kinesiology skeletal system and muscle function

PART I Fundamentals of Structure and Motion of the Human Body
Chapter 1 Parts of the Human Body
Chapter 2 Mapping the Human Body
Chapter 3 Skeletal TissuesPart II Skeletal Osteology: Study of the Bones
Chapter 4 Bones of the Human Body
PART III Skeletal Arthrology: Study of the Joints Chapter 5 Joint Action Terminology
Chapter 6 Classification of Joints
Chapter 7 Joints of the Axial Body
Chapter 8 Joints of the Lower Extremity
Chapter 9 Joints of the Upper Extremity
Part IV Myology: Study of the Muscular System
Chapter 10 Anatomy and Physiology of Muscle Tissue
Chapter 11 How Muscles Function: the Big Picture
Chapter 12 Types of Muscle Contractions
Chapter 13 Roles of Muscles
Chapter 14 Determining the Force of a Muscle Contraction
Chapter 15 The Skeletal Muscles of the Human Body
Chapter 16 Types of Joint Motion and Musculoskeletal Assessment
Chapter 17 The Neuromuscular System
Chapter 18 Posture and the Gait Cycle
Chapter 19 Stretching
REGISTER TODAY!
Register today and gain access to: Video Clips Complete set of video clips from the enclosed DVD, demonstrating all joint actions of the
body.
Bony Landmark identification exercises Reinforce your knowledge of bony landmarks by completing these additional exercises.
Answers to Review Questions Look here to find answers to the review questions at the end of each chapter in the book!
Drag and Drop Labeling Exercises 15 illustrations aid in your review of the material as you drag the name of the structure and
dropping it into the correct position on the illustrations.
Crossword Puzzles 20 crossword puzzles reinforce muscle names and terminology through fun, interactive
activities!
Glossary of Terms and Origins All terms from the book are defined and explained and word origins are given.
Additional Photos of Strengthening Exercises Cross-referenced in Chapter 20, these additional photographs demonstrate key strengthen-
ing exercises.
Radiographs Radiographic images show real-world application of material in the book.
To access your Student Resources, visit:
http://evolve.elsevier.com/Muscolino/kinesiology/
JOSEPH E. MUSCOLINO, DC Instructor, Purchase College, State University of New York,
Purchase, New York
3251 Riverport Lane St. Louis, Missouri 63043
KINESIOLOGY: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AND MUSCLE FUNCTION ISBN: 978-0-323-06944-1 Copyright © 2011, 2006 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Muscolino, Joseph E. Kinesiology: the skeletal system and muscle function / Joseph E. Muscolino. – 2nd ed. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-323-06944-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Kinesiology. 2. Human locomotion. 3. Musculoskeletal system. I. Title. [DNLM: 1. Kinesiology, Applied. 2. Kinetics. 3. Musculoskeletal System. WE 103 M985k 2011] QP303.M87 2011 612.7’6–dc22 2010023466
Vice President and Publisher: Linda Duncan Senior Editor: Kellie White Senior Developmental Editor: Jennifer Watrous Publishing Services Manager: Julie Eddy Senior Project Manager: Celeste Clingan Design Direction: Paula Catalano
Dedication This book is dedicated to my entire family, who have given me everything of value, most importantly love and support.
Special Dedication A special dedication to Connie and Alfredo Llanes, Columbian angels with tremendous hearts of gold who have entered my mother’s life. It is rare, but so gratifying, to meet such kind and generous people. Thank you!
vi
Michael Choothesa, BA, CPT-AFAA Fairfield, Connecticut
Jonathan Passmore Investment Professional Fairfield, Connecticut
Michael P. Reiman, PT, DPT, OCS, SCS, ATC, FAAOMPT, CSCS Assistant Professor Wichita State University, Physical Therapy Department Wichita, Kansas
Pamela Shelline, LMT Director Massage Therapy Academy Saint George, Utah
Reviewers
Sandra K. Anderson, BA, LMT, ABT, NCTMB Co-Owner and Practitioner, Tucson Touch Therapies Treatment Center and Education Center Tucson, Arizona
Eva Beaulieu, MEd, ATC, LAT Assistant Athletic Trainer Georgia College & State University Milledgeville, Georgia
Vincent Carvelli, BS, RTS2
Continuing Education Specialist, American Council on Exercise (ACE)
Career and Technical Education Teacher, Joseph M. Barry Career and Technical Education Center Westbury, New York
Fellow, National Board of Fitness Examiners (NBFE)
Contributor
vii
Foreword
The many different styles of massage therapy and bodywork have become an integral component of addressing musculoskeletal pain and injury conditions. The public’s expectations place a high demand on the knowledge base of these practitioners. Consequently, the professional development of massage and bodywork therapists must accommodate the changing requirements of the profession. In the first edition of this text, author Joe Muscolino made an excellent contribution to the professional litera- ture to aid today’s soft-tissue therapist. In this new edition of Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function, updates and improvements have taken this text to the next level and significantly improved an already excellent resource.
Kinesiology is a critical component of the knowledge and skills necessary for today’s soft-tissue therapist. By definition kinesiology is the study of anatomy (structure), neuromuscular physiology (function), and biomechanics (the mechanics of movement related to living systems). Competence in these principles is required even for those practitioners who work in an environment where massage or movement therapy is used only for relaxa- tion or stress reduction. The need to understand proper movement can arise in the most basic soft-tissue treatment.
The requirements for knowing the principles of kinesiology are even greater for those practitioners who actively choose to address soft-tissue pain and injury conditions. Treatment of any soft-tissue disorder begins with a comprehensive assessment of the problem. Accurate assessment is not possible without an understanding of how the body moves under normal circumstances and what may impair its movement in pathology. Joe Muscolino has continually set high standards for helping prepare practitioners of soft-tissue therapy. The improvements in this new edition build on the established foundation that is crucial for today’s clinician.
Over the years of teaching orthopedic assessment and treatment to soft-tissue therapists, I have found many students deficient in their understanding of kinesiology. Similarly, students express frustration about understanding how to apply basic kinesiology principles in their practice. Although they receive some training in their initial coursework, traditional approaches to teaching kinesiology often provide little benefit to students. Over- whelmingly, basic courses in kinesiology prove to be insufficient and fail to connect the student with the skills necessary for professional success.
Learning muscle attachments and concentric actions tends to be the focus of most kinesiology curricula and is often turned into an exercise of rote memorization. Yet, there is significantly more to this important subject than these topics. Eccentric actions, force loads, angle of pull, axis of rotation, synergistic muscles, and other concepts are necessary for understanding human movement. These principles, in turn, are prerequisites for effective thera- peutic treatment. An adequate understanding of kinesiology requires more than a curriculum plan that emphasizes memorization. A competent education in kinesiology requires a foundation in the functional application of its principles.
Joe Muscolino’s scientific background and years of experience as an educator teaching anatomy, pathology, and kinesiology make him uniquely qualified to tackle a project of this scope. His skill, talent, and demonstrated expertise are evidenced in this work and are of great benefit to the soft-tissue professions. During the years I’ve known Joe as a professional colleague, we have repeatedly engaged in animated discussions about how to raise the quality of training and improve educational resources available in the profession.
I was thoroughly impressed with the content and presentation of the first edition of this text. In this new edition, the author has responded to the needs of students and educators by including new sections on strength training and stretching. These topics are of great importance to manual therapy practitioners and are often not present in this detail in many other resources. Also included is new and updated information on the role of fascia in movement, stability and posture. Many clinicians are increasingly aware of the importance of fascia, and these new findings help us understand this ubiquitous tissue even better. Finally, a new section on understanding how to read a research paper has been added to this edition. This section introduces the student/practitioner to the importance of research in the manual therapy professions, and then explains how to read and understand a research article. Research literacy is an increasingly important skill in the manual therapy profession, and this section facilitates that process.
The educational landscape is changing at a dramatic pace and one of the most powerful changes driving this transformation is the development and use of enhanced multimedia resources. The Elsevier Evolve site is a wealth of teaching and learning materials for students and users
FOREWORDviii
of this text. Numerous activities have been designed to aid the student in both comprehension of basic concepts as well as developing high order thinking skills that are essential in clinical practice.
When this book first came out it was clear that it excelled as both a comprehensive resource for the practic- ing professional and an excellent guide for students new
to the field. This updated edition has broken new ground and set the bar high as a comprehensive resource and learning tool for professionals in multiple disciplines.
Whitney Lowe, LMT Orthopedic Massage Education & Research Institute Sisters, Oregon
ix
Preface
The term kinesiology literally means the study of motion. Because motion of the body is created by the forces of muscle contractions pulling on bones and moving body parts at joints, kinesiology involves the study of the musculoskeletal system. Because muscle functioning is controlled by the nervous system, kinesiology might be better described as study of the neuromusculosketetal system. And because the importance of fascia is better understood and accepted, perhaps the best description might be study of the neuromyofascialskeletal system!
