLondonIanThornton,PolicyAdviserProfessorMohamedHassan,Co-Chair,DrJamesWilsdon,DirectorofSciencePolicyInterAcademyPanel(IAP);ExecutiveDirectoroftheRapelaZaman,SeniorPolicyAdviserAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS)(untilMarch2011)Review PanelProfessorMelissaLeach,Director,STEPSCentre, TheRoyalSocietygratefullyacknowledgestheInstituteofDevelopmentStudies,Universityofcontributionofthereviewers.TheReviewPanelSussexwasnotaskedtoendorsetheconclusionsorProfessorAngelaMcLeanFRS,AllSoulsSeniorrecommendationsofthereport,nordidtheyseeResearchFellow,DepartmentofZoology,University thefinaldraftofthereportbeforeitsrelease.ofOxfordProfessorGoverdhanMehtaFRS,CSIRBhatnagarProfessorJohnPethicaFRS(Chair),PhysicalFellowandHonoraryProfessor,Departmentof Secretary,RoyalSocietyOrganicChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceProfessorBruceAlbertsForMemRS,DepartmentofProfessorJohnMitchellOBEFRS,Directorof BiochemistryandBiophysics,UniversityofCaliforniaClimateScience,MetOffice SanFranciscoDrColinOsborne,RoyalSocietyUniversityResearchProfessorJuanAsenjo,President,ChileanAcademyFellow,DepartmentofAnimalandPlantSciences,ofSciencesUniversityofSheffield DrMatthewFreemanFRS,Head,DivisionofCellProfessorMartynPoliakoffCBEFRS,Research Biology,MRCLaboratoryofMolecularBiologyProfessorinChemistry,TheUniversityofNottinghamProfessorSirBrianHeapCBEFRS,FormerDirector,DrPhilRufflesCBEFREngFRS,FormerDirector,InstituteofAnimalPhysiologyandGeneticsResearchEngineeringandTechnology,RollsRoyceplc ProfessorGeoffreyOldhamCBE,HonoraryProfessorCarolineWagner,SchoolofInternational Professor,SPRUScienceandTechnologyPolicyAffairs,PennsylvaniaStateUniversityResearch,UniversityofSussex 10 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 11. Conduct of the studyThestudyleadingtothisreportwasoverseenbyan IdentifyandassessillustrativeexamplesAdvisoryGroupofFellowsoftheRoyalSocietyandofopportunitiesandchallengestheseotherdistinguishedexperts,supportedbythestaffofchangespresentforpolicymakers,scientists,theRoyalSocietySciencePolicyCentre.Elsevierhas intergovernmentalagenciesandbusiness.providedfinancialsupport,andfullaccesstotheir Examineanddiscusshowinternationalscientificpublicationdatabasesandanalyticalservices collaborationcanbebetterutilisedtoaddressthroughoutthestudy.Thedraftingofthereport,its globalproblemssuchasclimatechange,foodconclusionsandrecommendationsarethoseoftheandwatersecurity,andinfectiousdiseases.RoyalSocietyalone. Drawconclusionsaboutthecollaborativenature Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientificofresearchinthe21stcentury,andconsiderthecollaboration in the 21st centuryhasbeenapprovedbypotentialimplicationsforpolicymakers.theCounciloftheRoyalSociety. ThestudywasformallylaunchedinJanuary2010.Advisory Group and terms of referenceTheRoyalSocietyestablishedanAdvisoryGroupCollection of evidencemadeupofinternationallyrenownedscientists Evidencegatheringfortheprojecttookplaceinandsciencepolicyexpertsfromaroundtheworld,fiveways:chairedbySirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS.Theaim aformalprocess,throughadetailedCallforofthestudy,asoutlinedintheTermsofReference, Evidence;wastoprovideananalysisoftheglobalscientific aspecialdiscussionsessionformembersofthelandscapein2011foraglobalaudienceofscientists, InterAcademyPanel,heldtocoincidewithitsgovernments,business,internationalorganisations GeneralAssemblyattheRoyalSocietyinJanuaryandNGOs.Itsspecificgoalswereto: 2010; Provideanoverviewofhow,where,whyand face-to-faceandtelephoneinterviewswithkeybywhomscientificresearchisbeingcarriedout figuresininternationalscienceandsciencepolicyacrosstheworld,andthewaysinwhichthis fromaroundtheworld;pictureischanging. extensivedeskresearch; Compilebothquantitativeandqualitativeevidence dataanalysis,includingworkwithElsevier.toofferanoverviewofthesedevelopmentsthroughtheuseofElseviersandotherdatabasessuchasUNESCOandOECD,andbymakinguseoftheSocietysextensiveinternationalnetworks,includingitsglobalFellowshipofover1,400outstandingindividualsfromallareasofscience,mathematicsandengineering. Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 11 12. Call for evidenceDefining global science TheCallforEvidencewassentouton27AprilTheRoyalSocietydefinesscienceasnatural2010toFellowsoftheRoyalSociety,RoyalSociety knowledge.Inpractice,thisincludesthenaturalResearchFellowsandtheworldsscienceacademies, sciences,mathematicsandengineering.ForthethroughtheInterAcademyPanel(IAP),theAcademy purposesofthisreport,wherewediscussoverallofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS),totalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,andtheUKGovernmentsScienceandInnovationtheartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentNetwork(SIN). averysmallproportionofpublicationoutput8.9%); Wereceived80responsesfromindividuals, thiscoverageisusedtomatchtheinputstatistics,academies,researchinstitutions,governmentwhichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whichdepartmentsandotherorganisationsfromaroundaredisciplineneutral.However,ourexamples,theworld.Thesearelistedattheendofthereport.casestudiesandobservationsaredrawnfrom thescientificcommunity.Elsevier methodology Throughoutthisreport,weuseanumberUnlessotherwiseindicated,allofthedatarelatingofsourcestocharacteriseandquantifywhattopublicationoutputandimpactinthisreport ishappeninggloballyinscience.InthiswearehavebeenprovidedbyElsevier.Wewouldliketoconstrained,tocertainextents,bytheavailabledata.acknowledgetheanalysisandinsightsprovidedby Inordertoachievethewidestinternationalcoverage,thefollowingindividuals: wehavemadeuseofUNESCOdataonthenumbers DrAndrewPlume,AssociateDirector, ofresearchers,1andtheexpenditureonresearch Scientometrics&MarketAnalysisResearch&anddevelopmentasindicatorsofexpenditureand AcademicRelationsmanpowerinscience(althoughalargeproportion MayurAmin,SeniorVicePresidentResearch& ofresearchanddevelopmentisspentonDrather AcademicRelationsthanRand,assuch,reachesbeyondstrictscience DrHenkMoed,SeniorScientificAdvisorspending). Academic&GovernmentMarkets NielsWeertman,VicePresident,SciVal Academic&GovernmentMarkets PublicationdataarederivedfromScopus,theworldslargestabstractandcitationdatabaseofpeer-reviewedliterature.Scopuscontainsover41millionrecordsacross18,000journalsandcoversregionalaswellasinternationalliterature.Publicationoutputsinthisreportaredefinedasarticles,reviewsandconferencepaperspublishedinthesejournals.Whereweconsideroveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludeoutputsinalldisciplines.12 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 13. PagefromanotebookonscientificexpeditionstoMatoGrosso,Brazil,1967to1969,byIainBishop.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.ThesestatisticsareavailablethroughtheUNESCOInstituteofStatistics,andhavebeencomprehensivelypresentedandanalysedintherecentUNESCOScienceReport,publishedinNovember2010.Publicationandpatentdataareincompleteproxiesforscientificoutputandscientifictranslation,thefirstbeingpredominantlytheoutputofacademicscience,andtheotherrelatingtotheexploitationofideasandconceptsratherthannecessarilybeingspecificallyscientific.However,theyarethetwomainquantifiable,globallycollated,andcommonlyusedsourcesofdataontheproductionandconsumptionofscience.Byusingthesedata,wearereflectingthecurrenttermsofreferencefordiscussionsofglobalscience.Itiswidelyacceptedthattheyareinadequatetofullyexploretherichnessof21stcenturyscience.Thepaucityofrichersourcesofdataoffersachallengetonational,multilateralandglobalbodiestoexplorewaysofbettermeasuringtheinputs,outputsandimpactsoftheglobalscientificlandscape. 1 T heOECDdefinesresearchers asprofessionalsengagedinthe conceptionorcreationofnew knowledge,products,processes, methodsandsystemsandalsoin themanagementoftheprojects concerned.SeeOECD(2002). Frascati manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development. OrganisationforEconomic Co-operationandDevelopment: Paris,France. Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 13 14. Introduction: going globalWhenHenryOldenbergfoundedtheworldsfirst buttherearefewplaceswhicharenotinsomeway scientificpublicationin1665,2itdrewonemerging partofthescientificlandscape.ideasfromGermany,Italy,Hungary,FranceandevenScienceisconductedinmoreplacesthanevertheBermudas.Itenjoyedawideinternationalbefore,butitisalsomoreinterlinked.Overone-thirdreadership.Oldenburg,andtheotherfoundingofresearchpapersarethedirectresultofinternationalfellowsoftheRoyalSociety,dedicatedthisfirst collaboration,withauthorsaddressesfrommoreeditionofPhilosophicalTransactionstosharingthethanonecountry.5ThenumberofinternationallyHappyinventionsofobligingMenallovertheworld, co-authoredpapershasmorethandoubledsincetotheGeneralBenefitofMankind. 