key terms chapter expectations material - … terms affirmative action classical liberalism...

Key Terms

affirmative action

classical liberalism

communitarianism

distributive justice

entitlements

justice

liberal individualism

libertarianism

natural law

positive law

responsibilities

retributive justice

2 mhr Philosophy: Thinkers, Theories, and Questions Unit 6

CH 17 Exploring SoCial and politiCal pHiloSopHy

Abu Nasr al-Farabi 872−950 CE

Thomas hobbes 1588−1679

David Hume 1711−1777

Karl Popper 1902–1994

John Calvin 1509−1564

John Locke 1632−1704

John Stuart Mill 1806−1873

CHaptEr ExpECtationSBy the end of this chapter, you will be able to• explainvarioustheoriesofsocialandpoliticalphilosophywith

referencetosomeclassicandcontemporarytexts• evaluatethestrengthsandweaknessesofphilosophicalresponsesto

some of the main questions of social and political philosophy• describethewaysinwhichtheideasofphilosophersofsocialand

politicalphilosophyhaveinfluencedsubsequentphilosophers• examinemultipleperspectivesthroughwhichsocialandpolitical

philosophyisexploredbyphilosophersandschoolsofphilosophy

Figure 17-1 Standoff over land claims at Oka (Kanesatake), Québec: A Canadian soldier and a Mohawk warrior stake their ground on July 11, 1990.

Plato 427−347 BCE

Aristotle 384−322

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Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7

mhr Philosophy: Thinkers, Theories, and Questions Chapter 17 3

Charles Taylor 1931−

Kwame Gyekye 1939–

Jacques Rancière 1940–

James Tully 1946−

Iris Marion Young 1949–2006

John Rawls 1921–2002

Robert Nozick 1938−2002

Susan Moller Okin 1946–2004

Taiaiake Alfred 1964–

CHaptEr introduCtionInthesummerof1990,astandoffbetweenMohawkwarriorsandtheCanadianarmyshockedtheworld.Thereasonforthisconflictwasjurisdictionoverapineforestandgraveyard.ConsideredsacredgroundbytheAkwesasne/Mohawkpeople,theareawasslatedfordevelopmentintoagolfcourse.Inprotest,someoftheMohawkpeopleerectedabarricadeblockingaccesstothearea.Conflictensued,andaQuébecpoliceofficerwaskilled.ImagesofarmedresistanceandracismaregenerallynotassociatedwithCanada’slaw-abidingsociety,oftenheldupasamodelofpeacefulco-existenceamongitsmulticulturalcitizens.Thisconflictraisesimportantquestionsofpoliticalphilosophy:Whohastherightorlegitimacytogovern,andhowdoesthispersonorgroupknowwhatisright?Whendopeoplehavearesponsibilitytoobeyortobreakthelawintheinterestofjustice?Whataccommodationscanbemade,inCanada’sunique form of liberal democracy, to allow different cultures the freedom topursuetheirowndefinitionsofthegoodlifeandhappiness?

Figure 17-2 On July 11, 2010, people walked toward the Mohawk community of Kanesatake to commemorate the 20 years since the Oka Crisis.

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Unit 6: Social and Political Philosophy

Chapter 17: Exploring Social and Political Philosophy


idEal govErnmEnt and SoCiEtyTodefinetheidealstate,wemustconsiderseveralinterconnectedaspectsofgoverning:Whatformofruleisbest,andwhoshouldrule?Howdoleadersknowwhatisrightorjust?Howispropertyprotectedordistributedaccordingtostandardsofjustice?WhenEuropeanexplorerscametotheNewWorld,theybroughtsystemsofgovernmentthatwerebasedonidealsandcustomsfromtheirhomelands,suchasJohnLocke’sconceptofprivatepropertyentitlingpeopletobecitizens.Let’sexplorethebackgroundofEuropeanideasaboutgovernmentbyreturningfirsttoPlato(427–347BCE).

plato’s viewPlato’s RepublicwaswrittenatatimeofgreatconflictbetweenGreeceanditsneighbours,aswellaswithinGreecebetweenwarringcitystates.Plato’sconceptoftheidealrulerreflectstheconflict,incorporatingelements of both the militaristic society of Sparta and the more cultivatedsocietyofAthens.SocratessummarizesthisconceptintheopeningofBookVIIIofThe Republic.

“This much has been agreed, Glaucon: for a city that is going to be governed on a high level … the kings must be those among them who have proved best in philosophy and with respect to war.”

AccordingtoPlato,theidealleaderisaleaderwhohasacquiredyearsofwisdomandknowledge.WhatPlatoenvisionedwastheriseofthephilosopher-king:awiseandcommandingrulerwhohasself-controloverhisownpassionsanddesires(hisanimalsoul)andcan,therefore,bringordertosociety.Keepingthewarringpartsofhissoulinorder,thephilosopher-kingisnothigh-spiritedormotivatedbymoney,butbytheloveandpursuitofwisdom.Heisthusabletoputotherpassionsandpleasuresaside,unlikethewarriorspirit,anddevotehimselftothestudiesthatbringtruth,harmony,andself-regulationwithinhissoul.Platosuggeststhatthisrulerofthepolis should be a person who candiscernrationallybetweenchangingrealityandpermanentreality,makinghimeffectiveatsortingoutwhatpleasuresandpossessionsconstitutethegoodlife.ThefollowingdialoguefromtheRepublic betweenSocratesandhiscompanionCritorevealsthemostexemplarytypeofkingwhoshouldrulehissubjects.

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“The philosopher, he replied, has greatly the advantage; for he has of necessity always known the taste of the other pleasures from his childhood upwards. … His experience, then, will enable him to judge better than anyone?

Far better.

And he is the only one who has wisdom as well as experience?

Certainly.

Further, the very faculty which is the instrument of judgement is not possessed by the covetous or ambitious man, but only by the philosopher?

What faculty?

Reason, with whom, as we were saying, the decision ought to rest.

Yes.

And reasoning is peculiarly his instrument?

Certainly.

If wealth and gain were the criterion, then the praise or blame of the lover of gain would surely be the most trustworthy?

Assuredly.

Or if honour or victory or courage, in that case the judgement of the ambitious or pugnacious would be the truest?

Clearly.

But since experience and wisdom and reason are the judges—

The only inference possible, he replied, is that pleasures which are approved by the lover of wisdom and reason are the truest.”

Figure 17-3 A representation of the enlightened philosopher-king

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Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7The Ideal Ruler: Plato’s Influence

The concept of the ideal state and its ruler has been explored by many philosophers over time. Plato’s vision of a city state ruled by an enlightened philosopher-king influenced subsequent philosophers, even those who were followers of monotheistic (one god) religions, such as Christianity and Islam. St. Augustine (354–430), a North African Bishop and Doctor of the Roman Catholic Church, linked Plato’s ideas with early Christian theology. In fact, St. Augustine was one of the main people responsible for merging Greek philosophy with Judeo-Christian religion and scripture in Western civilization. In City of God and Christian Confessions, St. Augustine describes the philosopher-king as someone who loves God.