There are three keys to healthy motion: (1) flexibility of soft tissues to allow motion, (2) strength of musculature to create motion and stability, and (3) neural control from the nervous system. This book provides the reader/ student with necessary information to apply this knowledge and to help their clients in the health and fitness fields.
Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function, 2nd edition, is unique in that it is written for the allied health fields of manual and movement therapies, rehabilitation and fitness training. These fields include massage therapy, physical therapy, occupational therapy, yoga, Pilates, fitness and athletic training, Feldenkrais technique, Alex- ander technique, chiropractic, osteopathy, naturopathy, and exercise physiology. Information is presented in a manner that explains the fundamental basis for movement of the human body as it pertains to working with clients in these fields. Clinical applications are located throughout the text’s narrative and in special light-bulb and spotlight boxes to explain relevant concepts.
CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
The purpose of this book is to explain the concepts of kinesiology in a clear, simple, and straightforward manner, without dumbing down the material. The presentation of the subject matter of this book encourages the reader or student to think critically instead of memorize. This is achieved through a clear and orderly layout of the information. My belief is that no subject matter is difficult to learn if the big picture is first presented, and then the smaller pieces are presented in context to the big picture. An analogy is a jigsaw puzzle, wherein each piece of the puzzle represents a piece of information that must be learned. When all the pieces of the puzzle first come cascading out of the box, the idea of learning them and fitting them together can seem overwhelming; and indeed it is a daunting task if we do not first look at the
big picture on the front of the box. However, if the big picture is first explained and understood, then our ability to learn and place into context all the small pieces is facilitated. This approach makes the job of being a student of kinesiology much easier!
ORGANIZATION
Generally, the information within this book is laid out in the order that the musculoskeletal system is usually covered. Terminology is usually needed before bones can be discussed. Bones then need to be studied before the joints can be learned. Finally, once the terminology, bones, and joints have been learned, the muscular system can be explored. However, depending on the curriculum of your particular school, you might need to access the information in a different order and jump around within this book. The compartmentalized layout of the sections of this book easily allows for this freedom. Scattered throughout the text of this book are light-
bulb and spotlight icons. These icons alert the reader to additional information on the subject matter being presented. A contains an interesting fact or short amount of additional information; a contains a greater amount of information. In most cases, these illuminating boxes immediately follow the text statements that explain the concept.
At the beginning of each chapter is a list of learning objectives. Refer to these objectives as you read each chapter of the book.
After the objectives is an overview of the information of the chapter. I strongly suggest that you read this overview so that you have a big picture idea of what the chapter covers before delving into the details.
Immediately after the overview is a list of key terms for the chapter, with the proper pronunciation included where necessary. These key terms are also in bold type when they first appear in the text. A complete glossary of all key terms from the book is located on the Evolve web site that accompanies this book.
After the key terms is a list of word origins. These origins explore word roots (prefixes, suffixes, and so forth) that are commonly used in the field of kinesiology. Learning a word root once can enable you to make sense of tens or hundreds of other terms without having to look them up! Kinesiology, The Skeletal System and Muscle Function is
divided into four parts.
PREFACEx
Part I covers essential terminology that is used in kinesiology. Terminology that is unambiguous is necessary to allow for clear communication, which is especially important when dealing with clients in the health, athletic training, and rehabilitation fields.
Part II covers the skeletal system. This part explores the makeup of skeletal and fascial tissues and also contains a photographic atlas of all bones and bony landmarks, as well as joints, of the human body.
Part III contains a detailed study of the joints of the body. The first two chapters explain the structure and function of joints in general. The next three chapters provide a thorough regional examination of all joints of the body.
Part IV examines how muscles function. After cover- ing the anatomy and physiology of muscle tissue, the larger kinesiologic concepts of muscle function are addressed. A big picture idea of what defines muscle contraction is first explained. From this point, various topics such as types of muscle contractions, roles of muscles, types of joint motions, musculoskeletal assessment, control by the nervous system, posture, the gait cycle, stretching, and strength fitness training are covered. A thorough illustrated atlas of all the skeletal muscles of the body, along with their attachments and major actions, is also given.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
There are many features that distinguish this book: Clear and ordered presentation of the content Simple and clear verbiage that makes learning con-
cepts easy Full-color illustrations that visually display the con-
cepts that are being explained so that the student can see what is happening
Light-bulb and spotlight boxes that discuss interesting applications of the content, including pathologic conditions and clinical scenarios
Open bullets next to each piece of information allow the student to check off what has been or needs to be learned and allows the instructor to assign clearly the material that the students are responsible to learn
An enclosed DVD is included that shows and explains all joint movements of the body and the major concepts of kinesiology
Evolve website support for students and instructors
NEW TO THIS EDITION
Every feature of the first edition has been preserved. In addition, the second edition has many new features: A complete chapter containing a thorough illustrated
atlas of all the skeletal muscles of the body along with their attachments and major standard and reverse actions
A comprehensive chapter on fitness and athletic training
An entire chapter that expands the discussion of stretching
Greatly expanded sections on fascia, tensegrity, and myofascial meridians
Incorporation of new research as it pertains to concepts in the field of kinesiology and a section on how to read a research paper
DVD
The enclosed DVD demonstrates and explains key concepts of kinesiology such as anatomic position, planes, axes, how to name joint actions, and the concept of reverse actions. It then demonstrates and describes all the major joint actions of the human body, beginning with actions of the axial body, followed by actions of the lower extremity and upper extremity.
EVOLVE RESOURCES
actions of the body are located on the Evolve site.
Bony landmark identification exercises reinforce your knowledge.
Answers to review questions in the textbook. Drag and drop labeling exercises aid in your review
of the material as you drag the name of the structure and drop it into the correct position on illustrations.
Crossword puzzles help reinforce muscle names and terminology through fun, interactive activities!
Glossary of terms and word origins. All terms from the book are defined and explained, along with word origins, on the Evolve site.
Additional strengthening exercise photographs demonstrate key strengthening exercises on Evolve.
Radiographs Study these radiographs for real-world application
of material in the book.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
For instructors, TEACH lesson plans and PowerPoints Cover the book in 50-minute lectures, with learning outcomes, discussion topics, and critical thinking questions. There is also an instructor’s manual that provides step-by-step approaches to leading the class through learning the content, as well as kinesthetic in-class activities. Further, a complete image collection that contains every figure in the book, and a test bank in ExamView containing 1,000 questions, are provided.
xiPREFACE
RELATED PUBLICATIONS
This book has been written to stand on its own. However, it can also complement and be used in conjunction with The Muscular System Manual, The Skeletal Muscles of the Human Body, 3rd edition (Mosby, 2010). The Muscular System Manual is a thorough and clearly presented atlas of the skeletal muscles of the human body that covers all aspects of muscle function. These two textbooks, along with Musculoskeletal Anatomy Coloring Book, 2nd edition (Mosby, 2010), Musculoskeletal Anatomy Flashcards, 2nd Edition (Mosby, 2010), and Flashcards for Bones, Joints, and Actions of the Human Body, 2nd edition (Mosby, 2011), give the student a complete set of resources to study and thoroughly learn all aspects of kinesiology.
For more direct clinical assessment and treatment techniques, look also for The Muscle and Bone Palpation Manual, With Trigger Points, Referral Patterns, and Stretching (Mosby 2009), Flashcards for Palpation, Trigger Points, and Referral Patterns (Mosby 2009), and Mosby’s Trigger Point Flip Chart, with Referral Patterns and Stretching (Mosby 2009). For addi-
tional information about these products, visit http:// joeknows.elsevier.com.
Even though kinesiology can be viewed as the science of studying the biomechanics of body movement (and the human body certainly is a marvel of biomechanical engineering), kinesiology can also be seen as the study of an art form. Movement is more than simply lifting a glass or walking across a room; movement is the means by which we live our lives and express ourselves. Therefore science and art are part of the study of kinesiology. Whether you are just beginning your exploration of kinesiology, or you are an experienced student looking to expand your knowledge, I hope that Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function, 2nd edition, proves to be a helpful and friendly guide. Even more importantly, I hope that it also facilitates an enjoyment and excitement as you come to better understand and appreciate the wonder and beauty of human movement!
Joseph E. Muscolino DC July 2010
Usually only one name is listed on the front of a book, and that is the author’s. This practice can give the reader the misconception that the author is the only person responsible for what lies in his or her hands. However, many people who work behind the scenes and are invis- ible to the reader have contributed to the effort. The Acknowledgments section of a book is the author’s oppor- tunity to both directly thank these people and acknowl- edge them to the readers.