1990.6Researchersareincreasinglymobile,travellingButOldenbergcouldneverhaveimaginedlongdistancestoworkwiththebestcolleagueshowmanyobligingmenandwomenwouldbe intheirfield,toaccessresourcesandshareideascontributingtoscientificknowledgeacrosstheworldandfacilities.Andtheyarebeingsupportedin2011.Sciencehastransformedourlivesinways internationallythroughcross-borderfundingfromwhichwouldhavebeeninconceivablein1665.Justinternationalorganisations(charities,philanthropichowitwillevolveoverthecomingcenturyisequallyfundingandbusiness),multilateralinitiativesbetweeninconceivable.Yetonethingseemscertain:scienceis governmentsandresearchcouncils,multinationalinherentlyinternationalandwillonlybecomemoreso.fundingbodiesandsharedscientificinfrastructure.AsLouisPasteuronceputit,Knowledgebelongs Thescientificcommunityisinfluencedbytohumanity,andthusscienceknowsnocountry globalisation,andisalsodrivenbyitsowndynamics.andisthetorchthatilluminatestheworld.LargelyScientistshavebeenbothmotivatedandenabledtofundedatanationallevelandconductedprimarilyinworkacrossdisciplinaryandinternationalbordersnationalinstitutions,scienceisstillmoredeterminedbytechnologicaladvancesandshiftsingeopolitics.byplacethanPasteursdeclarationwouldsuggest. Butsciencehasalwayspushedboundaries,betheyAndyet,itisaworldwideendeavour.In2008,218 technologicalornationalandpolitical.Globalsciencecountriesproducedover1.5millionresearchpapers, isincreasing,butitisalsonothingnew.ThefoundingfromTuvalusonepaper,totheUKs98,000,Chinas membersoftheRoyalSociety350yearsagolooked163,000,andtheUSAs320,000.3In2007,Sweden beyondnationalborderstoextendthefrontiersofspentnearly3.7%ofitsgrossdomesticproductnaturalknowledge.Todaysscientificpioneerswill(GDP)onresearchanddevelopment(R&D),Canadaneedtoknowhowtonavigatethechangingglobalspent2%,emergingIndiaspent0.8%,andoilrichscientificlandscapeiftheyaretokeepextendingSaudiArabia0.04%.4Researchinvestmentand thosefrontiers.Thisreportisintendedtohelpthemoutputarefarfromevenlyspreadacrosstheworld,understandthedynamicsofthiscomplexandfast-evolvingphenomenon.2 O n6March1665,thefirstissue 3 DatafromElseviersScopus. 6 L eydesdorffL&WagnerC(2005). collaborationhasgrownoverall ofPhilosophicalTransactionswasMapping global science using andattheregionallevel,see publishedundertheeditorshipof 4 D atafromtheUNESCOInstituteinternational co-authorships: aWagnerC&LeydesdorffL(2005). HenryOldenburg,whowasalsoforStatisticsDataCentre,comparison of 1990 and 2000.Network structure, self-organization theSecretaryoftheSociety. Montral,Canada. InternationalJournalofTechnology and the growth of international5 D atafromElseviersScopus. andGlobalization3.Foracollaboration in science.Research discussionofhowinternational Policy34,10,16081618.14 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 15. PART 1Scientific landscapein 2011AnewmanifestationofthecelebratedMollowtriplet,oneofthefundamentalspectralshapesoflight-matterinteraction,fromDrElenadelValle,RoyalSocietyNewtonInternationalFellow,SchoolofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofSouthampton.ThetripletasfoundbyMollowemergesinthelightemittedbyanatomwhenexcitedbyalaser.Thedepictedtripletisthecounterpartemissionfromanatomwhenexcitedincoherentlyinsideacavity.DrElenadelValle,2010.Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 15 16. Scienceisgrowingglobally.Sincethebeginningof1.1 Trends and developments in global PART1 the21stcentury,theglobalspendonresearchand sciencedevelopmenthasnearlydoubled,publicationshave TheUSAleadstheworldinresearch,producingScientificlandscape grownbyathird,andthenumberofresearchers 20%oftheworldsauthorshipofresearchpapers,10in2011 continuestorise(seeTable1.1).NorthAmerica, dominatingworlduniversityleaguetables,11andJapan,EuropeandAustralasiahaveallwitnessedinvestingnearlyUS$400billionperyearinpublicandgrowth,witheachincreasingspendingbyaround privateresearchanddevelopment.12TheUK,Japan,one-thirdbetween2002and2007.InthesameGermanyandFranceeachalsocommandstrongperiod,developingcountries,7includingthepositionsinthegloballeaguetables,producinghighemergingeconomiesofChina,IndiaandBrazil,more qualitypublicationsandattractingresearcherstotheirthandoubledtheirexpenditureonR&D,increasing worldclassuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.ThesetheircontributiontoworldR&Dspendingby7 fivecountriesaloneareresponsiblefor59%ofallpercentagepointsfrom17%to24%.8spendingonscienceglobally.13However,thesecountriesdonotcompletelyTable1.1.Global science by numbers.9 dominateglobalscience.Between1996and2008 Spend on research Numbers of Number oftheUSAlostone-fifthofitsshareoftheworldsand development researchers publications articleauthorship,Japanlost22%andRussia24%. US$%GDPTheUK,GermanyandFrancealsofellbackinrelative 2007 1145.7bn 1.7 7.1m 1.58mterms.14Figure1.1showshowthenumberofarticles 2002 790.3bn1.7 5.7m 1.09mhasgrownandhowtheirdistributionacrossthe worldhaschangedinrecentyears,betweentheThearchitectureofworldscienceisalsochanging, periods1999to2003(Figure1.1a)and2004to2008withtheexpansionofglobalnetworks.Theseinvolve (Figure1.1b).networksofindividuals,mostlyself-organisedbut Thetraditionalscientificleadershavegraduallysometimesorchestrated(asintheHumanGenomelosttheirshareofpublishedarticles.Meanwhile,Project).Somenetworksarebasedoncollaborations Chinahasincreaseditspublicationstotheextentthatatinternationalorganisations(suchasCERN);others itisnowthesecondhighestproducerofresearcharefundedinternationally,bymultinationalbusinesses outputintheworld.IndiahasreplacedtheRussian(whichfundtheirownlaboratoriesandworkinFederationinthetopten,climbingfrom13thin1996universitiesacrosstheglobe),bymajorfoundationstotenthbetween2004and2008.Furtherdownthe(suchasGates),orbycross-nationalstructuressuch listSouthKorea,Brazil,Turkey,SouthEastAsianastheEU.Theseglobalnetworksincreasinglyexerta nationssuchasSingapore,Thailand,andMalaysia,significantinfluenceontheconductofscienceacross andEuropeannationssuchasAustria,Greeceandtheworld. Portugalhaveallimprovedtheirstandingsinthe globalscientificleaguetables.1516 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 17. ChangesintherankingofnationswithintheFigure1.1. Proportion of global publicationleaguetablesareshiftingatthesametimeastotalauthorship by country17outputisincreasing.Forexample,Italymaintaineda The top ten producing countries in each periodsteadyshareofpublicationsbetween1996and2008are shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008(3.5%ofworldproductioninbothyears,fluctuatingbetween3%and4%overthewholeperiod);butinordertoholdthispositionitincreaseditsnumberofarticlesby32%.Allovertheworld,somecountries 21%arerunningtostandstill16whileothersarebreakingintoasprint. 30% 26%34%Fig aFig b10%8% 3%3% 3%7%7% 4%2% 4% 5%7% 3% 3%6%4% 6%4%Key7 B asedonthestandardUnited10 atafromElseviersScopus.Ifan D (CambridgeintheUKisranked12 ationalScienceBoard(2010).N NationsStatisticsDivisionauthoronapapergivesacountryfirst,andtheotherthreearealso Science and engineering indicators United States classification(compositionof ashisorheraddress,thatpaperintheUK).IntheTimesHigher 2010.NationalScienceFoundation:Japan macrogeographical(continental) isassignedtothatcountry.SoEducationWorldUniversityArlington,VA,USA. United Kingdom regions,geographicalsub-regions, apaperwhichhasbeenwritten RankingstheUSAholdsthetop andselectedeconomicandotherbyauthorsintheUK,Spainandfivepositions,sevenofthetop13 atafromUNESCOInstituteforDGermany groupings). Germanywouldbeassignedasa 10placesand27ofthetop50Statistics,publishedinUNESCO France singlepaperineachcountry(that (theremainingthreeinthetop ScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).8 U NESCO(2010).UNESCO science China paperthereforebeingaccountedtenareintheUK).IntheARWU 14 atafromElseviersScopus.DItaly report 2010.DatafromUNESCOforthreetimesasanationalRankingsthefourtoppositions InstituteforStatistics,publishedin paper).Figure1.1showsthe and17ofthetop20areUS 15 atafromElseviersScopus.DCanada UNESCOScienceReport2010(ptotalnumberofindividualpapersuniversities(theremainingthreeRussian Federation 2,Table1).UNESCOPublishing: 16 oyalSociety(2010).The scientificR withoutanymultiplecounting. inthetop20aretheUniversitiescentury: securing our future India Paris,France.Dataareprovided Thetotalnumberofnational ofCambridge,OxfordandTokyo). inUS$peggedatcurrentprices prosperity.RoyalSociety:Spain papers(ie.withpaperscountedSource:AcademicRanking (2007pricesin2007,2002pricesinLondon,UK.Other multipletimesifthereareauthorsofWorldUniversities(2010) 2002)andreflectpurchasingpower basedinmorethanonecountry)availableonlineathttp://www.17 atafromElseviersScopus.TheseD parity. in2007was1,580,501;in2002 arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsp;QS chartsshowthetop10countries9 S pendonresearchand thiswas1,093,564.TheUSATopUniversityRankings(2010)bynumberofpublications,with development:datafromUNESCOproduced316,317nationalpapers athttp://www.topuniversities. allothercountriesincludedinthe InstituteforStatistics,publishedin in2008(221,707withtheUSAas com/university-rankings/world- othersegment.Thepiechartsare UNESCOScienceReport2010(pthesoleauthors,and94,610inuniversity-rankings/home;Times scaledtorepresenttheincreased 2,Table1).Numberofresearchers:collaborationinternationally);this HigherEducationWorldUniversity volumeofpublicationsinthe datafromUNESCOInstitutefor represents19.97%ofallnationalRankings(2010)athttp://www. twotimeperiods.In19992003 StatisticsDataCentre,UNESCO papersglobally.