But the true and highest good, according to Plato, is God, and therefore he would call him a philosopher who loves God; for philosophy is directed to the obtaining of the blessed life, and he who loves God is blessed in the enjoyment of God.

St. Thomas More (1478—1535) often quoted Plato’s Republic in his book Utopia (1516). Trying to coax a “dear friend Raphael” into lending his wisdom to guide the state, More wrote the following:

Your favorite author, Plato, is of opinion that commonwealths will finally be happy only if either philosophers become kings or kings turn to philosophy. What a distant prospect of happiness there will be if philosophers will not condescend even to impart their counsel to kings!

In the Middle Ages, Islamic philosophers also turned to Plato. Abu Nasr al-Farabi’s (872–950 CE) vision in The Perfect State echoed Plato’s perspective of ideal government, with the philosopher providing wisdom and guidance to the state. Like Plato, al-Farabi believed that the scholarly man—epitomized by a philosopher—would have spent many years training his mind to think logically, thereby seeing the truth rather than being swayed

by subjectivity. As a philosopher who emphasized continuous learning in music, physics, and logic, al-Farabi believed in the power and practice of knowledge, building on the tradition set by Plato’s Republic. In his extended commentaries on Plato’s work, al-Farabi identifies instruction and formation of character as the two ways to educate rulers (princes and imans, or scholars), as described in the excerpt from Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle below:

They should be habituated to use all the logical methods in all the theoretical sciences. And they should be made to pursue a course of study and form the habits of character from their childhood until each of them reaches maturity, in accordance with the plan described by Plato.

pHiloSopHErS on pHiloSopHy

1. Many subsequent philosophers agreed with Plato’s concept of the ideal ruler.

a) How is Plato’s influence evident in the quotations of the philosophers included in this feature?

b) What might be some of the disadvantages of having a philosopher-king govern society?

2. By linking Plato’s philosophy to monotheistic religions, such as Christianity and Islam, how might subsequent philosophers have changed Plato’s ideas and added their own? Consider researching this further, as later interpreters are known to have added their own commentaries when discussing ancient texts.



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alternate views on the ideal governmentIn contrast to democracy, or rule by the people, Plato’s idea of rule by a benevolentphilosopher-kingrepresentsakindofepistemocracy: only those withtherighteducationandhigherknowledgearefittogovernthemselvesandothers.Plato’sidealsocietyisahierarchyinwhichpeoplearedividedintoclasses—thehighestbeingtherulingclassofthephilosopher-king(seeFigure16-3onpagexxx).InPlato’sidealsociety,eachpersonknowshisorherproperplaceanddoesnotdeviatefromhisorherrole.PlatoexpressesthisideainThe Republic, throughadialogueofSocrates.

“We stated, and often repeated, if you remember, that everyone must pursue one occupation of those in the city, that for which his nature best fitted him.

Yes, we kept saying that.

Further, we have heard many people say, and have often said ourselves, that justice is to perform one’s own task, and not to meddle with that of others.

We have said that.

This, then, my friend, I said, when it happens, is in some way justice, to do one’s own job.”

Many 20th-century philosophers considered Plato’s concept of the idealrulerandsocietyasanti-democraticandelitist.Plato’sidealwascriticizedmostfamouslybyKarlPopper(1902–1994)in An Open Society and Its Enemies.

InPlato’sidealsociety,childrenareremovedatanearlyagetogrowupinstate-rundaycares,wheretheyaretaughttoregardeachotherasbrothersandsistersofMotherEarth.Poetrythatportraysmenweeping,such as Achilles in the Iliad, isbanishedtopreventboysfrombecomingeffeminate.Inthiscommunist-stylestate,eventypesofmusicareregulatedtocontrolemotionsandpromoterationalharmonies.Platoalsocondonedpropagandaandcensorshipbythestate,promptingPoppertodescribehisidealsocietyastotalitarian.PoppersummarizesthisviewinThe Open Society and Its Enemies Volume 1: The Spell of Plato.

“I believe that practically all the elements of Plato’s political programme can be derived from these demands ... concerning the conditions for the stability of class rule. The principal elements I have in mind are:

(A) The strict division of the classes; i.e. the ruling class consisting of herdsmen and watch-dogs must be strictly separated from the human cattle.

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7proFilEAverroes (Ibn Rushd)

1126–1198

• Islamicphilosopherbornin Andalusia (modern-day Spain)

• wasanenthusiastofAristotle’s work and echoed Plato’s belief that the ruler should be a philosopher

• departedfromPlato’sideas on social justice by advocating greater social equality through the distribution of wealth to reduce economic disparity and the promotion of women’s rights to allow their active citizenship in society

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(B) The identification of the fate of the state with that of the ruling class; the exclusive interest in this class, and in its unity; and subservient to this unity, the rigid rules for breeding and educating this class, and the strict supervision and collectivization of the interests of its members.

(C) The ruling class has a monopoly of things like military virtues and training, and of the right to carry arms and to receive education and training, and it is excluded from any participation in economic activities, and especially from earning money.

(D) There must be a censorship of all intellectual activities of the ruling class, and a continual propaganda aiming at moulding and unifying their minds. All innovation in education, legislation, and religion must be prevented or suppressed.

(E) The state must be self-sufficient. It must aim at economic autarchy; for otherwise the rulers would either be dependent upon traders, or become traders themselves. The first of these alternatives would undermine their power, the second their unity and the stability of the state.

This programme can, I think, be fairly described as totalitarian.”

AmericanphilosopherJohnDewey(1859–1952)attackedPlato’sideaofahierarchyofdistinctclasses.

“Now whatever the idea of equality means for democracy, it means, I take it, that the world is not to be construed as a fixed order of species, grades, or degrees. It means that every existence deserving the name of existence has something unique ... about it that does not exist to illustrate a principle, to realize a universal or to embody a kind of class.”

Insteadofrestrictingpeopletotheirsupposedlynaturalstation,Deweycallsfortheeducationandactiveinvolvementofallpeopleinacommunity.Insteadofbeingtypecastandthenguidedbythewiserulerfromabove,peoplegrowintouniqueindividualsandrealizetheircapabilitiesthroughactiveandpassiveinteractionwithothers,withindemocraticformsofassociationandorganization.

“… each one is influenced in what he does and enjoys and in what he becomes by the institutions under which he lives, and that therefore he shall have, in a democracy, a voice in shaping them. ...”

Figure 17-4 Writing after World War II, Popper claimed that Plato’s Republic foreshadowed totalitarian regimes of the 20th century, such as those of Stalin in the Soviet Union.

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InhisbookHatred of Democracy(2006),FrenchphilosopherJacquesRancière(1940–)arguesthatmostsocieties,ineffect,“suffocatepolitics”bycontinuouslyreproducingorganizationalstructuresbasedonthemodelofthefamily,inwhichmostcitizensareinapositionofsubserviencetothefather—theruler.InMore'ssupposedUtopia, forexample,“Theoldest...rulesthehousehold.Wiveswaitontheirhusbands,childrenontheirparents,andgenerallytheyoungerontheirelders.”SubjectsinthesestatesliveunderaconditionMichelFoucaultearlierdescribedas“pastoralsupervision,”continuouslywatchedoverinapaternalrelationshiplikethatbetweenChurchleadersandtheirfollowers.