First, I would like to thank William Courtland. William, now an instructor himself, was the student who 10 years ago first recommended that I should write a kinesiology textbook. William, thanks for giving me the initial spark of inspiration to write.
Because kinesiology is the study of movement, the illustrations in this book are just as important, if not more important, than the written text. I am lucky to have had a brilliant team of illustrators and photographers. Jeannie Robertson illustrated the bulk of the figures in this book. Jeannie is able to portray three-dimensional movements of the body with sharp, accurate, simple, and clear full- color illustrations. Tiziana Cipriani contributed a tremendous number of beautiful drawings to this book, including perhaps my two favorites, Figures 11-13A and 11-13B. Jean Luciano, my principle illustrator for the first edition of The Muscular System Manual, also stepped in to help with a few beautiful illustrations. Yanik Chauvin is the photographer who took the photos that appear in Chap- ters 7, 8, 9, 15, and 19, as well as a few others. Yanik is extremely talented, as well as being one of the easiest people with whom to work. Frank Forney is an illustrator who came to this project via Electronic Publishing Ser- vices (EPS). Frank drew the computer drawings of the bones that were overlaid on Yanik’s photos in Chapters 7, 8, and 9. Frank proved to be an extremely able and invaluable asset to the artwork team. For Chapter 15, the new illustrated atlas of muscles chapter, Giovanni Rimasti (of LightBox Visuals, Jodie Bernard, owner), Frank Forney, and Dave Carlson, provided computer-drawn images of
the bones and muscles overlaid on Yanik’s photos. These illustrations are astoundingly beautiful! Last but not least is Dr. David Eliot of Touro University College of Osteo- pathic Medicine, who provided the bone photographs that are found in Chapter 4. Dr. Eliot is a PhD anatomist whose knowledge of the musculoskeletal system is as vast as his photographs are beautiful. I was lucky to have him as a contributor to this book.
I would also like to thank the models for Yanik’s photographs: Audrey Van Herck, Kiyoko Gotanda, Gamaliel Martinez Fonseca, Patrick Tremblay, and Simona Cipri- ani. The beauty and poise of their bodies was invaluable toward expressing the kinesiologic concepts of movement in the photographs for this book.
I must thank the authors of the other kinesiology textbooks that are presently in print. I like to think that we all stand on the shoulders of those who have come before us. Each kinesiology textbook is unique and has contributed to the field of kinesiology, as well as my knowledge base. I would particularly like to thank Donald Neumann, PT, PhD of Marquette University. His book, Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System, in my opinion, is the best book ever written on joint mechanics. I once told Don Neumann that if I could have written just one book, I wish it would have been his.
Writing a book is not only the exercise of stating facts, but also the art of how to present these facts. In other words, a good writer should be a good teacher. Toward that end, I would like to thank all my present and past students for helping me become a better teacher.
For the act of actually turning this project into a book, I must thank the entire Mosby/Elsevier team in St. Louis who spent tremendous hours on this project, particularly Jennifer Watrous, Kellie White, Kate Dobson, Celeste Clingan, Linda McKinley, Julie Eddy, Paula Catalano, Abby Hewitt, and Julie Burchett. Thank you for making the birth of this book as painless as possible.
Finally, to echo my dedication, I would like to thank my entire family, who makes it all worthwhile!
xiii
About the Author
Dr. Joseph E. Muscolino has been teaching musculoskeletal and visceral anatomy and physiology, kinesiology, neurology, and pathology courses for more than 24 years. He has also been instrumental in course manual development and has assisted with curriculum development. He has published The Muscular System Manual, 3rd edition, Musculoskeletal Anatomy Coloring Book, 2nd edition, and Musculoskeletal Anatomy Flashcards, 2nd edition, as well as articles in Massage Therapy Journal, Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, Massage Magazine, and Massage Today. Dr. Muscolino runs continuing education workshops on topics such as body mechanics for deep tissue massage, intermediate and advanced stretching techniques, joint mobilization, kinesiology, and cadaver lab workshops. He is approved by the National Certification Board for Thera- peutic Massage and Bodywork (NCBTMB) as a provider of continuing education, and grants continuing education credit (CEUs) for massage therapists toward certification renewal. Dr. Muscolino also was a subject matter expert and member of the NCBTMB’s Continuing Education and
Exam Committees and is a member of the Educational Review Operational Committee (EROC) of Massage Therapy Journal.
Dr. Muscolino holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in biology from the State University of New York at Bingham- ton, Harpur College. He attained his Doctor of Chiropractic degree from Western States Chiropractic College in Portland, Oregon, and is licensed in Connecticut, New York, and Califor- nia. Dr. Muscolino has been in private practice in Connecticut for more than 25 years and incorporates soft-tissue work into his chiropractic practice for all his patients.
If you would like further information regarding Kinesiology: The Skeletal
System and Muscle Function, 2nd edition, or any of Dr. Muscolino’s other publications, or if you are an instructor and would like information regarding the many supportive materials such as PowerPoint slides, test banks of questions, or instructor’s manuals, please visit http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com. You can contact Dr. Muscolino directly at his web site: http://www. learnmuscles.com.
PART I FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURE AND MOTION OF THE HUMAN BODY
Chapter 1 Parts of the Human Body 1 Chapter 2 Mapping the Human Body 13
PART II SKELETAL OSTEOLOGY: STUDY OF THE BONES
Chapter 3 Skeletal Tissues 32 Chapter 4 Bones of the Human Body 66
PART III SKELETAL ARTHROLOGY: STUDY OF THE JOINTS
Chapter 5 Joint Action Terminology 153 Chapter 6 Classification of Joints 186 Chapter 7 Joints of the Axial Body 209 Chapter 8 Joints of the Lower Extremity 255 Chapter 9 Joints of the Upper Extremity 326
PART IV MYOLOGY: STUDY OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Chapter 10 Anatomy and Physiology of Muscle Tissue 380 Chapter 11 How Muscles Function: the Big Picture 412 Chapter 12 Types of Muscle Contractions 433 Chapter 13 Roles of Muscles 449 Chapter 14 Determining the Force of a Muscle Contraction 479 Chapter 15 The Skeletal Muscles of the Human Body 500 Chapter 16 Types of Joint Motion and Musculoskeletal Assessment 557 Chapter 17 The Neuromuscular System 573 Chapter 18 Posture and the Gait Cycle 601 Chapter 19 Stretching 625 Chapter 20 Principles of Strengthening Exercise 639
BIBLIOGRAPHY 675
INDEX 678
Parts of the Human Body
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Section 1.1 Major Divisions of the Human Body Section 1.2 Major Body Parts Section 1.3 Joints between Body Parts Section 1.4 Movement of a Body Part Relative to
an Adjacent Body Part
Section 1.5 Movement within a Body Part Section 1.6 True Movement of a Body Part versus
“Going along for the Ride” Section 1.7 Regions of the Body
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to perform the following:
1. List the major divisions of the body. 2. List and locate the 11 major parts of the body. 3. Describe the concept of and give an example of
movement of a body part. 4. List the aspects of and give an example of fully
naming a movement of the body. 5. Describe the concept of and give an example of
movement of smaller body parts located within larger (major) body parts.
6. Explain the difference between and give an example of true movement of a body part compared with “going along for the ride.”
7. List and locate the major regions of the body. 8. Define the key terms of this chapter. 9. State the meanings of the word origins of this
chapter.
OVERVIEW
The human body is composed of 11 major parts that are located within the axial and appendicular portions of the body. Some of these major body parts have smaller body parts within them. Separating two adja-
cent body parts from each other is a joint. True movement of a body part involves movement of that body part relative to another body part at the joint that is located between them.
KEY TERMS
Brachial (BRAKE-ee-al) Carpal (KAR-pal) Cervical (SER-vi-kal) Cranial (KRAY-nee-al) Crural (KROO-ral) Cubital (KYU-bi-tal) Digital (DIJ-i-tal) Facial Femoral (FEM-o-ral)
C2
2
WORD ORIGINS
Ante—From Latin ante, meaning before, in front of Append—From Latin appendo, meaning to hang
something onto something Ax—From Latin axis, meaning a straight line Fore—From Old English fore, meaning before, in
front of
Inter—From Latin inter, meaning between Lat—From Latin latus, meaning side Post—From Latin post, meaning behind, in the rear,
after Supra—From Latin supra, meaning on the upper
side, above
1.1 MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY
The human body can be divided into two major sections (Figure 1-1): The axial body The appendicular body
When we learn how to name the location of a structure of the body or a point on the body (see Chapter 2), it will be crucial that we understand the difference between the axial body and the appendicular body.