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-therewere5,493,483publications InstituteforStatistics:Montral,university-rankings/index.html, globally,andin20042008there 11 heQSrankingshavesix T accessed29September2010. Canada.Numberofpublications: were7,330,334. USuniversitiesinthetop10 datafromElseviersScopus.Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 17 18. PART1 Box1.1.inwhicheversector,butitisassumedthatthishasA note on the datasomerelationshiptotheupstreaminvestmentinScientificlandscape Expenditureonresearchanddevelopmentsciencethatprecedesit.in2011 (R&D)isusedthroughoutthisreportasaproxy Unlessotherwisestated,wherechangesinforspendingonscience.Grossexpenditureonexpenditureovertimearediscussedinthereport,researchanddevelopment(GERD),ascollatedbythefiguresusedarebasedoncurrentUS$pricestheOECDandUNESCO,andusedinthisreport,(2004dollarsin2004,2008dollarsin2008)andincludesinvestmentbygovernmentandbusiness purchasingpowerparity,18ascalculatedbyeitherenterprise,fundingfromoverseassources,and theOECDorUNESCO.othersources,whichcanincludefundingby Whenwerefertopapersinthereport,thisprivatefoundationsandcharities.Inareasofthe referstopeer-reviewedarticleswhichhavereportwedistinguishbetweentheproportion appearedininternationaljournals.Thesedataofthisgrossexpenditurespentbybusinesshavebeendrawn,unlessotherwisenoted,fromenterprise(BERD),andthatspentbygovernmentElseviersScopusdatabase.19Wherewediscuss(GOVERD).Thisisacommonlyused,yetlargely overalltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialunsatisfactoryproxyforscience(and/orresearch) sciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,spending.AlargeproportionofresearchandtheserepresentaverysmallproportionofdevelopmentisspentonDratherthanR(withthe publicationoutput8.9%);thiscoverageisusedlargestproportionspentonproductdevelopment).soastomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallAssuch,thisfiguregoesbeyondtheactualregisterresearchandresearchers,whichareamountofmoneydedicatedtofundingresearch, disciplineneutral. Article:CroonianLecture:Onthe anatomicalstuctureoftheeye,by EverardHome,drawingsbyFranz Bauer.PTvol112,1822,pp76-85. FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryand archive.18 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 19. 1.1.1Emergingscientificnations populouscountry,succeededinsendingitsfirstChinasriseuptherankingshasbeenespecially unmannedflighttothemoon,becomingonlythestriking.Chinahasheavilyincreaseditsinvestment fourthcountrytolandacraftonthelunarsurface.inR&D,withspendinggrowingby20%peryearBrazil,inlinewithitsaspirationtobeanaturalsince1999toreachoverUS$100billionayeartoday knowledgeeconomy,buildingonitsnaturaland(or1.44%ofGDPin2007),20inpursuitofitsgoalenvironmentalresources,isworkingtoincreaseofspending2.5%ofGDPonR&Din2020.21Chinaresearchspendingto2.5%ofGDPby202225(fromisalsoturningouthugenumbersofscienceandjustover1.4%in2007).26SouthKoreahaspledgedengineeringgraduates,with1.5millionleavingitsthatR&Dspending,(3.2%ofGDPin2007),willreachuniversitiesin2006.22 5%ofGDPby2012.27China,India,SouthKoreaandBrazilareoftencitedThesecountriesarenotaloneinrapidlygrowingasrisingpowersinscience.23Indiaproducesroughlytheirsciencebases.Overthelast15years,eachof2.5millionscienceandengineeringgraduateseach theG20countrieshasbeenincreasingitsresearchyear.24In2008,India,theworldssecondmostproductionandmosthavescaleduptheproportion18 urchasingpowerparity(PPP)P 0.66%oftheChinesepopulationJanuary2011;UNESCOInstitute 15and24wasprojectedtobemeasurestheamountofagiven agedbetween15and24,whichforStatisticswebsite:http://www. justunder234millionaccordingcurrencyneededtobuythesamewasprojectedtobe228,663,000uis.unesco.org/,accessed13 totheUN.Ifallthose2.5millionbasketofgoodsandservices in2010accordingtotheUnitedJanuary2011. graduateswerewithinthatageasoneunitofthereference NationsPopulationDivision. range,theywouldrepresent1.07%currencyinthisreport,the UNESCOstatisticsindicate 23 eeBoundK(2007).India: theS ofthepopulationinthatagerange.USdollar.Itishelpfulwhenthatthemostrecentfigures uneven innovator;WebbM(2007). Source:UnitedNationswebsite.comparinglivingstandardsinoftotalscience,engineering, South Korea: mass innovationWorld population prospects: thedifferentcountries,asitindicates manufacturingandconstruction comes of age;WilsdonJ&2008 revision.PopulationDivisiontheappropriateexchangerateto graduates,expressedasaKeeleyJ.China: the next science oftheDepartmentofEconomicusewhenexpressingincomesandpercentageoftheirprojectedsuperpower?;BoundK(2008). andSocialAffairsoftheUnitedpricesindifferentcountriesina populationof1524-year-olds Brazil, the natural knowledge NationsSecretariat.Availablecommoncurrency. for2010(aspertheUNstatistics economy.Demos:London,UK;onlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,above),wouldequal0.95%in AdamsJ&WilsdonJ(2006).accessed7January2011.19 orfurtherinformationontheF theUSA(428,256graduatesinThe new geography of science:methodologyusedbyElsevier,thesedisciplinesin2008againstaUK research and international 25 uglerH(2011).Brazil releasesKpleaseseetheConductoftheprojectedpopulationaged1524collaboration; AdamsJ&Kingscience blueprint.SciDev.Net,7Studyonpage11. of44,880,000in2010),and1.73%C(2009).Global research report: January2011.AvailableonlineatintheUK(140,575graduatesinBrazil;AdamsJ,KingC&Singhhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/20 ECD(2006).China will becomeO V(2009).Global research report: brazil-releases-science-blueprint.worlds second highest investor inthesedisciplinesin2007againstaprojectedpopulationof8,147,000India;AdamsJ,KingC&MaNhtml,accessed17January2011.R&D by end of 2006, finds OECD.(2009).Global research report:Pressrelease,4December2006.in2010).Thesearenotperfect26 etherickA(2010).Science safePcomparisons,asthemostrecentChina.Evidence,aThomsonOfficeforEconomicCo-operation Reutersbusiness:Leeds,UK. in Brazil elections.Natureonline,andDevelopment:Paris,France.yearforwhichwehavegraduate29September2010.Availabledataavailablevariesbycountry,Battelle(2009).2010 globalR&D fund-ing forecast.Battelle: onlineathttp://www.nature.com/21 heStateCouncilofthePeoplesT anditdoesnottakeintoaccountnews/2010/100929/full/467511b.RepublicofChina(2006).The graduatesabovethisagerange,Columbus,OH,USA.WilsdonJ(2008).The new geography ofhtml,accessed17January2011.national medium- and long-termortheproportionofpeopleintheprogram for science and technologylowerendofthisagerangewhoscience.PhysicsWorld,October27 toneR(2008).SouthSdevelopment (20062020): an areunlikelytograduateattheir2008.GilmanD(2010).The newKorea aims to boost statusoutline.Beijing,China.age.Sources:PopulationDivisiongeography of global innovation.as science and technologyoftheDepartmentofEconomicGoldmanSachsGlobalMarkets powerhouse. ScienceInsider,22 inistryofScienceandM Institute:NewYork,NY,USA.23December2008.AvailableandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedTechnologyofthePeoples athttp://news.sciencemag.org/NationsSecretariat(2008).World 24 oundK(2007).India: the unevenBRepublicofChina(2007).S&T scienceinsider/2008/12/south-population prospects: the 2008innovator.Demos:London,UK.statistics data book 2007.Beijing,korea-aim.html.revision.Availableonlineathttp:// IndiaspopulationagedbetweenChina.Thisistheequivalentofesa.un.org/unpp,accessed7 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 19 20. in2011PART1 Scientificlandscape 0%2% 4%6% 8%10%12%14%16%18%20% ArgentinaAustralia Brazil ChinaIndia IndonesiaKorea, Republic of MexicoSaudi ArabiaSouth AfricaTurkey CanadaFigure1.2. Science in the G20FranceGermany20 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century Italy JapanRussian FederationUnited Kingdom United StatesFig a-4% -2% 0% 2% 4%6%8%10%Fig b. Annual growth in GDP spending on R&D 1996-200729 Argentina Australia BrazilG8 labelled in red. Fig a. Annual growth in publications 1996-2008.28 ChinaIndiaIndonesia Mexico Republic of Korea Saudi Arabia South AfricaTurkey Canada France GermanyItalyJapanRussian FederationUnited Kingdom United StatesFig b 21. oftheirGDPspentonR&D(seeFigure1.2).Increased4%ofGDP(0.59%ofGDPin2006),andincreasinginvestmentandincreasedpublicationshavetaken