In Ten Political Theses,Foucaultreferstothisasthelogicofarche (arch),ahierarchicalsystemthatplacesthosewithage,wealth,knowledge,ortechniqueatthetoparch,inordertocontrolthosesupposedlylessintelligentorcapable.Rancièrecondemnselitistformsofpoliticalorganization,suchasrulebyabenevolentphilosopher-king.RancièrewouldarguethatPlato’shierarchicalsystemsuppressestheformationofpoliticalidentityamongthecommonpeoplebykeepingthemfirmlyintheirplace.AccordingtoRancière,theonlywaytobreakthislogicofarcheistoproceedfromthepremiseofequality.

“… the logic of arche presupposes a determinate superiority exercised upon an equally determinate inferiority. In order for there to be a political subject(ivity), and thus for there to be politics, there must be a rupture in this logic.”

1. How is Popper critical of Plato’s concept of the ideal state in his work An Open Society and Its Enemies? Do you agree with his criticism?

2. Compare and contrast Dewey’s and Rancière’s responses to the model of the philosopher-king and their defences of democracy. Which, if either, is more convincing to you?

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individualiSm vErSuS StatE intErvEntionDuringtheEnlightenment in the 18thcentury,severalpoliticalphilosophers,suchasJohnLocke,turnedtheirattentiontodefendingtherightsoftheindividualagainstunnecessaryinterferencefromthestate.Insteadofdefendingthewiseleader’srighttogovernthepeople,these philosophers consideredtherightsofthepeopletolivefreefromgovernmentrestrictions.Insteadofbeingfreefromthestateofnature,subjectswereliberatedfromthetyrannyofthestateitself.

Classical liberalismInthepreviouschapter,youexploredtheideasofvariouspoliticalphilosophers,aswellasdevelopmentsinpoliticalphilosophy.Let’sreturn,foramoment,tothe17thcenturyandtracethemovefromThomasHobbestoJohnLocke.Hobbesglorifiedthestate,depictingitasamightypowerthatcontrolsindividualsubjectswho,outsidethesocialcontract,wouldharmoneanother.HobbeswasreactingtothecivilwarinBritain(1640),whichresultedinangrymobsbeheadingthekingattheTowerofLondon.Locke’sresponsecameinthelate1600s,atatimewhenpowerwasshiftingfrommonarchstoparliament,withincreasingseparationofthepowersoftheexecutive(theleader)andthelegislature.Consideredthearrivalofclassical liberalism,whatLockepromotedwasfreedomfromexcessivegovernmentinterferenceinthelivesofthecitizens.

At the end of his Second Treatise on Government, Lockecommentsthatindividuals,byenteringintothesocialcontract,transfertheirpowertosocietyandcanneverfullytakeitback,sinceunrestrainedindividualfreedom,orlawlessness,wouldundotheagreementholdingtogetherthecommonwealth.Thistransferofpowerfromthepeopletothegovernmentistemporary,however,untilitrevertstothepeoplewhoeitherdecidetokeepthesamegovernmentorselectanewone.Inwhatappearstoinstitutionalizerevolution,hecommentsthatmiscarriageofofficebythoseinauthorityleadstothelossofpower,“andthePeoplehaveaRighttoActasSupreme.”Thepowergrantedtothestateisstilldirectedtowardpreservingthesafetyandpropertyofthepeople.AccordingtoLocke,thecollectivepowerofthestate

“… can have no other end or measure, when in the hands of the Magistrate, but to preserve the member of that Society in their Lives, Liberties, and Possessions; and so cannot be an Absolute, Arbitrary Power over their Lives and Fortunes, which are as much as possible to be preserved; but a Power to make Laws, and annex such Penalties to them, as may tend to the preservation of the whole, but cutting off those Parts, and those only, which are so corrupt, that they threaten

Figure 17-5 John Locke’s ideas on the individual and the state influenced the government and constitution of the United States. The plaque above John Locke’s tomb in Essex, England, reads as follows: “In grateful memory of John Locke, 1632−1704, who lies buried here. His philosophy guided the founders of The United States of America. Erected by the American and British Commonwealth Association of the United States 1957.”

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the sound and healthy, without which no severity is lawful. And this Power has it Original only from Compact and Agreement, and the mutual Consent of those who make up the Community.”

liberal individualismLiberal individualismisalaterdevelopmentofliberalphilosophy,withthebalanceofpowershiftingmoredramaticallyawayfromthestate,makingtheindividualaveritablekingofhisorherownbodyandhome.InhisbookOn Liberty, the British philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)denouncesthethreatofthe“tyrannyofthemajority,”foundinPlato'swarningsaboutdemocracy.InMill’sopinion,stateinterferenceoftenrepresentstheoppressionofpeople.AccordingtoMill,peopleshouldbelefttodecidewhatisbestaslongastheydonoharmtoothers.HeexplainsthisbeliefinthefollowingexcerptfromOn Liberty.NoticehowMill’sformofliberalindividualismgoesfurtherthanLocke’sclassicalliberalisminreducingtheroleofthestate.

“That principle is that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him or visiting him with any evil in case he do otherwise. To justify that, the conduct from which it is desired to deter him must be calculated to produce evil to someone else. The only part of the conduct of anyone for which he is amenable to society is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.”

MilllivedduringtheEnlightenment—atimeofradicalandrevolutionaryintellectualthought,whichchallengedreligious,social,political,andeconomicideologies.Inhisinfluentialbook,Milloutlinesthedifferentaspectsofhumanfreedom,suchasfreedomofthoughtandexpression.Millbelieved,however,thatfreedomcanbesubjecttolimitationsorcensorshipifitincites“somemischievousact.”Inotherwords,apersonisnotfreetoinciteamobwiththeexpression

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ofopinionsthatsheorheisotherwisefreetohold.Freedomhastobebalanced by limitations, but the opportunities for people to pursue their freedomshouldbeaccessibletoeveryone.

“The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited: he must not make himself a nuisance to other people. But if he refrains from molesting others in what concerns them, and merely acts according to his own inclination and judgement in things which concern himself, the same reasons which show that opinion should be free prove also that he should be allowed, without molestation, to carry his opinions into practice at his own cost. …

As it is useful that while mankind are imperfect there should be different opinions, so it is that there should be different experiments of living; that free scope should be given to varieties of character, short of injury to others; and that the worth of different modes of life should be proved practically, when anyone thinks fit to try them. It is desirable, in short, that in things which do not primarily concern others that individuality should assert itself.”

mill and the Canadian Context

TheCanadianCharterofRightsandFreedoms reflectsMill’sphilosophy.It states that people’s rights,suchastherighttolife,liberty,andsecurityofthepersonandtherighttobesecureagainstunreasonablesearchorseizure,cannotbearbitrarilytakenaway.Theguaranteeoftheserightsissubjecttoreasonablelimits,however,especiallyiftheserightsare

inconsistentwiththerightsofothers,whichMillsimilarlyarguesinOn Liberty.Section 1 of the Charter reads as follows: “TheCanadianCharterofRightsandFreedomsguaranteestherightsandfreedoms set out in it subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free anddemocraticsociety.”Forexample,ifprotesterssetcarsandbuildingsonfireasawaytoexpresstheirdiscontentwiththegovernment,theycanbearrestedandhavetheirrightofexpressiontakenaway.Thecollectivesecurityofthecommunity becomes paramount and overridesanindividual’srighttofreedomofexpression.