AXIAL BODY:
The axial body is the central core axis of the body and contains the following body parts: Head Neck Trunk
Foot Forearm Gluteal (GLOO-tee-al) “Going along for the ride” Hand Head Inguinal (ING-gwi-nal) Interscapular (IN-ter-skap-u-lar) Joint Lateral view (LAT-er-al) Leg Lower extremity (eks-TREM-i-tee) Lumbar (LUM-bar) Mandibular (man-DIB-u-lar) Neck Palmar (PAL-mar)
Patellar (pa-TEL-ar) Pectoral (PEK-to-ral) Pelvis Plantar (PLAN-tar) Popliteal (pop-LIT-ee-al) Posterior view (pos-TEER-ee-or) Pubic (PYU-bik) Sacral (SAY-kral) Scapular (SKAP-u-lar) Shoulder girdle Supraclavicular (SUE-pra-kla-VIK-u-lar) Sural (SOO-ral) Thigh Thoracic (tho-RAS-ik) Trunk Upper extremity (eks-TREM-i-tee)
3PART I Fundamentals of Structure and Motion of the Human Body
Appendicular body
Axial body
CBA
FIGURE 1-1 The major divisions of the human body: the axial body and the appendicular body. A, Anterior view. B, Posterior view. C, Lateral view.
APPENDICULAR BODY:
The appendicular body is made up of appendages that are “added onto” the axial body.
The appendicular body can be divided into the right and left upper extremities and the right and left lower extremities.
An upper extremity contains the following body parts: Shoulder girdle (scapula and clavicle) Arm Forearm Hand
A lower extremity contains the following body parts: Pelvis (pelvic girdle) Thigh Leg Foot
The pelvis is often considered to be part of the axial body. In actuality, it is a transitional body part of both the axial body and the appendicular body; the sacrum and coccyx are axial body bones and the pelvic bones are appendicular body bones. For symmetry, we will consider the pelvis to be part of the lower extremity (therefore the appendicular body), because the shoulder girdle is part of the upper extremity. Note: The word girdle is used because the pelvic and shoulder girdles resemble a girdle in that they encircle the body as a girdle does (actually, the shoulder girdle does not completely encircle the body because the two scapulae do not meet in back).
4 CHAPTER 1 Parts of the Human Body
1.2 MAJOR BODY PARTS
A body part is a part of the body that can move independently of another body part that is next to it.
Generally it is the presence of a bone (sometimes more than one bone) within a body part that defines the body part.
For example, the humerus defines the arm; the radius and ulna define the forearm.
The human body has 11 major body parts (Figure 1-2): Head
Axial body Neck Trunk Pelvis
Lower extremity
Appendicular body
Upper extremity
} }
} }
It is important to distinguish the thigh from the leg. The thigh is between the hip joint and the knee joint, whereas the leg is between the knee joint and the ankle joint. In our terminology, the thigh is not part of the leg.
It is important to distinguish the arm from the forearm. The arm is between the shoulder joint and the elbow joint, whereas the forearm is between the elbow joint and the wrist joint. In our terminology, the forearm is not part of the arm.
The shoulder girdle contains the scapulae and the clavicles. Most sources include the sternum as part of the
shoulder girdle. The shoulder girdle is also known as the pectoral
girdle. The pelvis as a body part includes the pelvic girdle of
bones. The pelvic girdle contains the two pelvic bones, the
sacrum, and the coccyx.
Lower extremity body parts
FIGURE 1-2 The 11 major parts of the human body. A, Anterior view.
Shoulder girdle
Shoulder joint
Elbow joint
Hip joint
Knee joint
Ankle joint FIGURE 1-3 Illustration of the concept of a joint being located between two adjacent body parts. It is the presence of a joint that separates one body part from another body part. A, Anterior view. B, Posterior view. C, Lateral view.
1.3 JOINTS BETWEEN BODY PARTS
What separates one body part from the body part next to it is the presence of a joint between the bones of the body parts. A joint is located between two adjacent body parts (Figure 1-3).
When we say that a body part moves, our general rule will be that the body part moves relative to an adjacent body part.
This movement occurs at the joint that is located between these two body parts (Figure 1-4).
Pelvis
Thigh
Thigh
BA
FIGURE 1-4 A, The thigh moving (abducting) relative to the pelvis. This motion is occurring at the hip joint, which is located between them. B, Leg moving (flexing) relative to the thigh. This motion is occurring at the knee joint, which is located between them.
Arm
Scapula
Shoulder joint
FIGURE 1-5 Illustration of a body movement. The body part that is moving is the arm, and the joint where this movement is occurring is the shoulder joint. We say that the arm is moving (abducting) at the shoulder joint. This motion of the arm occurs relative to the body part that is next to it (i.e., the shoulder girdle; more specifically, the scapula of the shoulder girdle).
1.4 MOVEMENT OF A BODY PART RELATIVE TO AN ADJACENT BODY PART
When movement of our body occurs, we see the following: It is a body part that is moving. That movement is occurring at a joint that is located
between that body part and an adjacent body part. To name this movement properly and fully, two things
must be stated: 1. The name of the body part that is moving 2. The joint where the movement is occurring
Most texts describe a movement of the body by stating only the body part that is moving or by stating only the joint where the motion is occurring. However, to be complete and to fully describe and understand what is happening, both aspects should be stated. By doing this every time you describe a movement of the body, you will gain a better visual picture and understanding of the movement that is occurring.
Figures 1-5, 1-6, and 1-7 show examples of movements of body parts relative to adjacent body parts.
Arm
Forearm
Elbow joint
FIGURE 1-6 Illustration of a body movement. The body part that is moving is the forearm, and the joint where this movement is occurring is the elbow joint. We say that the forearm is moving (flexing) at the elbow joint. This motion of the forearm occurs relative to the body part that is next to it (i.e., the arm).
Foot
Leg
Ankle joint
FIGURE 1-7 Illustration of a body movement. The body part that is moving is the foot, and the joint where this movement is occurring is the ankle joint. We say that the foot is moving (dorsiflexing) at the ankle joint. This motion of the foot occurs relative to the body part that is next to it (i.e., the leg).
1.5 MOVEMENT WITHIN A BODY PART
We have seen that when a major body part moves, the movement occurs at the joint that is located between that body part and an adjacent body part.
Because that joint is located between two different major body parts, when one body part moves relative to another body part, it can be said that the movement occurs between body parts.
However, sometimes movement can occur within a major body part.
This can occur whenever the major body part has two or more smaller body parts (i.e., bones) located within it. When this situation exists, movement can occur at the joint that is located between these smaller body parts (i.e., bones) within the major body part. The simplest example of this is the hand. The hand
is considered to be a major body part, and motion of the hand is described as occurring between it and the forearm at the wrist joint (Figure 1-8, A). However, the hand has other body parts, the fingers, within it. Each finger is a body part in its own right, because a finger can move relative to the palm of
the hand (Figure 1-8, B). Furthermore, each finger has three separate parts (i.e., bones) within it, and each of these parts can move independently as well (Figure 1-8, C).
A second example is the forearm. The forearm is usually described as moving relative to the arm at the elbow joint (Figure 1-9, A). However, the forearm has two bones within it, and joints are located between these two bones. Motion of one of these bones can occur relative to the other (Figure 1-9, B). In this case each one of the two bones would be considered to be a separate, smaller body part.
A third, more complicated example is the cervical spine. The cervical spine has seven vertebrae within it. The neck may be described as moving relative to the trunk that is beneath it (Figure 1-10, A). However, each one of the seven vertebrae can move independently. Therefore motion can occur between vertebrae within the neck at the joints located between the vertebrae (Figure 1-10, B).
A
Forearm
B
C
FIGURE 1-8 A, Lateral view showing the hand moving relative to the forearm at the wrist joint. B, Depiction of motion within the hand. This is a lateral view in which we see a finger moving relative to the palm of the hand at the joint that is located between them. C, Illustration of movement of one part of a finger relative to another part of the finger at the joint that is located between them. Note: B and C both illustrate the concept of movement occurring within a major body part because smaller body parts are within it.
Arm
Forearm
Distal radioulnar joint
FIGURE 1-9 A, Lateral view showing the forearm moving (flexing) relative to the arm at the elbow joint. B, Movement of one of the bones (i.e., the radius) within the forearm, relative to the other bone (i.e., the ulna) of the forearm; this motion occurs at the radioulnar joints located between the two bones.
A B
C7-T1 joint
Neck
FIGURE 1-10 A, Lateral view of the neck showing the neck moving relative to the trunk at the spinal joint between them (C7-T1). B, Motion within the neck that is occurring between several individual vertebrae of the neck. This motion occurs at the spinal joints located between these bones.
A B
FIGURE 1-11 A and B, Illustration of the concept that the forearm is moving (because its position relative to the arm is changing). The motion that is occurring here is flexion of the forearm at the elbow joint. The hand is not moving, because its position relative to the forearm is not changing; the hand is merely “going along for the ride.”