educationto7%ofGDPby2030(5.49%ofGDPinplaceintandem.Thegrowthofcommitment2007).34toscienceinanumberofthenon-G8nationsisSince1996,R&DasapercentageofGDPinespeciallystriking.Tunisiahasgrownfrom0.03%to1.25%in2009.35TurkeyhasimproveditsscientificperformanceatDuringthesameperiod,asubstantialrestructuringaratealmostrivallingthatofChina.Havingdeclared ofthenationalR&Dsystemsawthecreationof624researchapublicpriorityinthe1990s,theTurkish researchunitsand139researchlaboratories,ofwhichGovernmentincreaseditsspendingonR&Dnearly72aredirectedtowardslifeandbiotechnologicalsix-foldbetween1995and2007,andnowspends sciences.36LifesciencesandpharmaceuticalsremainmoreannuallyincashtermsthaneitherDenmark, atoppriorityforthecountry,withthegovernmentFinlandorNorway.30Overthisperiod,theproportionannouncinginJanuary2010thatitwantedtoincreaseofTurkeysGDPspentonR&Drosefrom0.28%topharmaceuticalsexportsfive-foldinthenextfive0.72%,andthenumberofresearchersincreasedbyyearswhilealsoaimingtohave60%oflocalmedicine43%.31Fourtimesasmanypaperswerepublishedin needscoveredbythecountrysownproduction.372008asin1996.32 In1996,Singaporeinvested1.37%ofGDPinThenumberofpublicationsfromIranhasgrown R&D.By2007thishadreached2.61%ofGDP.38Thefromjust736in1996to13,238in2008makingitnumberofscientificpublicationshasgrownfromthefastestgrowingcountryintermsofnumbersof 2,620in1996to8,506in2008,almosthalfofwhichscientificpublicationsintheworld.33InAugust2009,wereco-authoredinternationally.39TheAgencyforIranannouncedacomprehensiveplanforscienceScience,TechnologyandResearch(A*STAR)iscentralfocusedonhighereducationandstrongerlinks tothegovernmentscommitmenttoinvestmentinbetweenindustryandacademia.Theestablishment worldclassresearchandinfrastructure,andoverseesofaUS$2.5millioncentrefornanotechnologySingapores14researchinstitutesandassociatedresearchisoneoftheproductsofthisplan.OthercentreswithinflagshipdevelopmentssuchasBiopoliscommitmentsincludeboostingR&Dinvestmentto andFusionopolis.40AtacostofoverUS$370million,28 atafromElseviersScopus.D edition.OrganisationforEconomic website.Availableonlineathttp:// Availableonlineathttp://www.Co-operationandDevelopment:portal.unesco.org/education/en/english.globalarabnetwork.29 atafromUNESCOInstituteforD Paris,France.files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.com/201001134357/StatisticsDataCentre,Montral,pdf/Tunisia.pdf.Science-Health/tunisia-to-Canada.Notethatstatisticsfor 32 atafromElseviersScopus.Dboost-pharmaceutical-a-somecountriesacrosstheperiod 36 adikizelaM(2005).The scienceMbiotechnological-industry.html.areincomplete.Theclosest33 cience-Metrix,Thirty years ofS and technology system of theaccountableyearsintheperiod science.Montreal:http://www.Republic of Tunisia.FromCountry38 atafromtheUNESCOInstitute Dareusedwherecompletestatistics Science-Metrix.com,accessed Studies:ArabStates,UNESCO forStatisticsDataCentre.arenotavailable.November2010.website.Availableonlineathttp:// Montral,Canada.34 awahelW(2009).Iran: 20-yearS portal.unesco.org/education/en/30 ECD(2010).Main science andO files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.39 atafromElseviersScopus. Dtechnology indicators (MSTI): 2010plan for knowledge-basedeconomy.UniversityWorldNews.pdf/Tunisia.pdf. 40 eehttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/ Sedition, version 1.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationand37 lobalArabNetwork(2010).GAboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/35 adikizelaM(2005).The scienceMDefault.aspx,accessed29Development:Paris,France. and technology system of theTunisia to boost pharmaceutical &biotechnological industry. Global September2010.31 ECD(2009).Main science andO Republic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCOArabNetwork,13January2010.technology indicators (MSTI): 2009Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 21 22. Biopolisisahigh-techbiomedicalparkwhichthehouse50,000peopleand1,500businessesfocused PART1 governmentlaunchedin2003.Sincethen,the onrenewableenergyandsustainabletechnologies.44countrysbiotechexpertisehascontinuedtoexpandGE,BP,Shell,MitsubishiandRolls-RoyceareamongScientificlandscape andisattractingsomebigplayerssuchasNovartis, thosewhohavejoinedasstrategicpartners.45 in2011 GlaxoSmithKlineandRoche.41 Elsewhere,manyoftheworldspoorestcountriesThepictureofscientificresearchisalsostartinghaveplacedsciencebehindmoreimmediatetochangeacrosstheMiddleEast,wheretherepriorities,suchashealthcareandprimaryeducation.areanumberofsignificantnewcommitmentsto Thisisnottosaythatscienceandresearcharenotscience.Gas-richQataraimstospend2.8%ofhavinganimpactinthelessdevelopedworldatGDPonresearchby2015.Withapopulationofjust all,orthattherearenosignsofgrowth.Cambodiaover1.4million(ofwhicharound85%areforeignproducedonlysevenarticlesin1996,butincreasedworkers)andacurrentGDPofUS$128billion,this thisto114by2008.BothUgandaandPeru,inthetarget,ifrealised,wouldcombinetogiveGERDpersameperiod,increasedtheiroutputsfour-fold,albeitcapitaofUS$2,474.42Sincethemid-1990s,theQatarifromlowbases(Ugandafrom116to477papers,PeruGovernmenthasintroducedanumberofeducationfrom153to600).46Inthesecountries,aselsewhere,reformsandhasinvestedaroundUS$133billion thereisoftenalsoawealthofinformalinnovationininfrastructureandprojectsdesignedtocreateacarriedoutbyfarmers,47localhealthpractitionersandknowledge-basedeconomy.43TheUnited ArabsmallfirmsfrequentlydrawingonlocalknowledgeTheKingofTonkinandretinueonEmiratesisattemptingtocreatetheworldsfirstfully andlargelyunacknowledgedinformalmetrics,lettheirwaytoaceremonialblessingofsustainablecityandinnovationhubtheMasdar alonepublishedinresearchpapers.48theground.AnillustrationforSamuelBaronsA description of the kingdomInitiative.Duetoopenin2011,Masdarwilleventuallyof Tonqueen,1685.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.22 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 23. Box1.2. Measuring global sciencetheindexingservices.Regional,nationalandthrough publications localjournalsinthenon-English-speakingpartsTraditionally,globalscientificoutputhasbeenoftheworldareoftennotrecognisedand,measuredthroughtheanalysisofpublishedpapers asaconsequence,journals,conferencesandinpeer-reviewedjournals.Peerreviewmeansthat scientificpapersfromsomecountriesarenotwellthesciencethatispublishedhasbeensubjectedrepresentedbyabstractingservices.toindependentscrutinyandapprovedbyqualified Muchscientificliteratureisalsoproducedforscientists,andtherebyassuresitsqualityand non-peer-reviewedpublications(andhencenotcredibility.Thevolumeofscientificliteraturein coveredbyScopusorWebofScience).Oftenpeer-reviewedjournalsisvast.Individualarticles referredtoasgreyliterature,thiscaninclude:areabstractedandcollectedontodatabaseswhich technicalreportsfromgovernmentagenciesandarethensearchablebytheirusers,usuallythrough NGOs;workingpapersfromresearchgroupssubscription.Themostcomprehensiveofthese orcommittees;governmentwhitepapers;servicesareScopus(maintainedbyElsevier)andconferenceproceedingsandsymposia;andaWebofScience(maintainedbyThomsonReuters). growinglevelofpublicationoninternetsites.AllTheseservicesprovideaccesstoinformationofthesearepotentiallyvaluablecontributionsabouttitles,authors,abstracts,keywordsand totheglobalstockofknowledge,buttheyarereferencesforthousandsofjournalarticleseach notaccountedforintraditionalassessmentsofyear.Thesedataareusedtoassessthequality researchoutput.ofresearchand,throughitsuseasmeasuredby Initsanalysesofglobalsciencethroughcitations,itsimpact. bibliometricdata,thisreportdrawsexclusivelyThereare,however,notablegapsinthe onthesepeer-reviewedsourcesofresearch,coverageofthebibliometricdatabases.Insome andspecificallyonElsevierdata.Itisclearthatcasesthismaymeanthattheofficialpublication bibliometricdataalonedonotfullycapturethefiguresunder-representthetrueextentofdynamicsofthechangingscientificlandscape.scientificactivity.Forexample,therearemanyHowever,theypresentlyoffertheonlyrecognisedpeer-reviewedjournalswhichdonotappearin andmostrobustmethodologyfordoingso.41 ingaporeEconomicDevelopmentSSeehttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/44 ource:Masdar(2008).Seehttp:// S 46 atafromElseviersScopus. DBoard(2010).Pharmaceutical ei/bgn/5437.htm,accessed8www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/and biotech companies partnerFebruary2011.2.8%of128billion newsDesc.aspx?News_ 47 coonesI&ThompsonJ SSingapore to accelerate innovation is3,584million,whichwhen ID=40&MenuID=0,accessed29(2009).Farmer first revisited:in Asia.Pressrelease,4May2010. dividedbythepopulationgivesus September2010.Masdar(theAbuinnovation for agricultural researchSingaporeEconomicDevelopmentafigureof2,474.38. DhabiFutureEnergyCompany):and development.InstituteofBoard:Singapore.AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates.DevelopmentStudiesatthe 43 ource:QatarFoundationwebsite. S UniversityofSussex:Brighton,UK.42 uthorscalculations.QatarsASeehttp://www.qstp.org.qa/ 45 nglandA(2007).Abu Dhabi eyes Epopulationis1,448,446andithasoutput/page559.asp,accessed30renewable energy future.Financial 48 TEPSCentre(2010)Innovation, SaGDPofUS$128billion.Source:September2010. Times,4April2007. sustainability, development: a newUSStateDepartmentwebsite.manifesto.STEPSCentre:Brighton, UK.Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 23 24. Somegovernmentsanddevelopmentpartners thanpublicationsbetweentheperiods1999to PART1 areembracingthefactthatscienceisnotaluxury 2003and2004to2008publicationsgrewby33%whichisthepreserveofdevelopedcountries. andcitationsby55%(seeFigure1.3).57However,Scientificlandscape Theyrecognisethattechnologyandinnovationare whenexaminingcitationpatterns,themovementinin2011 keytoachievinglong-termeconomicandsocialnationalperformancehasnotbeenasdramaticasdevelopment,49andthatscienceandscientificwithpublicationnumbers.SwitzerlandandAustraliaadvicearevitalassetsingovernance.50PaulKagame, felldowntherankings,tobereplacedbyChinaandPresidentofRwanda,hasbeenastrongadvocatefor Spaininthelatterperiod,buttheperformanceofsciencefordevelopment,sayingWeinAfricamustChina,forexample,doesnotmirrorthatnationseitherbegintobuildourscientificandtechnologicalgrowthininvestmentorpublicationoutput.Citationstrainingcapabilitiesorremainanimpoverished continuetobemuchmoreconcentratedthantheappendagetotheglobaleconomy.51Africanscience journalarticlesthemselves.ministersresolvedinMarch2010that2011wouldbe ItwilltakesometimefortheabsoluteoutputofthestartofanAfricandecadeforscience,promising emergingnationstochallengetherateatwhichthisincreasedresearchbudgetsandattemptstouseresearchisreferencedbytheinternationalscientificscienceandtechnologytodrivedevelopment.52community.ThereisalsodiversificationwithsomeAlthoughencouraging,politicalcommitmentstocountriesshowingleadershipinspecificfields,suchinvestinsciencearegreetedcautiouslybymanyasChinainnanotechnology,58andBrazilinbiofuels,59scientistsacrossAfricaandinotherpoorcountries. butthescientificallyadvancednationscontinuetoItwasin1980thatAfricanpresidentsagreedtodominatethecitationcounts.increaseresearchspendingto1%ofGDP,aspartof Citationsare,however,onlyonemeansoftheLagosPlanofAction,53butby2007Sub-Saharan benchmarkingtheexcellenceofresearchoutput.Africancountriesstillspentanaverageofjust0.5% WithoverUS$1,000billioneachyearbeingspentonoftheirGDPonscienceandtechnology.54African R&D,itisunsurprisingthatfundersandgovernmentsleadersreiteratedtheir1%target,thistimeagreeingwanttoknowwhatvaluetheyaregettingfortheirtoreachitby2010,55butSouthAfricaistheonlysub- money.Saharancountrythatisclose,spending0.92%intheIntheUK,theimpactandexcellenceagenda2008to2009financialyear.56hasdevelopedrapidlyinrecentyears.TheResearch AssessmentExercise,apeerreviewbased1.1.2AssessingresearchqualityandimpactbenchmarkingexercisewhichmeasuredtherelativeAsresearchoutputhasgrown,sohavethelevelsat researchstrengthsofuniversitydepartments,60iswhichresearchersciteoneanotherswork.CitationsduetobereplacedwithanewResearchExcellenceareoftenusedasameansofevaluatingthequality Framework,whichwillbecompletedin2014.61ofpublicationsrecognitionbyanauthorspeersTheUKResearchCouncilsnow(somewhatindicatesthatthescientificcommunityvaluesthecontroversially)askallapplicantstodescribetheworkthathasbeenpublished.Theyare,however,apotentialeconomicandsocietalimpactsoftheirlaggingindicator,aswellasasometimescrudeone. research.TheExcellenceinResearchforAustralia Lookingattheglobalpictureinrecentyears,we(ERA)initiativeassessesresearchqualitywithincanseethatcitationsareincreasingatagreaterrate Australiashighereducationinstitutionsusinga24 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 25. combinationofindicatorsandexpertreviewbyFigure1.3. Comparative proportioncommitteescomprisingexperienced,internationallyof global citations by country62recognisedexperts.The top ten cited countries in each period are shown.Theimpactagendaisincreasinglyimportantfor Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008nationalandinternationalscience(inEurope,theCommissionerforResearch,InnovationandSciencehasspokenabouttheneedforaEurope-wideinnovationindicator).63Thechallengeofmeasuringthevalueofscienceinanumberofwaysfacesallofthescientificcommunity.Achievingthiswilloffer 27%30%newinsightsintohowweappraisethequalityof21%science,andtheimpactsofitsglobalisation.36%2% 2% Fig aFig b3%3% 3% 4% 3% 5%9% 7% 4%8% 8% 4% 4%7%5%5% Key United States United Kingdom49 onwayG&WaageJ(2010).C19802000.TheOrganizationof Technology:CapeTown,South 62 atafromElseviersScopus. D GermanyScience and innovation for AfricanUnitywasdisbandedin Africa. ThesechartsshowthetoptenJapandevelopment.UKCollaborativeon2002andreplacedbytheAfrican countriesbynumberofcitations,FranceDevelopmentSciences:London, Union.57 atafromElseviersScopus. D withallothercountriesincludedUK.intheothersegment.Thepie Canada 58 oyalSociety(2010).The scientific R 54 atafromUNESCOInstitutefor D chartsarescaledtorepresentthe Italy50 oyalSociety(2010).Science: anRStatistics,publishedinUNESCOcentury: securing our future prosperity.RoyalSociety:London, increasedvolumeofpublications Netherlandsundervalued asset in governanceScienceReport2010(p2,Table1). inthetwotimeperiods.Infor development.RoyalSociety: UK. Australia 55 fricanUnion(2007).Assembly of A 19992003therewere23,639,885SwitzerlandLondon,UK.59 oundK(2008).Brazil, the natural B citationsglobally,andin2004 the African Union, eighth ordinaryChina51 agameP(2006).SpeechbyKsession, 2930 January 2007,knowledge economy.Demos:2008therewere36,562,135.RwandanPresident,PaulKagame, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: decisionsLondon,UK. Spain 63 inneganG(2010).Geoghegan- FattheRoyalSocietyon18and declarations.Assembly/AU/60 eehttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/ S Other Quinn: we must communicate ourSeptember2006.Dec.161(VIII).AfricanUnion:Addis further-and-higher-education/ R&D.Euractiv.com(European Ababa,Ethiopia.higher-education/role-structure-UnionInformationWebsite),552 ordlingL(2010).African nationsNvow to support science.Nature56 epartmentofScienceand D he-division/he-research-policy/ May2010.Availableonlineat465,994995.Technology,South Africa (2010).research-assessment-exercise.htm. http://www.euractiv.com/en/ South Africa maintains steady innovation/geoghegan-quinn-53 rganizationofAfricanUnityO61 eehttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/ S growth in R and D expenditure. we-must-communicate-our-rd-(1980).Lagos plan of action for the research/ref/,accessed7January Pressrelease,9September2010. interview-493702.economic development of Africa 2011. DepartmentofScienceand Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 25 26. 1.1.3Globalscientists AndreGeimFRS,alongwithKonstantinNovoselov, PART1 RecentdecadeshaveseensignificantincreasesinwasawardedtheNobelprizeforPhysicsin2010.theglobalcompetitionfortalent,withtheworkforceProfessorGeimobtainedhisPhDattheRussianScientificlandscape inplaceslikeSiliconValleyhighlightingtherolethat AcademyofSciencesinChernogolovka,movedin2011 skilledmigrantscanplayininnovationandwealth totheUKforpostdoctoralpositionsatNottinghamcreation.CountriesliketheUK,Australia,Canada andBath,beforethenmovingontoCopenhagenandtheUSAhavegrappledwithcontentiouspolicyandNijmegen,andreturningtotheUKin2001todecisions,aimingtostriketherightbalancebetweentheUniversityofManchester.NowaRoyalSocietyencouragingthehighlyskilledontheonehand,andResearchProfessor,ProfessorGeimmaintainslinksdiscouragingunskilledpotentialmigrantsonthe withcolleaguesinRussia,andisstillaprofessorinother.theNetherlands.The2009winnerforPhysics,SirWithinaccuratedataandinconsistentdefinitionsCharlesKaoFRS,wasborninChina.Heobtainedofhighlyskilledacrosstheworld,itisdifficultto hisPhDfromtheUniversityofLondon,workedatmeasurehighlyskilledmigration,particularlyamong theStandardTelecommunicationsLaboratoryinthescientists.ThereisnointernationallyagreeddefinitionUK,andinboththeUSAandGermany.AdaYonathofhighlyskilledworkers,althoughtheOECDs (thefirstwomanfromIsraeltowinaNobelPrize,CanberraManualprovidesoneusefulbasisfortheandcurrentlybasedattheWeitzmannInstituteinmeasurementofhumanresourcesinscienceand Rehovot)heldpostdoctoralpositionsintheUSAtechnology(HRST).TheirdefinitionincludesthoseandworkedinGermanybeforeshewonthe2009whohavecompletededucationatthethirdlevel Chemistryprize.Herco-winnerVenkatramaninaS&Tfieldofstudyand/orthosenotformallyRamakrishnanFRSwasborninTamilNadu,India,qualifiedbutemployedinaS&Toccupationwhere undertookgraduatedegreesintheUSA,andnowsuchqualificationswouldnormallyberequired.64 worksinCambridge,England.AccordingtoOECDanalysistheUSA,Canada,AustraliaandtheUKattractedthelargestnumbers 