The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our own good, in our own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it.

—John Stuart Mill

“

”Figure 17-6 The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees our rights. It provides security by stating that our rights will not be violated arbitrarily.

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libertarianismRobertNozick(1938–2002)goesfurtherthanMill,claimingthatpeople’sfreedomshouldberespectedforemost.Promotinglibertarianism, the beliefthatpeopleshouldbefreefromanygovernmentinterference,Nozickarguesthatindividualsshouldvoluntarilychoosetheireconomic,social,orintellectualpathways.Hebelievedthatpeopleshouldnotbecompelledtopaytaxesbutshouldbegiventhefreedomtodecidewhetherornottheywanttopaytaxes,sincetheyhaveearnedtheirownmoney.InhisbookAnarchy, State, and Utopia,Nozickmaintainsthatstateinterventionofourrightsshouldonlyarisewhencriminalsanctionsareneededforthesafetyandprotectionofapersonorproperty.

“Individuals have rights, there are things no person or group may do to them (without violating their rights). So strong and far-reaching are these rights that they raise the question of what, if anything, the state and its officials may do. How much room do individual rights leave for the state? … Our main conclusions about the state are that a minimal state, limited to the narrow functions of protection against force, theft, fraud, enforcement of contracts, and so on, is justified; that any more extensive state will violate persons’ rights to not be forced to do certain things, and is unjustified; and that the minimal state is inspiring as well as right. Two noteworthy implications are that the state may not use its coercive apparatus for the purpose of getting some citizens to aid others, or in order to prohibit activities to people for their own good or protection.”

response to liberalismLiberalphilosophersdefendtheindividual’sright—notthephilosopher-king’srightorthestate’sright—tomakeherorhisownchoicesastowhatisvirtuousandwhatconstitutesthegoodorhappylife.Thisethicoftheright,withitsfreedomforself-determination,isthefoundationofliberaldemocraciesinwhichmulticulturalcitizensareequallyprotectedunderthebannerofthesocialcontract.Allcitizenshave“liberty,equality,fraternity”—thesloganoftheFrenchRevolution.Somemightsay,however,thatthefocusontheindividualmakingrationalandself-interesteddecisionshasitsdrawbacks,sinceitpotentiallyunderminestraditionalordeeplyheldcommunityvalues.Forexample,stateinterventionintheformofenvironmentalprotectionlegislation,which establishes emission standards on cars to limit air pollution or prescribesrecyclingtoreducetheuseoflandfillsites,maybejustifiedinthecommoninterestsofprotectingbothpeopleandtheothercreatureswhoshareourworldwithus.

Figure 17-7 Robert Nozick criticized the concept of taxing the wealthy to support the less fortunate. He thought that it was unfair to take away the results of someone’s labour.

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CommunitarianismScottish philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre draws on the political philosophyofAristotle(384–322BCE),whichwasbasedontheontologicalviewofhumansassocialanimalslivingincommunities.Similarly,CharlesTaylorandIrisMarionYoungdrawonthephilosophiesofMartinHeideggerandLudwigWittgenstein,whichemphasizeourmembershipinhistorical,linguistic,andculturalcommunities,andevenourthrownnessfrombirthintothesecommunities.MichaelSandelandMichaelWaltzerfocusonparticularcommunitiesandtheiractualpractices and interactions with each other, rather than on the liberal philosopher’sisolatedindividualsbeingguidedbyrational,universalprinciples.Althoughthesephilosophersdonotrepresentanofficialschoolofthought,thenamecommunitarianismhasbeenattachedtothem.

Communitarianismbeganinthelate20thcenturyandarguedfortherightsofthecollective,orthecommunity,overthoseoftheindividual.Itaroseinresponsetoliberalism,whichadvocatedtherightsoftheindividualoverthecommunity.Communitariansbelievethatthevalueofthecommunityisnotsufficientlyrecognizedinliberaltheories.Considerhowthetwoschoolsofthoughtwouldcontemplatetheissueofrecycling.Liberalsmightarguethatitisthegovernment’sdutytoensurethatsocietyparticipatesinrecyclingprograms.Ifsomeonechoosesnottorecycle,however,thestateisnotexpectedtointerfereaslongasthechoicedoesnotdirectlyaffectothers.Communitariansmightrespondthatwhensomeonedoesnotrecycle,heorsheisharmingallmembersofsociety.Oneindividualwhodoesnotrecycleaddstothedepletionoftheenvironment,whichaffectsthehealthofall.Oneofthedominantthemesofcommunitarianismisthattherightsoftheindividualneedtobebalancedwithsocialresponsibilities;individualvaluesdonotexistinisolationbutareshapedbythevaluesandcultureofthecommunity.

Kwame gyekye’s Communitarianism

GhanaianphilosopherKwameGyekye(1939–)isamoderatecommunitarianwhodrawsonhisAfricanheritage,oraltradition,andAkanproverbstoinformhisperspectiveontherelationshipbetweentheindividualandthecommunity.AccordingtoGyekye,peoplearebornintoacommunityandhavearesponsibilitytowardothers.ThisideaisexpressedinthefollowingAkanproverb:“Apersonisnotapalmtreetosurvivealone.”Inotherwords,individualscanonlyfulfilltheirowngoalsandmaintainfreewillthroughtheirinteractionswithothersinsociety.Moderatecommunitariansseesocietyasacommunityofindividuals,asconveyedinanotherAkanproverb:“Onetreedoesnotmakeupaforest.”InPerson and Community: Ghanaian Philosophical Studies,Gyekyedescribeshisphilosophyandhowitbalancesindividualandcommunityrights.

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“It can be said that restricted or moderate communitarianism is a consistent and viable theory, one that is not opposed to individual rights, even though it may, for a reason to be stated presently, consciously and purposively give greater attention or care to other communal values of the community. The foregoing discussion then has, I hope, clearly shown the falsity of the view that communitarianism will have no or very little place for individual rights.

Having said all this, however, it must be granted that communitarianism cannot be expected to make a fetish of rights; thus rights talk will not be brought to the front burner of its concerns and preoccupations. The reason is not far to seek; it is derivable from the logic of the communitarian theory itself: it assumes an overwhelming concern for communal values, for the good of the wider society as such.”