1.6 TRUE MOVEMENT OF A BODY PART VERSUS “GOING ALONG FOR THE RIDE”
In lay terms, when we say that a body part has moved, it does not always mean that true movement of that body part has occurred (according to the terminology that is used in the musculoskeletal field for describing joint movements).
A distinction must be made between true movement of a body part and what we will call “going along for the ride.”
For true movement of a body part to occur, the body part must move relative to an adjacent body part (or the body part must have movement occur within it).
For example, in Figure 1-11 we see that a person is moving the right upper extremity.
In lay terms we might say that the person’s right hand is moving because it is changing its position in space.
However, in our terminology the right hand is not moving, because the position of the hand relative to the forearm is not changing (i.e., the right hand is not moving relative to the forearm [and motion is not occurring within the hand]).
The movement that is occurring in Figure 1-11 is flexion of the forearm at the elbow joint. It is the forearm that is moving relative to the arm at the elbow joint.
The hand is not moving in this scenario. We could say that the hand is merely “going along for the ride.”
Figure 1-12 depicts true movement of the hand relative to the forearm.
A B
FIGURE 1-12 Illustration of true movement of the hand, because the position of the hand is changing relative to the forearm. This movement is called flexion of the hand at the wrist joint. A, Anatomic position. B, Flexed position.
Pectoral
Mandibular
Supraclavicular
Antecubital
Carpal
Patellar
Crural
Facial
Axillary
Antebrachial
BA
Abdominal
Inguinal
Pubic
Femoral
Plantar
Cranial
Cervical
Scapular
Interscapular
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Pelvic
Sural
Popliteal
Gluteal
FIGURE 1-13 A, Anterior view of the body illustrating its major regions. B, Posterior view of the body illustrating its major regions.
1.7 REGIONS OF THE BODY
Within the human body, areas or regions exist that are given names. Sometimes these regions are located within a body part; sometimes they are located across
two or more body parts. Following are illustrations that show the various regions of the body (Figure 1-13).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Answers to the following review questions appear on the Evolve website accompanying this book at: http://evolve.elsevier.com/Muscolino/kinesiology/.
1. What are the two major divisions of the human body?
2. What are the 11 major body parts of the human body?
3. What defines a body part?
4. What is the difference between the thigh and the leg?
5. What is the difference between the arm and the forearm?
6. What is the difference between the trunk and the pelvis?
7. What two things are stated to describe properly and fully a movement of the body?
8. How can movement occur within a body part?
9. What is the difference between true movement and “going along for the ride”?
10. Name five regions of the human body.
Section 2.9 Motion of the Human Body within Planes
Section 2.10 Axes Section 2.11 Planes and Their Corresponding Axes Section 2.12 Visualizing the Axes—Door Hinge Pin
Analogy Section 2.13 Visualizing the Axes—Pinwheel
Analogy
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1. Describe and explain the importance of anatomic position.
2. Explain how location terminology can be used to map the body.
3. List and apply the following pairs of terms that describe relative location on the human body: anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, superior/inferior, proximal/distal, and superficial/deep.
4. List and apply the following additional pairs of terms that describe relative location on the human body: ventral/dorsal, volar/dorsal, radial/ulnar, tibial/fibular, plantar/dorsal, and palmar/dorsal.
5. List and describe the three cardinal planes. 6. Explain the concept of an oblique plane. 7. Explain how motion occurs within a plane,
and give an example of motion occurring in each
of the three cardinal planes and in an oblique plane.
8. Define what an axis is, and explain how motion can occur relative to an axis.
9. List the axes that correspond to each of the three cardinal planes.
10. Determine the axis for an oblique plane. 11. Give an example of motion occurring within each
of the three cardinal planes and around each of the three cardinal axes.
12. Draw an analogy between the hinge pin of a door and the pin of a pinwheel to the axis of movement for each of the three cardinal planes.
13. Define the key terms of this chapter. 14. State the meanings of the word origins of this
chapter.
C2
14
Medial (MEE-dee-al) Mediolateral axis (MEE-dee-o-LAT-er-al) Midsagittal plane (MID-SAJ-i-tal) Oblique axis (o-BLEEK) Oblique plane Plane Posterior (pos-TEER-ee-or) Proximal (PROK-si-mal) Radial (RAY-dee-al) Rotary movement Sagittal-horizontal axis (SAJ-i-tal) Sagittal plane Superficial Superior (sue-PEER-ee-or) Superoinferior axis (sue-PEER-o-in-FEER-ee-or) Tibial (TI-bee-al) Transverse plane Ulnar (UL-nar) Ventral (VEN-tral) Vertical axis Volar (VO-lar)
WORD ORIGINS
Ana—From Latin ana, meaning up Dors—From Latin dorsum, meaning the back Infer—From Latin inferus, meaning below, lower Medial—From Latin medialis, meaning middle Oblique—From Latin obliquus, meaning slanting Rota—From Latin rota, meaning wheel
Super—From Latin superus, meaning higher, situated above
Tome—From Latin tomus, meaning a cutting Trans—From Latin trans, meaning across, to the
other side of Ventr—From Latin venter, meaning belly, stomach
OVERVIEW
The field of kinesiology uses directional terms of relative location to describe and communicate the location of a structure of the body or a point on the body. These terms are similar to geographic directional terms such as north and south, and east and west. However, instead of mapping the Earth, we use our terms to map the human body. We also need to map the space around the human body by describing the three dimensions or planes of space. Understanding the orientation of the planes is extremely important in the field of kinesiology because when the body moves, motion of body parts occurs within these planes. The concept of an axis is then explored, because most body movements are axial movements that occur within a plane and around an axis.
Putting the information that was learned in Chapter 1 together with the information that is presented in Chapter 2, the student will have a clear and fundamental understanding of body movement. That is, when motion of the human body occurs, a body part moves relative to an adjacent body part at the joint that is located between them, and this motion occurs within a plane; and if this motion is an axial movement, then it occurs around an axis. After the bones are studied in more detail in Chapters 3 and 4, the exact terms that are used to describe these movements of body parts are covered in Chapter 5.
2-1
2.1 ANATOMIC POSITION
Although the human body can assume an infinite number of positions, one position is used as the reference position for mapping the body. This position is used to name the location of body parts, structures, and points on the body and is called anatomic posi-
tion. In anatomic position the person is standing erect, facing forward, with the arms at the sides, the palms facing forward, and the fingers and thumbs extended (Figure 2-1).
FIGURE 2-1 Anterior view of anatomic position. Anatomic position is the position assumed when a person stands erect, facing forward, with the arms at the sides, the palms facing forward, and the fingers and thumbs extended. Anatomic position is important because it is used as a reference position for naming locations on the human body.
2-2
2.2 LOCATION TERMINOLOGY
NAMING LOCATIONS ON THE HUMAN BODY:
Whenever we want to describe the location of a structure of the human body or the location of a specific point on the human body, we always do so in reference to anatomic position.
Describing a location on the human body involves the use of specific directional terms that describe the location of one structure or point on the body relative to another structure or point on the body (Box 2-1).
It is important to emphasize that location terminology is relative. A structure of the human body that is said to be anterior is so named because it is anterior relative to another structure that is more posterior. However, that same anterior structure may be posterior to a third structure that is more anterior than it is. For example, the sternum is anterior to the spine. However, the sternum is posterior to the skin that lies over it. Therefore, depending on which structure we are comparing it with, the sternum may be described as anterior or posterior.
BOX 2-1
The reason for specific terminologies like this to exist is that they help us to avoid the ambiguities of lay language. An example of a lay term that is ambiguous and can create confusion and poor communication when describing a location on the human body is the word under. Under can mean inferior, or it can mean deep. Similarly, the word above can mean both superior and superficial. Therefore embracing and using these terms is extremely important in the health field, where someone’s health is dependent on clear communication.
These terms always come in pairs; the terms of each pair are opposite to each other.
These pairs of terms are similar to the terms north/ south, east/west, and up/down. However, our terms specifically relate to directions on the human body.
In essence, we are mapping the human body and using specific terminology to describe points on this map. In the following sections are the pairs of directional terms for naming the relative location of structures or points on the human body.
Once these pairs of terms for relative location have been learned, they may be combined to describe a structure or point’s location. For example, a point on the body may be both anterior and medial to another point. When these terms are combined, it is customary to drop the end of the first term and combine the two terms together with the letter o (e.g., anterior and medial become anteromedial). It is also common practice for the terms anterior and posterior to come first.
2.3 ANTERIOR/POSTERIOR
Anterior—Means farther to the front Posterior—Means farther to the back The terms anterior/posterior can be used for the entire
body (i.e., for the axial and the appendicular body parts).
Examples: The sternum is anterior to the spine. The spine is posterior to the sternum
(Figure 2-2). Examples: The patella is anterior to the femur.
The femur is posterior to the patella (see Figure 2-2).