1.1.4Braingain,drainandcirculationofhighlyskilledexpatriatesfromOECDcountriesTheNobelPrizeexamplesshowtheattractiveforcein2001,followedbyFranceandGermany.65Oftheofthestrongscientificnations,inparticulartheUSAUKs4.5millionforeign-bornadultpopulation,34.8%andWesternEurope.Todayissuesofbraindrainhadauniversity-leveleducation.Approximatelyareusuallyassociatedwithdevelopingcountries,but19.5%ofthesemigrantshadascientificbackground, theoriginalphrasewascoinedbytheRoyalSocietymanyofwhomhailedfromemergingeconomiesin1963.Atthetime,theUKwasstrugglingtostemsuchasChinaandIndia.66However,wearefar theexodusofitstopbrainstotheUSA.TheSocietyfromunderstandingwhatfactorsinfluencethesefounditselfatthecentreofafiercedebateastohowindividualschoiceoflocation.Howlongdotheytocounterthisphenomenon,67withthethenMinisterintendtostay?AndhowdotheyconnectbacktoofScience,LordHailsham,lamentingtheparasitisingtheirresearchnetworksfromtheirnewhome?ofBritishbrains.68ThecareerpathsofrecentNobelprizewinnersToday,thefocusofdiscussionhasmovedfromdemonstratetheinternationaloutlookofmanyof preventingbraindraintomakingthemostofbraintheworldsmostsuccessfulscientists.Professorcirculation.Ithasbeenarguedthatoldpatternsof26 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 27. one-wayflowsoftechnologyandcapitalfromthe Indianstoorganisepolicyrelatingtoremittancescoretotheperipheryareslowlybreakingdown,andinvestmentflows,aswellasrelaxingpreviouslycreatingfarmorecomplexanddecentralisedtwo-stringentcitizenshiprequirementstomakeiteasierwayflowsofskills,capitalandtechnology,withforpotentialreturnees.Otherinitiativestoconnectscientistsfollowingthebestscienceandthebest Indiawithitsdiasporahavealsoprovenfruitful.Theresources.69Somegovernmentsappreciatethe IndusEntrepreneurs(TiE),forexample,wasoriginallyvalueofbraincirculationandallocateresourcesforfoundedbyIndianentrepreneursbasedinSiliconattractingnationaltalentbackhometostartanewValleyanditnowhasaglobalmembershipof12,000businessortakeupaseniorpositioninacademia, peoplewithin11countries,andhasassistedinthewhilemaintainingusefullinksbacktotheUSAorcreationofbusinessesworthoverUS$200billioninEurope. India.72 Ofthe1.06millionChinesewhostudiedabroadElsewhere,Malaysiarecentlyestablishedabetween1978and2006,over70%didnotreturn.70It newTalentCorporationwhichwillbechargedhasbeenapolicypriorityfortheChineseGovernmentwithconnectingwithdiasporacommunities.toattractthisdiasporaback.TheThousandTalentsEcuadorsPresidentalsoannouncedaUS$1.7Program,establishedin2008,hasbroughtmore millionPrometheusOldWisemanplantoattractthan600overseasChineseandforeignacademicsseniorscientistswhoseeEcuadorastheretirementbacktoChina.LaunchingfurthermeasuresinMay destinationofbrilliantminds.732010,PremierWenJiabaoannouncedthat,WewillYetattractingbackthediasporaisonlyoneincreasespendingontalentprojectsandlaunchapartoftheequation.Findingnewwaystoconnectseriesofinitiativestooffertalent-favourablepolicieswithdiasporaandothercommunities,andtheirinhouseholds,medicalcareandtheeducationof associatedglobalnetworks,isalsocritical.Nomadicchildren.71Arangeoffacilities,bothpersonalandscientistsareoftenkeentomaintainscientificandprofessional,isessentialtoensurethatreturninginformallinkswiththeirhomecountries.Manyarehomeisanattractiveoption. eagertocontributebutareunsurewheretostart.In India,meanwhile,hascreatedaspecificsupportinginternationalcollaboration,thesediasporagovernmentministrytheMinistryofOverseas communitiesareanuntappedresource.64 ECD(1995).The measurement ofO66 ECD(2008).A profile of immigrant Osocial science. Notes&Recordsof 71 henJ(2010).Nation aims toCscientific and technological activities: populations in the 21st century: datatheRoyalSociety63,4,339353. increase talent pool.ChinaDaily,6manual on the measurement of from OECD countries.Organisation June2010.human resources devoted to S&T:forEconomicCo-operationand 69 axenianA(2006).The newSCanberra manual.Organisation Development:Paris,France.Argonauts: regional advantage in a72 oundK(2007).India: the unevenBforEconomicCo-operationandglobal economy.HarvardUniversity innovator.Demos:London,UK.Development:Paris,France.67 oyalSociety(1963).The RPress:Cambridge,MA,USA. emigration of scientists.TheRoyal 73 irschfeldD(2010).Ecuador opensH65 ECD(2002).The globalOSociety:London,UK. 70 ource:http://www.gov.cnS its doors to senior scientists.SciDev.competition for talent: mobility of (ChineseGovernmentsofficial Net,16August2010.Availablethe highly skilled.Organisation68 almerB,GodwinM&GregoryJ Bwebportal).Seehttp://www.onlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/forEconomicCo-operationand (2009).The Royal Society and thegov.cn/english/2010-06/07/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-Development:Paris,France.brain drain: natural scientists meet content_1622015.htm,accessedsenior-scientists.html.13October2010. Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 27 28. Inreality,braindrainisstillamajorproblem.Ataandcomputerscienceshaveseenthehighest PART1 recenteventattheRoyalSociety,PrincessSumayagrowth,bothincreasingtheiroutputbyover100%,ofJordanreflectedonthesuccessofJordanian buttheshareofpapersinenergypublicationsScientificlandscape graduatesintheregionandthewiderworld.Human amongscientificoutputhasgrownfromonly0.73%in2011 capitalisourgreatestnaturalresource,shesaid,yet tojust1.03%;incomputersciencesthissharehasithasbeenexportedformanyyears.Itissaidthatgrownfrom2.47%to3.42%.ThissubstantialgrowththeFrenchkeepthebestchampagneforthemselves.inabsoluteoutputhasnottranslatedintodramaticPerhapsweshouldlearnfromthem.Dependingonleapsinmarketshare.thelevelofscientificcapacityathome,migrating Lookingmorecloselyatthedatawecan,scientistsfromdevelopingcountriesaregenerallyhowever,seesometrendsinparticularfieldswhichmorelikelytostaypermanentlyintheirnewhomesreflectemergingorpressingresearchareas.KeywordthanreturntowheretherearefeweropportunitiessearchesintheElsevierdatabaseonspecifictermsandpoorerinfrastructure.Thisisasignificanthighlightsometrends.Climatechange,forexample,problemforAfrica,acontinentwhicharguablyhasseenasix-foldincreaseinusageinresearchneedsitsskilledworkersmost,butofferstheleastpublicationsbetween1996and2008.Suchanalysestokeepthemorattractthemback.Thechallengecanonlybepartialtheypickuponbuzzwordsforgovernmentsinemergingcentresofscienceis whichreflecttrendsinlanguageasmuch,perhaps,howtorewardtalentedscientistsandenablethemtoastheydoscientificcontent.Thattheseareasarefosterglobalnetworks,whilestillusingthemtobuild growingrapidly,though,isundeniable.nationalcapacity. Thegeographicchangesinglobalsciencedonot themselvesappeartohavehadadirectimpacton1.1.5Disciplinaryshifts? thetypesofresearchbeingconducted.ThedomesticWiththegrowthinscienceglobally,itisinterestingto conditionsofacountry,suchasgovernmentprioritiesaskwhetherthelargeriseinthenumberofscientific andtheavailabilityofnatural,humanandeconomicpublicationsinrecentdecadeshasvariedgreatly resourceshaveadistinctbearingonscientificacrossthedisciplines.Indeed,theuseofbibliometric output.Consideringagainthedisciplinaryspreadofdataacrossthewholeofresearchcanmaskvery researchasidentifiedthroughjournalclassification,differentpatternsinpublicationactivityacross thedevelopedG7countrieshavesimilarresearchdisciplineswith,forexample,lifescientistsdisplaying profiles,whicharebalancedbetweenbroadresearchagreaterpropensitytopublishthanengineers.disciplines,Bycontrast,theBRICgroupingofmajorAvailableheadlinedatasuggestthattherehasemergingeconomiesBrazil,Russia,Indiaandnotbeenadramaticshiftinthebroaddisciplinary Chinaareweightedtowardsspecificfields;inthebreakdownofresearch.Between1996and2008caseofChina,IndiaandRussiatowardsengineering,thetotalnumberofacademicpublicationsroseby andinBrazil,agricultureandbiosciences.InAfrica,43%;lookingatthenumberofarticlesinspecificthefocusisonagricultureandmedicine.However,disciplines(asdefinedbythedisciplinaryfocusofthe theemergenceoftheseareashasnottodatejournal),74theoverallsharebysubjectareahasnot changedtheglobalbalanceofresearch.altereddramaticallyoverthesameperiod.Energy Researchchallengesandinterestsarechanging28 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 29. asglobalsciencegrows,butthesechangesreflectlastdecade.76TheRoyalSocietysownjournalsmorethedifferenttypesofquestionsbeingposed,followasimilartrend.IntheyearfromJune2009ratherthanthenationalityofthepeopleposingthetoJune2010,USandUKaudiencesaccountedquestions. fornearly51%ofthereadershipfortheSocietys sevenjournals.Chinanowaccountsforthethird1.1.6Readingtheresearch highestnumberofdownloadsandsubscriberstotheTheworldsresearchpapersareproducedtoberead journals;thefourBRICcountriesmakeup12%ofthebypeersinthescientificcommunity,andforthe totalreadership.77ideasandconclusionstobeputtouse.SowheretheReadershiphasbeenfarfromuniversal.AWorldscienceisbeingpickedupandexploitedisjustas