Gyekye’sstanceexpresseshisbeliefthatacommunitysharesobligationsandvalues,andthatitsmembersareoftendeeplyinvolvedinpromotingcommunalinterests.Thisallowstheindividualtoexperiencepersonhoodonanindividuallevelbutunderstandsthatpersonhoodisinterconnectedwiththecommunity.Inthistypeofsociety,therightsoftheindividualarerealizedthroughinteractionswiththecommunity.

1. How has Mill’s philosophy influenced the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms? Can you think of a situation in which your rights were limited? Why was there a limitation?

2. How would Plato react to Mill’s statement about the right of an individual to express her or his opinion? Does this illustrate a difference between epistemologies: rationalism versus empiricism (see Unit 4)?

3. Do the quotations from Mill’s work support claims for alternative governance or self-jurisdiction on Aboriginal land?

4. From what you have learned in this section, how might Mill respond to Plato’s concept of a philosopher-king who uses his wisdom to govern and regulate the conduct of individuals through fixed codes of health or moral conduct? Reread the excerpt on page XX, and consider how it might apply to age restrictions or laws that prohibit smoking in public places.

Recognition of the value of humanity is intrinsically linked with recognition of the unity of all people, whether or not they are biologically related.

—Kwame Gyekye

“

”

Figure 17-8 The Akan people live on the west coast of Africa in Côte D’Ivoire and Ghana, the home of philosopher Kwame Gyekye.

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JuStiCE, FairnESS, and SoCiEty Justice is often associated with retributive justice: crime, punishment, and treatmentunderthelaw.However,itisalsoconcernedwithdistributive justice:thedistributionofgoodsandservices,orthereallocationofwealthandproperty,bythegovernment.Inbothforms,justicereferstofairness,asequalityorequityunderthelaw.Howshouldthegovernmentallocateitsresourcesforexpensessuchasmedicalcareandunemploymentinsurance?Shouldeveryonereceiveanequalamount?Shouldsomepeoplereceivedifferentialamountsduetotheirdisabilities?Thesequestionsforceustothinkabouttheapplicationofsocialandpoliticalphilosophytoourlife.Thedecisionsthatthegovernmentmakeswillultimatelyhaveimplicationsforourtaxes,ourservices,andoursocialwell-being.

views on distributive JusticeThe Nichomachean Ethics,writteninapproximately340BCEanddrawnfromAristotle’slectures,highlightstheideaofjusticebasedonmerit:“…thisisplainfromthefactthatawardsshouldbe‘accordingtomerit’;forallmenagreethatwhatisjustindistributionmustbeaccordingtomeritinsomesense…”Inotherwords,decidinghowtodistributegoodsandservicesdependsgreatlyonwhowedeemtodeserve.

Howdoesagovernmentdecidewhatisfairwhenitcomestothedistributionofitsresources?Undercommunism,aformofwelfarestate,theformulais“fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds.”Inaliberaldemocracy,welfareisdistributedaccordingtoadifferentprincipleofdistributivejustice.PhilosopherJohnRawls(1921–2002),aHarvardacademic,linksjusticetofairnessinhisseminalwork,A Theory of Justice.AccordingtoRawls,thefoundationofajustsocietybeginswiththeoriginalposition(rememberthe“veilofignorance”inChapter16).Ifyoucreatedrulesforequaldistributionwithoutknowingyourplaceinsociety,youwouldbeforcedtoconsidersocialandgovernmentalprogramsthatwouldmeettheneedsofvariousgroupsofcitizens.

“Thus we are to imagine that those who engage in social cooperation choose together, in one joint act, the principles which are to assign basic rights and duties and to determine the division of social benefits. Men are to decide in advance how they are to regulate their claims against one another and what is to be the foundation charter of their society. … In justice as fairness the original position of equality corresponds to the state of nature in the traditional theory of the social contract. This original position is not, of course, thought of as an actual historical state of affairs. … It is understood as a purely hypothetical situation characterized so as to lead to a certain conception of justice.

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Among the essential features of this situation is that no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does any one know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like. I shall even assume that the parties do not know their conceptions of the good or their special psychological propensities. The principles of justice are chosen behind a veil of ignorance. This ensures that no one is advantaged or disadvantaged in the choice of principles by the outcome of natural chance or the contingency of social circumstances.”

Rawlsbelievesinaffirmative action programsbecausetheyupholdthevaluesofequalopportunityandsocialwelfarebycompensatinggroupsofpeoplewhohavebeenhistoricallydisadvantaged.Anexampleofaffirmativeactionwouldbehiringmorefemalesorminoritiesinacompanyoraneconomicsector,tofixanimbalanceandcreatemorefairness.WouldourtreatiesandlandclaimshavebeendifferentifthosewhomadetherulesdidnotknowiftheywouldenduplivingontheFirstNationsreservestheycreated?

NotallphilosophersembraceRawls’sphilosophyofequalizationandaffirmativeaction.Theybelievethat,inafreeanddemocraticsociety,people should be rewarded for their merit based on their abilities or workethic,notontheirgender orrace.Accordingtothesephilosophers,affirmativeactionprogramsunderminepeople’sfreedomsbecausetheydenypeoplewithmeritfairopportunity.RobertNozick,Rawls’scontemporaryandaHarvardcolleague,advocatesthelibertarianviewthatredistributingwealthorgoodsthroughtaxestakesawaypeople’srightstoaccumulatetheirownproperty.

Figure 17-9 John Rawls dedicated his academic career to exploring the principles of liberty and fairness within social and political systems.

Ideally citizens are to think of themselves as if they were legislators and ask themselves what statutes, supported by what reasons satisfying the criterion of reciprocity, they would think is most reasonable to enact.

—John Rawls

Taxation of earnings from labor is on a par with forced labor. Seizing the results of someone’s labor is equivalent to seizing hours from him and directing him to carry on various activities.

—Robert Nozick

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1. Do you think the government violates individual rights by taxing people?

2. Imagine a city that has been affected by a recession. Several citizens have become homeless due to evictions, and welfare recipients are on the rise. How would Rawls and Nozick respond to this situation?

3. Do you think Nozick would defend or oppose the Mohawk warriors for taking a stand at Oka? Would he favour settling land claims if this involved the redistribution of either land or taxes?

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altErnativE pErSpECtivES on JuStiCE, Equality, and govErnanCEA discussion of social and political philosophy would not be complete withouttheperspectivesofpeoplewhodonotconsiderthemselvestobepartofthemajority,becausetheybelongtominoritygroupsandoftenfeelmarginalized.Theperspectivesofthesepeopleoftendiffergreatlyfromthestate’spoliticalphilosophy.Tothesepeople,stateinstitutionsmaysometimesseemimposingandexclusive,ratherthanrespectfulofdiversityofthought.Thismayleadmanygroupstocontemplatehowtheoriesofjusticeandsecurityarerelevant,and,iftheyarenot,howtheycanbemademoreinclusive.Differentpoliticalperspectivesongovernanceraisedeeptheoreticalquestionsabouttheindividual,thestate,andthecollectivewithrespecttoequality,justice,andrights.

multiculturalismCanadianphilosopherCharlesTaylor(1931–)isoftenconsideredtobeacommunitarian.InhisessayMulticulturalism: Politics of Recognition, hetacklessomeessentialquestions,includingthefollowing:Canademocraticsocietytreatallitsmembersasequalsandalsorecognizetheirspecificculturalidentities?Ispoliticalrecognitionofethnicityorgenderessentialtoaperson’sdignity?AccordingtoTaylor,itisessentialtohumanidentityforone’scommunitytoberecognizedbothpoliticallyandsocially.Taylorarguesthatcertainformsofliberalismareathreattothisrecognition.Ratherthanrecognizingplurality(theexistenceofmanydifferentgroupsinonesociety),theypromotehomogeneity(thequalityofbeingauniformculturewithoutdiversity).

In Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, Taylor considersthepoliticsofmulticulturalism.Hediscusseswhyequalrecognitionisessentialtoademocracy.Foragrouptoachievesocialandpoliticalacceptance,itsidentitymustberecognizedbythepoliticalsystemandrepresentedwithin.

“Equal recognition is not just the appropriate mode for a healthy democratic society. Its refusal can inflict damage on those who are denied it, according to a widespread modern view, as I indicated at the outset. The projection of an inferior or demeaning image on another can actually distort and oppress, to the extent that the image is internalized. Not only contemporary feminism but also race relations and discussions of multiculturalism are undergirded by the premise that the withholding of recognition can be a form of oppression. We may debate whether this factor has been exaggerated, but it is clear that the understanding of identity and authenticity has introduced a new

Figure 17-10 Multicultural events across Canada celebrate the country’s cultural diversity.DRAFT M

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dimension into the politics of equal recognition which now operates with something like its own notion of authenticity, at least so far as the denunciation of other induced distortions are concerned. …

With the move from honor to dignity has come politics of universalism, emphasizing the equal dignity of all citizens, and the content of this politics has been the equalization of rights and entitlements. What is to be avoided at all costs is the existence of first-class and second-class citizens… . People who are systematically handicapped by poverty from making the most of their citizenship rights are deemed on this view to have been relegated to second-class status, necessitating remedial action through equalization.”

First nations within multiculturalismOneofthecentralchallengeswhenaddressingtherightsofFirstNationspeoplesisdecidingwhethertheliberalprincipleofequalityunderthelawappliestothem,astheoriginalpeoples,andwhethertheyareentitledtothesamerightsthatmorerecentlyarrivedimmigrantshaveasmembersofCanadiansociety.AccordingtophilosopherWillKymlicka,thisinvolvesaddressingthedifferencebetweenthenational rights of the foundingpeoplesandthepolyethnic rightsofothergroupsthatconstituteourofficiallymulticulturalsociety.Thisalsoinvolvesaddressingthedifferencebetweenequalityandequity,thelatterconceptrecognizingthatfairnessmaynotalwaysbeservedbysameness.

taiaiake alfred: indigenous governance

Throughouthistory,indigenouspeopleshavebeenneglectedbypoliticalsystemsinmanypartsoftheworld.TaiaiakeAlfred(1964–)isaMohawkscholar,philosopher,andprofessorattheUniversityofVictoriainBritishColombia.HerepresentsthevoiceofAboriginalpeopleswithintheCanadiancontext.InWasase: Indigenous Pathways of Action and Freedom, Alfred calls for his people to resist colonial structures ofoppression.AlfredbelievesthattheyneedtoconfrontWesterncolonialismbyunitinginnon-violentactionsandbystrengtheningtraditionalcultures.Hebelievesthatchangewillnotinvolveasmallbandofrevolutionariesbutalarger,moreinvolvedpopulation.Toachievethischange,Alfredcallsfortheformationofasocio-politicalmovementgroundedinan“indigenouswarriorethic.”HechallengesindigenouspeoplestodefyWesterndominationintheircommunities,includinggoverningstructures.Alfredbelievesthattheycanonlyachieveemancipationthroughtheprinciplesandvaluesofindigenousgovernance,whichincluderespect,balance,andharmony.

Figure 17-11 Taiaiake Alfred attempts to express the nationhood of indigenous peoples (Onkwehonwe) as he defends their dignity, rights, and freedoms.

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“This is the political formula of the strategy of armed resistance: facing a situation of untenable politics, Onkwehonwe [the people] could conceivably move toward practicing a punishing kind of aggression, a raging resistance invoking hostile and irredentist negative political visions seeding to engender and escalate the conflict as to eventually demoralize the Settler society and defeat the colonial state. Contrast this with the strategic vision of nonviolent contention: Onkwehonwe face the untenable politics and unacceptable conditions in their communities and confront the situation with determined yet restrained action, coherent and creative contention supplemented with a positive political vision based on re-establishing the original covenants and ancient treaties that reflect the founding principles of the Onkwehonwe-Settler relationship.”

James tully: recognizing Complex Forms of diversity

JamesTully(1946–)isaCanadianpoliticalphilosopherand a winner oftheprestigiousTrudeauAwardforoutspokenCanadians.Tullyhasstudieddiversity,indigenouspeoples,andmulticulturalism.Hehaslectured,spoken,andwrittenonthestrugglesofindigenouspeoplesforself-determination,advocatingapartnershipbasedonequalityandnon-subordinationwithnon-indigenouspeoplesinNorthAmerica,Europe,andAustralia.Tullyexplainshistheoryon recognizing“complexformsofdiversity”incontemporarysocietyinhisbookStrange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity.

“Strange Multiplicity argues that a constitution should not be seen as a fixed set of rules but, rather, as an imperfect form of accommodation of the diverse members of a political association that is always open to negotiation by the members of the association. It should be seen as a form of activity, an intercultural dialogue in which the culturally diverse sovereign citizens of contemporary societies negotiate agreements on their forms of association over time in accordance with the three conventions of mutual recognition, consent and cultural continuity’. Contemporary political philosophy thus should be seen, as ensuring that citizens are free to call into question unjust forms of recognition, to enter into fair dialogues over their re-negotiation and so to work out their forms of association themselves over time.”

Will Kymlicka: Self-government rights

CanadianpoliticalphilosopherWillKymlickaistheCanadaResearchChairinPoliticalPhilosophyatQueen’sUniversityinKingston.HerecognizestheculturaldifferencesbetweentheCanadianmajority

Figure 17-12 In 2010, James Tully was awarded the Killam prize of $100 000 in recognition of his outstanding career and exceptional contributions to Canadian scholarship and public life.