Notes: The terms ventral/dorsal are often used synonymously
with anterior/posterior. Ventral essentially means anterior. Dorsal essentially means posterior (Box 2-2).
The term volar is occasionally used in place of anterior for the hand region (dorsal is usually used as the opposite term in the pair).
Sternum Spine
Patella
Femur
FIGURE 2-2 Lateral view of a person in anatomic position. The sternum is anterior to the spine; conversely, the spine is posterior to the sternum. The patella is anterior to the femur; conversely, the femur is posterior to the patella.
Each body part has a soft, fleshy surface and a harder, firmer surface. The term ventral actually refers to the belly or the softer surface of a body part; the term dorsal refers to the back or the harder, firmer surface of a body part. The ventral surfaces of the entire upper extremity and axial body are located anteriorly; the ventral surface of the thigh is medial/posteromedial; the ventral surface of the leg is posterior; and the ventral surface of the foot is the inferior, plantar surface. The dorsal surfaces are on the opposite side of the ventral surfaces.
BOX 2-2
2.4 MEDIAL/LATERAL
Medial—Means closer to an imaginary line that divides the body into left and right halves (Figure 2-3). (Note: This imaginary line that divides the body into left and right halves is the midsagittal plane; see Section 2.8.)
Lateral—Means farther from an imaginary line that divides the body into left and right halves (i.e., more to the left side or the right side). The terms medial/lateral can be used for the entire
Examples: The sternum is medial to the humerus.
The humerus is lateral to the sternum (see Figure 2-3).
Examples: The little finger is medial to the thumb.
The thumb is lateral to the little finger (see Figure 2-3).
Notes: In the forearm and hand, the terms ulnar/radial can be
used instead of medial/lateral. Ulnar means closer to the ulna, which is more medial. Radial means closer to the radius, which is more lateral.
In the leg, the terms tibial/fibular can be used instead of medial/lateral. Tibial means closer to the tibia, which is more medial. Fibular means closer to the fibula, which is more lateral.
18 CHAPTER 2 Mapping the Human Body
Sternum
Humerus
Thumb
FIGURE 2-3 Anterior view of a person in anatomic position. The midline of the body, which is most medial in location, is represented by the vertical dashed line that divides the body into left and right halves. The sternum is medial to the humerus; conversely, the humerus is lateral to the sternum. The little finger is medial to the thumb; conversely, the thumb is lateral to the little finger.
2.5 SUPERIOR/INFERIOR AND PROXIMAL/DISTAL
Superior—Means above Inferior—Means below The terms superior/inferior are used for the axial body
parts only.
Examples: The head is superior to the trunk. The trunk is inferior to the head
(Figure 2-4, A). Examples: The sternum is superior to the
umbilicus. The umbilicus is inferior to the
sternum (see Figure 2-4, A).
Note: Although most sources apply these terms only to the
axial body, some sources use these terms for the appendicular body as well.
Proximal—Means closer (i.e., greater proximity) to the axial body
Distal—Means farther (i.e., more distant) from the axial body The terms proximal/distal are used for the appen-
dicular body parts only.
Umbilicus
BA
Sternum
Head
Trunk
Arm
Forearm
Leg
Thigh
FIGURE 2-4 Anterior views of a person in anatomic position. A, The head is superior to the trunk; conversely, the trunk is inferior to the head. In addition, the sternum is superior to the umbilicus; conversely, the umbilicus is inferior to the sternum. B, The arm is proximal to the forearm; conversely, the forearm is distal to the arm. In addition, the thigh is proximal to the leg; conversely, the leg is distal to the thigh.
Examples: The arm is proximal to the forearm. The forearm is distal to the arm
(Figure 2-4, B). Examples: The thigh is proximal to the leg.
The leg is distal to the thigh (see Figure 2-4, B).
Note regarding the use of superior/inferior versus proximal/distal: Given that the terms superior/inferior are used on the
axial body and are not used on the appendicular body, and the terms proximal/distal are used on the appendicular body and are not used on the axial body, a
dilemma arises when we look to compare the relative location of a point that is on an extremity with a point that is on the axial body. For example, the psoas major muscle attaches from the trunk to the thigh. How would one describe its attachments? It is convention to use either one pair of terms or the other but not to mix the two pairs of terms. In other words, you could describe the attachments of this muscle as being superior and inferior, or you could describe them as being proximal and distal. Do not mix these terms and describe the attachments as superior and distal, or proximal and inferior. The terms proximal/distal are more commonly used.
2.6 SUPERFICIAL/DEEP
Superficial—Means closer to the surface of the body Deep—Means farther from the surface of the body
(i.e., more internal or deep) The terms superficial/deep can be used for the entire
Examples: The anterior abdominal wall muscles are superficial to the intestines.
The intestines are deep to the anterior abdominal wall muscles (Figure 2-5).
Examples: The biceps brachii muscle is superficial to the humerus (arm bone).
The humerus is deep to the biceps brachii muscle (see Figure 2-5).
Note: Whenever designating a structure of the human body
as superficial or deep, it is important to state the perspective from which one is looking at the body. This is important because one structure may be deep to another structure from one perspective but not deep to it from another perspective. An example is the brachialis muscle of the arm. The brachialis is usually thought of as deep to the biceps brachii muscle because from the anterior perspective the brachialis is deep to it. As a result, many bodyworkers do not realize that the brachialis is superficial (deep only to the skin) and easily accessible and palpable laterally and medially. Furthermore, the deeper a structure is from one perspective of the body, the more superficial it is from the other perspective. An example is the dorsal interossei pedis muscles of the feet. These muscles are considered to be in the deepest plantar layer of musculature of the feet, and viewed from the plantar perspective they are located deep to the plantar interossei muscles. However,
Humerus
Anterior abdominal wall muscle (rectus abdominis)
FIGURE 2-5 Anterior view of a person in anatomic position. The anterior perspective shows that the rectus abdominis muscle of the anterior abdominal wall is superficial to the intestines (located within the abdomi- nopelvic cavity); conversely, the intestines are deep to the rectus abdominis muscle. From the anterior perspective, the biceps brachii muscle is superficial to the humerus; conversely, the humerus is deep to the biceps brachii muscle.
from the dorsal perspective, they are superficial to the plantar interossei muscles; and indeed, the dorsal interossei pedis muscles are more accessible and palpable from the dorsal side.
2.7 LOCATION TERMINOLOGY ILLUSTRATION
Figure 2-6 is an anterior view of a person, illustrating the terms of relative location as they pertain to the body.
Superior (axial body only)
Inferior (axial body only)
Anterior
Palmar
Dorsal
Dorsal
used for the superior surface of the foot.
FIGURE 2-6 Various directional terms of location relative to anatomic position.
A B C D
FIGURE 2-7 Anterolateral views of the body, illustrating the four types of planes: sagittal, frontal, transverse, and oblique. A, Two examples of sagittal planes; a sagittal plane divides the body into left and right portions. B, Two examples of frontal planes; a frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions. C, Two examples of transverse planes; a transverse plane divides the body into upper (superior and/or proximal) and lower (inferior and/or distal) portions. D, Two examples of oblique planes; an oblique plane is a plane that is not exactly sagittal, frontal, or transverse (i.e., it has components of two or three cardinal planes). The upper oblique plane has frontal and transverse components; the lower oblique plane has sagittal and transverse components.
2.8 PLANES
All too often, planes are presented in textbooks with an illustration and a one-line definition for each one. Consequently, students often memorize them with a weak understanding of what they really are and their importance. Because a clear and thorough understanding of planes greatly facilitates learning and understanding the motions caused by muscular contractions, the following is presented. We have already mapped the human body to describe
the location of structures and/or points of the body. However, when we want to describe motion of the
human body, we need to describe or map the space through which motion occurs.
As we all know, space is three-dimensional (3-D), therefore to map space we need to describe its three dimensions.
We describe each one of these dimensions with a plane. Because three dimensions exist, three types of planes exist.
The word plane actually means a flat surface. Each of the planes is a flat surface that cuts through space, describing a dimension of space.
The three major types of planes are called sagittal, frontal, and transverse (Figure 2-7).
The human body or a part of the body can move in each of these three dimensions or planes: A body part can move in an anterior to posterior
(or posterior to anterior) direction. This direction describes the sagittal plane.
A body part can move in a left to right (or right to left) direction; this could also be described as a medial to lateral (or lateral to medial) direction of movement. This direction describes the frontal plane.
A body part can stay in place and spin (i.e., rotate). This direction describes the transverse plane.
These three major planes are called cardinal planes and are defined as follows:
2-3
A sagittal plane divides the body into left and right portions.
The sagittal plane that is located down the center of the body and divides the body wall into equal left and right halves is called the midsagittal plane.
A frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.