HealthOrganisation(WHO)studyin2000identifiedimportantaswhereintheworlditisbeingwrittenup. that56%ofinstitutionsincountrieswithannualThespreadofaccesstoacademicjournalsacrossthe incomesofUS$1,000andlessperpersonhadnoworldisakeyfactorintheglobalisationofresearch.currentsubscriptionstointernationaljournals,therebyPublishershaveactivelypursuednewreader cuttingofftheirscientistsfromrecentdevelopmentsmarkets.NaturelauncheditsChinawebsitein2007, intheirfields.78highlightingresearchfromtheChinesemainland AnumberofinitiativessuchasResearch4LifeandHongKong.NatureIndiafollowedinFebruary(R4L)79setupindirectresponsetothesefindings2008.TheRoyalSocietynowhasspecificportalsandtheInternationalNetworkfortheAvailabilityforthoseinterestedinresearchfromBrazil,China,ofResearchPublicationsProgrammefortheIndia,Malaysia,RussiaandTurkey,andprovidesEnhancementofResearchInformation(INASPinformationonthewebsiteinChinese,Farsi,Korean, PERii)80havebeenestablishedtoexplicitlyimproveRussian,Portuguese,ArabicandSpanish.75 accesstoresearchjournalsinthedevelopingworld,ThepatternofdownloadsfromElseviersjournals allowingfreeorlow-costaccesstouniversitiesandshowthat,unsurprisingly,thelargestconsumersresearchinstituteswhichhadpreviouslybeenunableoftheirpublicationsarebasedintheUSA,Japan toaffordsubscriptionfees.Take-upofR4LhasbeenandWesternEurope.ChinaandSouthKorea impressive.Bringingtogetherthreestrandsonehavewitnessedasurgeinreadershipoverthe forbiomedicalandhealthliterature,asecondfor74 hiswillresultinduplicationT indexingserviceThomson 78 KNationalCommissionforU Microsoft,thepartnershipsgoalacrossfields,asajournalsuch Reuters(Scientific)Inc.WebUNESCO(2008).ImprovingistohelpattainsixoftheUNsastheRoyal Society PhilosophicalofScience.UNESCO(2010). access to scientific informationeightMillenniumDevelopmentTransactionsAwillcovereach UNESCO Science Report 2010(pp for developing countries: UKGoalsby2015,reducingtheofthemathematical,physical1011).UNESCOPublishing:Paris,learned societies and journal scientificknowledgegapbetweenandengineeringsciences.ThereFrance.access programmes.UKNational industrialisedcountriesandthewillalsobefluctuationbetween CommissionforUNESCOdevelopingworld.Seehttp://www.years,asjournalsubjectareas75 eehttp://royalsocietypublishing.S Secretariat:London,UK.research4life.org/,accessed30areredefined.This,therefore,org/librarians,accessed29September2010.providesanimperfectindication September2010. 79 esearch4LifeisapublicprivateRofthedisciplinarybreadthof partnershipoftheWHO,80 eehttp://www.inasp.info/file/S76 atafromtheElsevierScienceD FAO,UNEP,CornellandYale5f65fc9017860338882881402dpublicationoutput,butitdoesDirectdatabase.indicatethegeneralrateofoutput. UniversitiesandtheInternational c594e4/perii.html,accessed29Asimilaroutcomecanbeseenin 77 atafromRoyalSocietyD AssociationofScientific,Technical September2010.theUNESCO Science Report 2010,publications,July2009June &MedicalPublishers.Workingwhichusesdatafromanother 2010. togetherwithtechnologypartnerKnowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 29 30. agriculturalpublications,andathirdforenvironmentaloftheirentirecataloguetoinstitutionallibrariesthat PART1 sciencestheplatformallowsaccesstomaterialofpreviouslyhadonlysubscribedtospecificjournals.particularpracticalinteresttodevelopingnations.ThesedealsweredoneatgreatlyreducedpricesandScientificlandscape Sinceitsintroductionin2002,thebiomedicalandmostlargeinstitutionsnowhavesucharrangementsin2011 healthplatformHINARIalonehasprovided2 inplace,meaningthatreadershaveaccesstovastlymilliondownloadsperyearofElseviersoutput.moreresearchoutputsthaneverbefore.ThesecondIndividualpublishersarealsoinstigatingtheirownwastheenormousincreaseinthecapacitytoinitiatives.TheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademysearchforandaccesspublishedresearch,initiallyviaofSciencesintheUSAhasbeenfreeonlinesince specialistsearchenginessuchasPubMed,andlater1997tothedevelopingworld.In2006theUKsRoyalbymoregeneraltools,mostnotablyGoogle(whichSocietyofChemistry(RSC)madeallofitsjournalnowaccountsforalmost60%ofallreferrals).83outputfreethroughitsArchivesforAfricaproject. TheabilitytosearchforarticlessimplyandrapidlyProfessorShemO.Wadinga,Directoroftheusingsubjectkeywords,authorsorabstracttexthasCentreforScienceTechnologyInnovationsinNairobi, openedupmuchwideraccesstotheentirebreadthandChairofthePanAfricaChemistryNetwork ofresearchoutputs.Kenyahub,isakeenadvocateoftheRSCsscheme.AlsohighlysignificanthasbeenthebirthofArchives for AfricahasopenedupararewindowtheOpenAccessmovement.RecognisingthataforAfricanresearchersandlibrariesinkeepingup greatdealofpublishedresearchwasfundedbythetodatewiththelatestscientificinformation.Ithaspublicpurse(viaresearchcouncilsanduniversities),becomethepointoffreeaccesstoawealthofdemandsarosefromvariousquartersfortheresultingscientificinformationforAfricanscientiststhrough publicationstobemadefreelyavailabletothepublictheirlibraries.81Itwilltakesomeyearstoidentify whofundedthem,ratherthanbeinglimitedtoanydirect,long-termimpactthattheseschemes subscribers.Publishers,someinitiallyresistanttothismayhaveonscientificoutput.Anearlystudy notion,havenowlargelyembracedopenaccess,suggeststhattherehasbeenasignificantincreaseinnotleastbecausemostfundingbodiesnowmakeitresearchoutputincountrieseligibleforR4Laccess, arequirementfortheirgrantees.Theoverwhelmingwhichoutstripstherateofgrowthseeninnon-R4Lmajorityofthetraditionalpublishersnowoperatecountries,overtheperiodinwhichtheinitiativehasanopenaccessoption(inexchangeforanarticlebeenintroduced.82 processingchargesecuredfromauthorsortheir institutions)andanumberofnewerpublishershave1.1.7Openingaccess emergedwhooperateanexclusivelyopenaccessInthemid-1990s,theadventoftheonlineavailability model.ofscientificjournalshadtwohighlysignificanteffects Thedemandforaccesstopublishedscientificonthescholarlycommunicationsprocess.Theknowledgeissettogrowasglobalsciencecontinuesfirstwasaresultofthedramaticfallinthecostsof toexpand.TheauthorpaysmodelofOpendisseminationofpublishedcontent(whichnolonger Accessandthesubsidisedsubscriptionschemesofreliedsolelyonphysicalshippingofprintedcopies).Research4LifeandINASPcaterforthisdemandinThisledtothegrowthoftheso-calledbigdealdifferentways.Thelatterhaveconsiderablyimprovedwherebypublisherswereabletoofferonlineeditions accesstoresearchliteratureinthedevelopingworld,30 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 31. BenjaminFranklinslettertoPeter CollinsondescribingthePhiladelphia Experiment,3October1752.From theRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.butthereisnotyetacorrespondingschemeinplace1.2.1BusinessR&DtoassistauthorswithopenaccesschargesintheseScienceisnotrestrictedtoacademia,nordoesverycountries.However,thedemandformore itnecessarilyresultinthepublicationofresearchaccessisnotonlycomingfromthedevelopingworld. papers.IttakesplaceinmanydifferentareasoutsideAvarietyofeconomicmodelswillberequiredto universitiesandresearchinstitutes,andisfundedensurethataccessismaximisedacrossarangeofbyarangeofdifferentsources.Theproportionofdifferentmarkets.investmentinresearchascomparedtodevelopmentvariessignificantlyacrossthedifferentindustrial1.2 Applying sciencesectors.Forexample,intheUKstelecommunicationsAwealthofeconomicliteraturedescribestheimpact sector,companiesinvestroughlyfourandahalfofknowledgeoneconomicperformance.84Fortimesmoremoneyinexperimentaldevelopmentexample,studieshaveshownthattechnological thantheydoinresearch,whilecompaniesintheUKchangedrivesupincomelevels,85therelationship aerospacesectorspendroughlytwiceasmuchonbetweenhighlevelsofpatentingandGDPgrowth,86 researchastheydoondevelopment.88andthepositiveimpactofinnovationonbusinessInmostofthedevelopedworld,R&Dactivitiesareproductivityandperformance.87Thisbodyof primarilyfundedbyprivateenterprise,whereastheevidencehasunderpinnedtheeffortsofgovernments publicsectorplaysamoresignificantroleinmosttheworldovertostimulateeconomicperformance developingcountries.89However,thebalancevariesbyinvestinginscienceandtechnologyfromconsiderablybetweennations.Insomecountriesundirectedacademicsciencetoresearchofstrategic businessinvestmentsinR&Dfaroutweighthoseofnationalimportanceconductedingovernmentgovernment,universitiesorotherfunders.In2007laboratories,tosupportfornear-to-markettheproportionoftotalR&Dwhichwasfundedbytechnologiesintheprivatesector. businesswas84%inMalaysia,70%inChina,66%in81 nterviewwithProfessorShemO.I 84 eeRomerD(1990).EndogenousSeconomic growth.ResearchPolicy intheUKsprivatesectorbetweenWadinga.Quotecourtesyofthe technical change.Journalof31,2,191211. 