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andtheAboriginalpeoplesandQuébécois,whohavedistinctvaluesandcustoms.SinceboththeAboriginalpeoplesandQuébécoishavehadtoovercomeobstacles,suchasthelossofhuntinggroundandthedilutionoftheFrenchlanguage,Kymlickaarguesthatprovidingthemwithdifferentialprotectionofrightsisalignedwiththeliberalviewsofequality.InLiberalism, Community and Culture,Kymlickapresentshisanalysis of community and culture within the school of liberalism, which hebelieves“containsabroaderaccountoftherelationshipbetweentheindividualandsociety—inparticular,ofthemembershipinacommunityandculture.”Kymlickarecognizesnational minorities in multination states asethno-culturalgroups,whichhedescribesasgroupsthathaveincommonsomeorallhistory,language,culture,community,orterritory.Thesegroupsmayhavebecomeaminorityinvoluntarilythroughconquestorcolonization.Kymlickaarguesthatifminorities,suchasindigenouspeoples,wanttoretaintheircultures,theyshouldberecognizedasdistinct.Thegrouprightsthatmaybeassociatedwithnationalminoritiesare self-government rights or special representation rights.

gender: Female voices on Social EqualityHowhaveoursystemsofknowledgeandoursocialinstitutionsinformedourunderstandingofgenderandjustice?Howdoissuesofgenderequalitybecomeissuesofhumanrights?Howareourpublicandprivatelivesinformedbygender?Thesearejustsomeofthequestionsthatareconsideredbyfeministphilosophersastheyreflectontheconceptofgender,itsimpositionsonwomenandmen,anditsrelationtohumanrightsandjustice.

Susan moller okin: Justice, gender, and the Family

Defined as a liberal feminist political philosopher, New-Zealand-born SusanMollerOkin(1946–2004)focusedmainlyontheexclusionofwomenfrommostWesternpoliticalthoughtthroughouthistory.Okin’scritiqueofmoderntheoriesofjusticeisthepremiseofherbookJustice, Gender and the Family,inwhichshearguesthatgenderislargelysociallyproduced.Inherbook,shepromotesthefeministidealofagender-freesociety—asocietyinwhichbasicrightsanddutiesarenotassignedbasedonone’sbiologicalsex.OkincriticizedJohnRawls’sbookA Theory of Justicebecausehis“originalposition”(seepagesxxxandxxx)doesnottakeintoaccounttheconceptoffamily.InRawls’s“originalposition,”rationalagents,eachrepresentinganindividualinsociety,aregatheredtogetherinanefforttoagreeonhowsocietyshouldbeordered.Eachagentisconcernedsolelywiththeinterestsofthepersonthatheorsherepresentsandmustnegotiatefrombehinda“veilofignorance.”Inour

No march, movement, or agenda that defines manhood in the narrowest terms and seeks to make women lesser partners in this quest for equality can be considered a positive step.

—Angela Davis

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society,however,womenarenotonlyresponsibleforthemselvesbutforthewell-beingoftheirchildrenandtheirhousehold.Therefore,accordingtoOkin,Rawls’s“originalposition”canonlyoccurinagender-freesociety.SheexplainshertheoryinJustice, Gender and the Family.

“We as a society pride ourselves on our democratic values. We don’t believe people should be constrained by innate differences from being able to achieve desired positions of influence or to improve their well-being; equality of opportunity is our professed aim. ...

Yet substantial inequalities between the sexes still exist in our society. ... Underlying and intertwined with all of these inequalities is the unequal distribution of the unpaid labour of the family.

An equal sharing between the sexes of family responsibilities, especially child care, is ‘the great revolution that has not happened.’... Certainly, the fact that women are doing more paid work does not imply that they are more equal. It is often said that we are living in a post feminist era. This claim ... is false. ... It is certainly not true that feminism has been vanquished, and equally untrue that it is no longer needed because its aims have been fulfilled. Until there is justice within the family, women will not be able to gain equality in politics, at work, or in any other sphere.”

iris marion young: the Five Faces of oppression

IrisMarionYoung(1949–2006)wasaprofessorofPoliticalScienceattheUniversityofChicago.ShechallengedtheliberalfeministviewheldbyOkinandothers.AccordingtoYoung,Liberalphilosophersfailtocapturefullythe“fivefacesofoppression,”whichshelistsasexploitation,marginalization,powerlessness,culturalimperialism,andviolence.Oppressedpeopleexperiencedifferingcombinationsandamountsofthesefivefacesofoppression,dependingontheirrace,socialclassandoccupation,age,sexualorientation,andgender.ShedescribeshertheoryinherbookFive Faces of Oppression.

“Liberalism has traditionally asserted the right of all rational autonomous agents to equal citizenship. Early bourgeois liberalism [see Mill above] explicitly excluded from citizenship all those whose reason was questionable or not fully developed, and those not independent. ... Thus poor people, women, the mad and feebleminded, and children were explicitly excluded from citizenship, and many of these were housed in institutions modelled on the modern prison: poorhouses, insane asylums, schools.”

Figure 17-13 Susan Moller Okin critiqued modern theories of justice because she believed that they are written from a male perspective.

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InYoung’sview,Liberalphilosophersmisinterpretoppressionbyconceivingofpowerprimarilyasaresourcethatcanbedistributedequally,likeothergoodsinsociety.AccordingtoOkin,forexample,injusticestemsfromthefactthatpowerisunequallydistributedamongmenandwomeninthefamily,duetotraditionalgenderroles.Youngfindstwoproblemswiththismodel.First,ittreatspowerlikeatangible,staticthingthatcanbedivided.DrawingonFrenchphilosopherMichelFoucault(whoarguedthataftertheEnlightenment,sovereignpowernolongerresidedinpersonsorinstitutionsbutwassomethingalwaysflowingandreversingwithinvariousinterchangeablepower relations),Youngreconfigurespowerassomethingdynamicallyexchangedthroughasymmetricalrelationshipsof,andresistanceto,dominationandoppression.Youngexplainsthisasfollows,inherbookFive Faces of Oppression:

“I have proposed an enabling conception of justice. Justice should refer not only to distribution, but also to the institutional conditions necessary for the development and exercise of individual capacities and collective communication and cooperation. Under this conception of justice, injustice refers primarily to two forms of disabling constraints, oppression and domination. While these constraints include distributive patterns, they also involve matters which cannot easily be assimilated to the logic of distribution: decisionmaking procedures, division of labor, and culture.”

Figure 17-14 Iris Marion Young was a feminist political philosopher who drew from the works of Michel Foucault and Martin Heidegger, among others.

1. Reread the excerpt from Charles Taylor’s book Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition.

a) Explain his philosophy of identity recognition.

b) How has Taylor made connections between multiculturalism and politics?

c) How could Taylor’s perspective be applied to First Nations peoples and their struggle for recognition of their rights?