A transverse plane divides the body into (upper) superior/proximal and (lower) inferior/distal portions.
Please note the following: These three cardinal planes are defined relative to
anatomic position. (This is not to say that motion of the human body can be initiated only from ana-
tomic position. It only means that these three cardinal planes were originally defined with the body parts in anatomic position.)
Any plane that is not purely sagittal, frontal, or transverse (i.e., has components of two or three of the cardinal planes) is called an oblique plane.
The sagittal and frontal planes are oriented vertically; the transverse plane is oriented horizontally.
An infinite number of sagittal, frontal, transverse, and oblique planes are possible.
The frontal plane is also commonly called the coronal plane.
The transverse plane is also commonly called the horizontal plane.
2.9 MOTION OF THE HUMAN BODY WITHIN PLANES
Because an understanding of the planes is an important part of understanding movements of the body, motion of the human body in each of the three planes should be examined. Figure 2-8, A to D illustrates motion of the body in the sagittal, frontal, and trans-
verse planes, as well as in an oblique plane, respec- tively. Figure 2-8, E to H illustrates additional examples of motions within planes. (For a detailed discussion of the names of these motions, please see Chapter 5, Sections 5.11 through 5.25.)
A B
FIGURE 2-8 A, Anterolateral view illustrates two examples of the concept of motion of a body part within a sagittal plane. The head and neck are flexing (moving anteriorly) at the spinal joints, and the left forearm is flexing (moving anteriorly) at the elbow joint. B, Anterior view illustrates two examples of the concept of motion of a body part within a frontal plane. The head and neck are left laterally flexing (bending to the left side) at the spinal joints, and the left arm is abducting (moving laterally away from the midline) at the shoulder joint.
Continued
2-4
D
C
E F
C, Anterior view illustrates two examples of the concept of motion of a body part within a transverse plane. The head and neck are rotating to the right (twisting/turning to the right) at the spinal joints; and the left arm is medially rotating (rotating toward the midline) at the shoulder joint. D, Anterior view illustrates two examples of the concept of motion of a body part within an oblique plane (i.e., a plane that has components of two or three of the cardinal planes). The head and neck are doing a combination of sagittal, frontal, and transverse plane movements (at the spinal joints). These movements are extension (moving posteriorly) in the sagittal plane, left lateral flexion (bending to the left side) in the frontal plane, and right rotation (twisting/turning to the right) in the transverse plane. The right arm is also doing a combination of sagittal, frontal, and transverse plane movements (at the shoulder joint). These movements are flexion (moving anteriorly) in the sagittal plane, adduction (moving medially toward the midline) in the frontal plane, and medial rotation (rotating toward the midline) in the transverse plane. E to H, Motion of the arm at the shoulder joint within each of the three cardinal planes and an oblique plane. A point has been drawn on the arm; the arc that is created by the movement of this point has also been drawn (in each case, the arc of motion of this point is within the plane of motion that the body part is moving within, illustrating that motion of a body part occurs within a plane). E, An anterolateral view illustrates the left arm flexing (moving anteriorly) at the shoulder joint within a sagittal plane. F, Anterior view illustrates the left arm abducting (moving laterally away from the midline) at the shoulder joint within a frontal plane.
FIGURE 2-8, cont’d
G H
2.10 AXES
An axis (plural: axes) is an imaginary line around which a body part moves.
An axis is often called a mechanical axis. Movement around an axis is called axial movement
(Figure 2-9). When a body part moves around an axis, it does so in
a circular fashion. For this reason, axial movement is also known as circular movement.
Because a body part is often described as rotating around the axis, an axial movement can also be called a rotary movement, or even rotation. Indeed, an axis is often referred to as an axis of rotation. However, referring to axial movements as rotary or rotation movements can be confusing because certain axial movements actually have the word rotation within their name (spin axial movements such as right rotation, left rotation, lateral rotation, medial rotation), whereas other types of axial movement (roll axial movements such as flexion, extension, abduction, adduction) do not. Therefore it is easy to confuse these different types of axial movements with each other. Axial movements (and in particular spin and roll axial movements) are discussed in Chapter 5, Sections 5.7 and 5.8.
BOX 2-3
FIGURE 2-9 An axis is an imaginary line around which motion occurs. This figure illustrates the motion of a bone within a plane and around an axis; the axis is drawn in as a red tube. This type of movement is known as an axial movement. A point has been drawn on the bone, and the arc that is transcribed by the motion of this point can be seen to move in a circular path.
An axial movement can also be called an angular movement or a rotary movement (Box 2-3).
The terms axial movement, circular movement, angular movement, and rotary movement are all synonyms. The concept of axial movement is visited again and covered in more detail in Chapter 5, Sections 5.5 through 5.7.
G, Anterior view illustrates the left arm laterally rotating (rotating away from the midline) at the shoulder joint within a transverse plane. H, Anterior view illustrates the right arm making a motion that is a combination of flexion (moving anteriorly) and adduction (moving toward the midline) at the shoulder joint within an oblique plane.
2.11 PLANES AND THEIR CORRESPONDING AXES
When motion of a body part occurs, it can be described as occurring within a plane. If the motion is axial, it can be further described as
moving around an axis. Therefore for each one of the three cardinal planes
of the body, a corresponding cardinal axis exists; hence, three cardinal axes exist (Figure 2-10, A to C).
For every motion that occurs within an oblique plane, a corresponding oblique axis exists (Figure 2-10, D). Therefore an infinite number of oblique axes exist, one for each possible oblique plane.
Naming an axis is straightforward; simply describe its orientation. The three cardinal axes are the mediolateral, antero-
posterior, and superoinferior (vertical) axes (see Figure 2-10, A to C).
Please note that an axis around which motion occurs is always perpendicular to the plane in which the motion is occurring.
An axial movement of a body part is one in which the body part moves within a plane and around an axis.
MEDIOLATERAL AXIS:
A mediolateral axis is a line that runs from medial to lateral (or lateral to medial [i.e., left to right or right to left]) in direction (see Figure 2-10, A).
Movements that occur in the sagittal plane move around a mediolateral axis.
The mediolateral axis is also known as the frontal- horizontal axis because it runs horizontally and is located within the frontal plane.
A B C D
FIGURE 2-10 A to D, Anterolateral views that illustrate the corresponding axes for the three cardinal planes and an oblique plane; the axes are shown as red tubes. Note that an axis always runs perpendicular to the plane in which the motion is occurring. A, Motion occurring in the sagittal plane; because this motion is occurring around an axis that is running horizontally in a medial to lateral orientation, it is called the mediolateral axis. B, Motion occurring in the frontal plane; because this motion is occurring around an axis that is running horizontally in an anterior to posterior orientation, it is called the anteroposterior axis. C, Motion occurring in the transverse plane; because this motion is occurring around an axis that is running vertically in a superior to inferior orientation, it is called the superoinferior axis, or, more simply, the vertical axis. D, Motion occurring in an oblique plane; this motion is occurring around an axis that is running perpendicular to that plane (i.e., it is the oblique axis for this oblique plane).
2-6
ANTEROPOSTERIOR AXIS:
An anteroposterior axis is a line that runs anterior to posterior (or posterior to anterior) in direction (see Figure 2-10, B).
Movements that occur in the frontal plane move around an anteroposterior axis.
The anteroposterior axis is also known as the sagittal- horizontal axis because it runs horizontally and is located within the sagittal plane.
SUPEROINFERIOR AXIS:
A superoinferior axis is a line that runs from superior to inferior (or inferior to superior) in direction (see Figure 2-10, C).
Movements that occur in a transverse plane move around a superoinferior axis.
The superoinferior axis is more commonly referred to as the vertical axis because it runs vertically. (This text will use the term vertical axis because it is an easier term for the reader/student to visualize.)
2.12 VISUALIZING THE AXES—DOOR HINGE PIN ANALOGY
To help visualize an axis for motion, the following visual analogy may be helpful. An axis may be thought of as the hinge pin of a door. Just as a body part’s
motion occurs around its axis, a door’s motion occurs around its hinge pin, which is its axis for motion (Figure 2-11).
A
FIGURE 2-11 A to C, Anterolateral views that compare the axes of motion for movement of the arm with the axes of motion for a door that is moving (i.e., opening); the axes are drawn in as red tubes. A, A trap door in a floor that is moving. The person standing next to the door is moving the arm in the same manner in which the trap door is opening. These movements are occurring in the sagittal plane. If we look at the orientation of the hinge pin of the door, which is its axis of motion, we will see that it is medial to lateral in orientation. Note that the axis for the motion of the person’s arm is also medial to lateral in orientation. Hence the axis for sagittal plane motion is mediolateral.