2000and2007wasattributabletoRoyalSocietyofChemistry. PoliticalEconomy98,5,S71102; innovationincludingtechnologicalMokyrJ(1992).The lever of 86 eeChenD&DahlmanC(2004). S advances.NationalEndowmentfor82 eehttp://www.elsevier.com/wps/S riches: technological creativity Knowledge and development: aScience,TechnologyandtheArts:find/authored_newsitem.cws_ and economic progress.Oxford cross-section approach.WorldLondon,UK.home/companynews05_01269,UniversityPress:Oxford,UK; BankPolicyResearchWorkingaccessed13October2010.LipseyR,CarlawK&BekarCPaperNo.3366.Thispaperargued88 ource:UKNationalStatistics S(2005).Economic transformations:thatbetween1960and2000,(2009).Research and development83 igurebasedonanalysisofaccessFa20%annualincreaseinthe in UK businesses 2009datasetstoRoyalSocietyPublishinggeneral-purpose technologiesand long-term growth.Oxfordnumberofpatentsgrantedinthe (Table5).Availableonlineatjournalcontent.SeeReesM USAwhetherthetechnologies http://www.statistics.gov.uk/(2010).SpeechbyLordRees, UniversityPress:Oxford,UK;HallB&RosenbergN(eds)(2010). originatedlocallyoroverseas downloads/theme_commerce/PresidentoftheRoyalSociety,atproducedanincreaseineconomic berd-2009/2009-dataset-links.pdf,ScienceOnline,BritishLibrary,3 Handbook of the economics ofinnovation.Elsevier:Amsterdam,growthof3.8percentagepoints. accessed17January2011.September2010.AvailableonlineWorldBank:Washington,DC,athttp://royalsocietypublishing.org/ TheNetherlands. 89 NESCO(2009).A global U USA.site/includefiles/Keynote_speech. 85 reemanC(2002).Continental,Fperspective on research andpdf.national and sub-national innovation 87 ESTA(2009).The innovation N development.UNESCOInstituteforsystemscomplementarity andindex.Thisreportshowedthattwo- StatisticsFactSheetNo2,October thirdsoftheproductivitygrowth2009(pp911).Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 31 32. theUSA,and57%inAustralia.IntheUK,business previousyears.ThesurveyedcompaniesexpectR&D PART1 enterprisefunded47%ofallexpenditureonR&D. investmenttocontinuegrowingstronglyoutsidetheBycontrast,businesswasresponsibleforonly29% EU,especiallyinIndiaandChina.93Scientificlandscape oftotalR&DspendinginArgentinaandtheRussianin2011 Federation,19%inSriLankaand14%inTunisia.90Location of business R&DTheroleofbusinessinsciencehasgrownin BusinessR&Dhasbecomeincreasinglymobilesincerecentyears,withtheproportionofR&Dfundedby themid-1980s,followingtheinternationalisationoftheprivatesectorincreasingsteadily.In1981,52% manufacturingduringthe1970s.94TherearenowoftheOECDcountriesspendingonresearchandmanymorelargebusinesseswithglobalresearchdevelopmentwasfundedbyindustry;by2008this operations,manyofwhomhavelocatedlaboratorieshadreachednearly65%.91indifferentpartsoftheworldforstrategicreasons.AcaseinpointisMicrosoftResearchwhohavesetIs business R&D recession proof?upanumberoflaboratoriesandbusinessesnotonlyIntheaftermathoftheglobaleconomiccrisisinintheircoreexpertiseofsoftware,butalsoinother2008,privatesectorR&Dinvestorshavestruggledfieldssuchashealthcare,energy,environmentandtomaintaintheirlevelsofinvestmentinR&D.After robotics.Manycompanieshavefollowedsimilarfouryearsof5%growthininvestmentyearonyear,models,suchasSanofi-Aventis(whohaveR&Din2009R&Dspendingbytheworldsleading1,400operationsinChina,Japan,SouthKorea,India,thebusinessR&Dinvestorsfellby1.9%onthepreviousUSA,France,UKandDenmark)andShell(whichyear.92 hastechnicalcentresintheUSA,theNetherlands,TheEUIndustrialR&DInvestmentScoreboardUK,Canada,France,Germany,India,Norway,Oman,2010showsthatin2009theleadingcompaniesQatarandSingapore).Intheperiodfrom1993toinEuropehaddecreasedtheirR&Dinvestment 2002,R&Dspendingbyforeigninvestorsgrewby2.6%since2008,andintheUSAthisfellbyfrom10%to16%ofglobalbusinessR&D(froman5.1%.However,therewasanincreaseof40%in estimatedUS$30billiontoUS$67billion).95Chinaand27.3%inIndia.WithinEuropetherewasDevelopedeconomiesarestillthefavouredconsiderablefluctuationtoo:FrenchprivateR&D locationsforforeignR&Dinvestors,96buttheinvestmentfellby4.5%,butinSpainitgrewby growthintheamountofR&Dinvestmentflowingto15.4%onthepreviousyear.Individualsectorshavedevelopingcountrieshasbeenpronounced;thesharealsoexperienceddifferingfortunes;pharmaceuticalofforeign-ownedbusinessR&DinthedevelopingcompaniesincreasedinvestmentinR&Dbyover5%,worldgrewfrom2%to18%between1996andwhiletheautomobileindustrysspendfellby11.6%. 2002.97Theimpactofglobalrecessionhasnothadauniform TheincreasinglyinternationalprofileofbusinesseffectonthepatternsofcorporateR&Dinvestment. R&Dinvestmentis,inpart,areflectionofintensifyingRecentsurveyevidencefromtheEuropean globalcompetitionforleadershipandtalentinCommissionshowsthatleadingEU-basedinvestors themostimportantandfastestgrowingmarkets.expecttheirR&DspendingtocontinuegrowingCompaniesthatsitetheirR&Dactivitiesclosetonewbetween2010and2011,albeitatlowerratesthanin andemergingmarketsgainvaluableinsightsinto32 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 33. howbesttomeettheneedsofthosemarkets.supportthroughdefenceandothergovernmentTheevermoreglobalfootprintofbusinessR&Disexpenditure.100Justasbusinessiscompetitive,alsotheresultofdistributedoropeninnovation.98 sopoliciestoattractforeigninvestmentareCompaniesusingthesebusinessmodelsinnovate competitivetoo.Singaporehasbecomeamagnetforbylookingoutwardfornewknowledge(eg.pharmaceuticalcompanies,drawnbyinfrastructurecollaboratingorbuying/licensingnewprocessessuchasA*StarsBiopolis.Morerecently,someorinventionsfromothercompaniesorlocating countries(notablySouthKorea)havetargetednewtheiractivitiesincloseproximitytoscientificandeconomicstimulusinvestmentsinlow-carbontechnologicalcentresofexcellence)aswellastechnologiestoattractresearchersandcompaniesinward(eg.throughtheirownresearch).IntheseinvestinginR&D.101cases,firmsrespondtoscienceandtechnologythattheyseebeingdevelopedelsewhere,forexample1.2.2Patentgrowthinothercompanies,universitiesoroverseas.They Theapplicationofscientificknowledgecanbepromotecollaborationsandcoalitionswithothers, measuredtosomeextentbytheregistrationofsuchassuppliers,customersoracademics,tosolveoverseaspatents.Patentsaregrantedfororiginal,theirproblemsininnovative,competitiveways.non-obviousideas,processesorproducts.TheRecruitmentofthemosttalentedindividualsalsoregistrationofpatentsbyindividualsandcompaniesoccursonaninternationalbasis.99notresidentinaterritoryindicatesacleardesireAtthesametime,governmentsaredoingmore tocommercialisetheresearchinthatregion.toexertaninfluenceontheinvestmentdecisionsof Registrationsintheworldsbiggestsinglemarket,thehigh-spendingandincreasinglymobilecompanies. USA,areagoodindicatorforthis,reflectingalsothePoliciesdesignedtoattractforeigninvestmentsizeoftheUSmarketandthegrowingintegrationofincludeincentivessuchastaxcredits,directsupport R&D.Approximately50%ofpatentsnowregisteredforcapitalfacilitiesandR&Dexpenditure,andindirect intheUSPatentandTrademarkOfficearefrom90 atafromtheUNESCOInstituteD 94 arlssonM(ed)(2006).TheK (SwedishInstituteforGrowth and practice.OxfordUniversityforStatisticsDataCentre,internationalization of corporate PolicyStudies):Stockholm, Press:Oxford,UK.Montral,Canada;2007figures R&D: leveraging the changingSweden.used,orlastavailableyear. geography of innovation.ITPS 99 ittleA(2005).Internationalisation L(SwedishInstituteforGrowth97 NCTAD(2005).WorldUof R&D in the UK: a review of the91 heseaveragesareofcourseoverT PolicyStudies):Stockholm,investment report 2005:evidence.OfficeofScienceandfigureswhichvaryconsiderablySweden.transnational corporations and Technology(nowGovernmentbetweendifferentmembersofthe the internationalization of R&D. OfficeforScience):London,UK.OECD. 95 NCTAD(2005).WorldU UnitedNationsConferenceoninvestment report 2005: TradeandDevelopment:Geneva,100 NCTAD(2005).Globalisation of U92 uropeanCommission(2010).E transnational corporations andSwitzerland. R&D and developing countries:Monitoring industrial research: the internationalization of R&D.proceedings of the expert meeting,the 2010 EU industrial R&DUnitedNationsConferenceon 98 hesbroughH(2003).OpenCGeneva, 2426 January 2005.investment scoreboard.EuropeanTradeandDevelopment:Geneva, innovation: the new imperative UnitedNationsConferenceonCommission:Brussels,Belgium.Switzerland.for creating and profiting fromTradeandDevelopment:Geneva,technology.HarvardBusinessSwitzerland.93 uebkeA(2009).The 2008 EUT 96 arlssonM(ed)(2006).TheK SchoolPress:Boston,MA,USA;survey on R and D investmentinternationalization of corporate DodgsonM,GannD&Salter101 oyalSociety(2010).The scientific Rbusiness trends.EuropeanR&D: leveraging the changingA(2008).The management ofcentury: securing our futureCommission:Brussels,Belgium.geography of innovation.ITPStechnological innovation: strategy prosperity.RoyalSociety:London, UK. Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 33 34. outsidetheUSAafigurethathasremainedlargelygreatuncertainties,butithelpsillustratetheshiftsin PART1constantsince1989.102 thecommercialisationofsciencenowtakingplace. Thereareanumberofcountries,especiallyonthe Scientificlandscape westernedgeofthePacific,thathaveregistereda 1.3 Drivers of research in2011 dramat