Continued
B
B, A trap door in a floor that is moving (i.e., opening). The person standing next to the door is moving the arm in the same manner in which the trap door is opening. These movements are occurring in the frontal plane. If we look at the orientation of the hinge pin of the door, which is its axis of motion, we will see that it is anterior to posterior in orientation. Note that the axis for the motion of the person’s arm is also anterior to posterior in orientation. Hence the axis for frontal plane motion is anteroposterior.
C
C, A door that is moving (i.e., opening). The person standing next to the door is moving the arm in the same manner in which the door is opening. These movements are occurring in the transverse plane. If we look at the orientation of the hinge pin of the door, which is its axis of motion, we will see that it is superior to inferior in orientation (i.e., it is vertical). Note that the axis for the motion of the person’s arm is also superior to inferior in orientation. Hence the axis for transverse plane motion is vertical.
2.13 VISUALIZING THE AXES—PINWHEEL ANALOGY
Another visual analogy that may be helpful for determining the axis of motion is a pinwheel. When a child blows on a pinwheel, its wheel spins in a plane, and the pin is the axis around which the wheel spins. If you orient the motion of the wheel in any one of the three cardinal planes, then naming the orientation of the pin of the pinwheel will name the axis for that plane’s motion (Figure 2-12, A to C).
The face of a clock is another good example of motion within a plane and around an axis. The hands of the clock move within the plane of the face of the clock. The pin that fastens the arms to the clock face, is the axis around which the hands move. If the clock is oriented to be in the sagittal, frontal, or transverse plane relative to your body, then describing the orientation of the pin in each case illustrates the axis.
A B
C
FIGURE 2-12 A to C, Anterior views that compare the axes of motion for movement of the head and neck with the axes of motion for the wheel of a pinwheel. The pin of the pinwheel represents the axis of motion of the pinwheel; the axes are drawn in as red tubes or a red dot. A, The motion of the person’s head and neck and the motion of the wheel of the pinwheel are in the sagittal plane; the axis for sagittal plane motion is mediolateral. B, The motion of the person’s head and neck and the motion of the wheel of the pinwheel are in the frontal plane; the axis for frontal plane motion is anteroposterior (red dot). C, The motion of the person’s head and neck and the motion of the wheel of the pinwheel are in the transverse plane; the axis for transverse plane motion is vertical.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Answers to the following review questions appear on the Evolve website accompanying this book at: http://evolve.elsevier.com/Muscolino/kinesiology/.
1. What is the position of the body when it is in anatomic position?
2. What is the importance of anatomic position?
3. What are the five major pairs of directional terms for naming the location of a structure of the body or a point on the body?
4. In what parts of the body can each of the pairs of directional terms of location be used?
5. If point A is located farther toward the front of the body than point B is, then how do we describe the location of point A? Point B?
6. If point A is located closer to the midline of the body than point B is, then how do we describe the location of point A? Point B?
7. If point A is located on the axial body closer to the top of the body than point B is, then how do we describe the location of point A? Point B?
8. If point A is located on the appendicular body closer to the axial body than point B is, then how do we describe the location of point A? Point B?
9. If point A is located both farther toward the front and farther toward the midline of the body than point B is, then how do we describe the location of point A? Point B?
10. If point A is located closer to the surface of the body than point B is, then how do we describe the location of point A? Point B?
11. What is a plane, and what is the importance of understanding the concept of planes?
12. What are the four types of planes?
13. What is an axis, and what is the importance of understanding the concept of axes?
14. What are the corresponding axes for each of the three cardinal planes?
15. What is the relationship between axial motion and planes and axes?
16. Regarding axial motion, how is the hinge pin of a door or the pin of a pinwheel analogous to the axis?
Skeletal Tissues
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Section 3.1 Classification of Bones by Shape Section 3.2 Parts of a Long Bone Section 3.3 Functions of Bones Section 3.4 Bone as a Connective Tissue Section 3.5 Compact and Spongy Bone Section 3.6 Bone Development and Growth Section 3.7 Fontanels Section 3.8 Fracture Healing
Section 3.9 Effects of Physical Stress on Bone Section 3.10 Cartilage Tissue Section 3.11 Fascia Section 3.12 The Fascial Web Section 3.13 Fascial Response to Physical Stress Section 3.14 Tendons and Ligaments Section 3.15 Bursae and Tendon Sheaths Section 3.16 Properties of Skeletal Tissues
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1. List the four major classifications of bones by shape, and give an example of each one.
2. Place sesamoid bones into their major category of bones by shape, and give an example of a sesamoid bone.
3. Explain the concept of a supernumerary bone, and give an example of a supernumerary bone.
4. List and describe the major structural aspects of a long bone.
5. List and describe the five major functions of bones.
6. List and describe the components of bone as a connective tissue.
7. Describe, compare, and contrast the structure of compact and spongy bone.
8. Describe, compare, and contrast the two methods of bone development and growth: (1) endochondral ossification and (2) intramembranous ossification.
9. Explain the purpose of the fontanels of the infant’s skull.
10. Name, locate, and state the closure time of the major fontanels of the infant’s skull.
11. Describe the steps by which a fractured bone heals.
12. State and explain the meaning and importance of Wolff’s law to the human skeleton and the fields of bodywork and exercise.
13. Explain the relationship of the piezoelectric effect to Wolff’s law.
14. Explain the relationship between Wolff’s law and degenerative joint disease (DJD) (also known as osteoarthritis [OA]).
15. List and describe the components of cartilage as a connective tissue.
16. Compare and contrast the three types of cartilage tissue.
17. Compare and contrast fibrous fascia and loose fascia.
18. Describe the structure and function of the fascial web.
19. Describe the two major responses of fascia to physical stress.
20. Compare and contrast the structure and function of tendons and ligaments.
21. Explain why tendons and ligaments do not heal well when injured.
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22. Compare and contrast the structure and function of bursae and tendon sheaths.
23. Compare and contrast the concepts of elasticity and plasticity.
24. Relate the concepts of creep, thixotropy, and hysteresis to the fields of bodywork and exercise.
25. Define the key terms of this chapter. 26. State the meanings of the word origins of this
chapter.
OVERVIEW
Many tissues contribute to the structure and function of the skeletal system; chief among them is bone tissue. The first sections of this chapter examine bone tissue macrostructure, microstructure, functions, and physiology. The later sections of this chapter then cover the
fascial connective tissues that are necessary for skeletal system structure and function. These other tissues are cartilage, fibrous fascia, tendon, ligament, bursae, and tendon sheaths. The last section then covers the general properties that apply to all skeletal connective tissues.
KEY TERMS
AP-o-noo-RO-seez) Areolar fascia (AIR-ee-o-lar) Articular cartilage (ar-TIK-you-lar KAR-ti-lij) Articular surface Bone marrow Bone spur Bony callus Bursa, pl. bursae (BER-sa, BER-see) Bursitis (ber-SIGH-tis) Calcitonin (KAL-si-TO-nin) Callus Canaliculus, pl. canaliculi (KAN-a-LIK-you-lus,
KAN-a-LIK-you-lie) Cancellous bone (KAN-se-lus) Cartilage (KAR-ti-lij) Cell-to-cell web Chondroblast (KON-dro-blast) Chondrocyte (KON-dro-site) Chondroitin sulfate (kon-DROY-tin SUL-fate) Collagen fibers (KOL-la-jen) Compact bone Connective tissue Contractility Cortex (KOR-teks) Cortical surface (KOR-ti-kal) Creep (KREEP) Cytoplasmic processes (SI-to-PLAZ-mik) Deep fascia (FASH-a) Degenerative joint disease Dense fascia (FASH-a) Diaphysis, pl. diaphyses (die-AF-i-sis, die-AF-i-seez) Elastic cartilage Elasticity Elastin fibers (ee-LAS-tin)
Endochondral ossification (en-do-KON-dral OS-si-fi-KAY-shun)
OS-si-fi-KAY-shun) Irregular bones Kinesiology (ki-NEE-see-OL-o-gee) Lacuna, pl. lacunae (la-KOO-na, la-KOO-nee) Langer’s lines (LANG-ers) Lever Ligament (LIG-a-ment) Long bones Loose fascia
C2
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Retinaculum, pl. retinacula (ret-i-NAK-you-lum, ret-i-NAK-you-la)
Round bones Secondary ossification centers Sesamoid bones (SES-a-moyd) Short bones Sol state (SOLE) Sphenoid fontanel (SFEE-noyd FON-ta-NEL) Spongy bone Sprain Strain Stretch Subchondral bone Subcutaneous fascia (SUB-cue-TANE-ee-us FASH-a) Supernumerary bones (soo-per-NOO-mer-air-ee) Synovial tendon sheath (si-NO-vee-al) Tendinitis (ten-di-NI-tis) Tendon Tendon sheath Tenosynovitis (TEN-o-sin-o-VI-tis) Tensile (TE

kinesiology skeletal system and muscle function

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