2. Reread James Tully’s quotation on page xxx, and explain his theory on recognizing complex forms of diversity.

3. How is Okin critical of Rawls’s theory of justice in relation to women and equality in society?

4. How is Young’s feminist philosophy different from Okin’s?

5. How has Young’s philosophy been influenced by the ideas of Michel Foucault?

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rESponSibilitiES oF tHE CitizEn and tHE StatEInadditiontoexpectingcertainentitlements, orrights,citizensmayreasonablyexpectresponsibilities stemmingfrom their membership insociety.Withinthestateorcommunity,citizensarebothprotectedbythelawandexpectedtoupholdthelaw.GoingbacktoPlatoandAristotle,philosophershavedistinguishedbetweentwokindsoflaw:ruleswrittenbyhumanstogoverntheirconduct(oftenreferredtoas positive law)andunwrittencommandsthatcomefromnatureorGod(referredtoasnatural law).ForPlato,reasonisthetoolthatguideshumansonthepathtonaturaloruniversallaw.Mostclassicalphilosophersandreligiousthinkers,suchasThomasAquinas,foundedpositivelawonthehigher,naturallaw.Theysawjusticeasacorrelationbetweenhumananddivineorder,givingusabasisfordesigningformsofretributivejustice, orpunishmentforbreakingthelaw.Forexample,wehavepositivelawsthatassignprisonsentencesand,insomesocieties,corporal or capital punishment for those who commit murder (because murderviolatesthenaturallaworcommandment“thoushaltnotkill”).Manycontemporaryphilosophersareinclinedtoseepositivelawashumanconventions,liketherulesofagame.

Figure 17-15 This painting illustrates one of Plato’s dialogues, the Crito, where Crito visits Socrates in prison and they discuss the law and the citizen’s responsibility to uphold it. An excerpt from that dialogue is explored in the following feature.

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Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7Duties of the Citizen

Plato

In the following excerpt from one of Plato’s dialogues, the Crito, Plato explores the duties of the citizen and the state. Crito is one of Socrates’ oldest friends. In this excerpt, he has offered Socrates a chance to escape from his prison cell after being condemned to die for not honouring the city’s gods and corrupting its youth. Socrates refuses Crito’s help. They sit together in the prison cell, discussing justice, the obligations of the citizen, and the responsibilities of and to the state, as though the laws themselves were also speaking.

Socrates: Do the laws speak truly, or do they not?

Crito: I think that they do.

Socrates: Then the laws will say: ‘Consider, Socrates, if we are speaking truly that in your present attempt you are going to do us an injury. For, having brought you into the world, and nurtured and educated you, and given you and every other citizen a share in every good which we had to give, we further proclaim to any Athenian by the liberty which we allow him, that if he does not like us when he has become of age and has seen the ways of the city, and made our acquaintance, he may go where he pleases and take his goods with him. None of us laws will forbid him or interfere with him. Anyone who does not like us and the city, and who wants to emigrate to a colony or to any other city, may go where he likes, retaining his property. But he who has experience of the manner in which we order justice and administer the state, and still remains, has entered into an implied contract that he will do as we command him. And he who disobeys us is, as we maintain, thrice wrong; first, because in disobeying us he is disobeying his parents; secondly, because we are the authors of his education; thirdly, because he has made an agreement with us that he will duly obey our commands; and he neither obeys them nor convinces us that our commands are unjust; and we do not rudely impose them, but give him the alternative of obeying or convincing us. …

Thomas Hobbes

The theme of civic duty to the state is addressed by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) in his book Leviathan, where he outlines the agreements that form the social contract.

A Common-wealth is said to be Instituted, when a Multitude of Men do Agree, and Covenant, every one, with every one, that to whatsoever Man, or Assembly of Men, shall be given by the major part, the Right to Present the Person of them all, (that is to say, to be their Representative;) every one, as well he that Voted for it, as he that Voted against it, shall Authorise all of the Actions and Judgements, of that Man, or Assembly of men, in the same manner, as if they were his own, to the end, to live peaceably amongst themselves, and be protected against other men.

To this day, when serving on the executive of an organization or in the cabinet of a ruling party that has formed the government, each member is expected to uphold and defend the decisions of the group, even though there may have been individual differences during any previous discussion. For Hobbes, there are also natural laws that do not need to be published, such as the divine rule to treat others as one would like to be treated oneself.

John Calvin

For a devoted Christian like John Calvin (1509–1564), who broke with the Catholic Church in 1530 to join the Protestant reformation, it would be a mistake to think only of salvation in heaven and not to consider questions of political philosophy. He saw the establishment of good governance here on Earth as our duty. Calvin explains this concept in On God and Political Duty.

Having already stated that man is the subject of two kinds of government, and having sufficiently discussed that which is situated in the soul, or the inner man, and relates to eternal life—we are …

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Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7to say something of the other kind which relates to civil justice and the regulation of the external conduct.

For if it be his [God's] pleasure to appoint kings over kingdoms, and senators or other magistrates over free cities, it is our duty to be obedient to any governors whom God has established over the places in which we reside.

David Hume

Alternately, one could see the role of the citizen as entering into critical deliberation and dialogue to promote the common good. As previously noted, Socrates was such an outspoken citizen. Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1777) felt that it was important for citizens to advocate for the preservation of a free press, since freedom of speech is what protects us from tyranny. The press has the power to motivate and guide the public spirit. This is explained in David Hume’s Political Essays.

The spirit of the people must frequently be roused in order to curb the ambition of the court [the king’s inner circle], and the dread of rousing this spirit must be employed to prevent that ambition. Nothing so effectual to this purpose as the liberty of the press, by which all the learning, wit, and genius of the nation may be employed on the side of freedom and everyone be animated to its defence.



The excerpts in this feature were written by different philosophers at different times in history. Make a table that outlines what each of these philosophers said about the duty of the citizen, and identify any similarities or differences.

Figure 17-16 Cartoonist Bill Waterson writes a comic strip series called Calvin and Hobbes. The central characters are a six-year-old boy and his stuffed toy tiger, named after John Calvin and Thomas Hobbes. Look up some of the more political and philosophical cartoons that Waterson has written.

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CHaptEr SummaryAfterreadingsomeoftheviewsonpoliticalphilosophy,itmightbetemptingtothrowupyourhandsandconcludethattherearenoanswers.However,itisimportantthatwecontinuetodiscusstheidealgovernment,theroleoftheindividualandthestate,andthetopicofjusticeinthecontextofrightsandresponsibilities.Westartedthischapterwithaconflictoverlandclaims.Didthestatehaveadutytoprotectthepropertyrightsofrecentinvestorsanddevelopers,ordidtheindigenousMohawkshaveasuperiorclaimthattrumpedthoserights,perhapsgroundedintheirownformofnaturallaw,ifnotthatofLockeandotherclassicalliberalthinkers?Yourgoalinthischapterhasbeentothinkmoredeeplyaboutissuesofpoliticalphilosophy,appreciatingthediversityofperspectivesthathavebeendevelopedovertime.


Having sampled the views of several philosophers, what is your opinion about the responsibilities of citizens to the state? Create a list of civic duties, and compare your list with those of other students in your class.

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Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7Knowledge and understanding/thinking

1. Createagraphicorganizerliketheonebelow.Listthekeyphilosophersandtheirconcepts,andanalyzetheirstrengthsandweaknesses.

2.Useatabletoorganizethequotationsofphilosophersthathavebeenpresentedinthischapter.Inyourtable,showhowthesephilosophersmay be compared and contrasted on one of the central issues of political philosophy, such as the ideal state and ruler, the importance oftheindividualversusthestate,orrightsandresponsibilities.

3.Definecommunitarianisminyourownwords.RereadtheexcerptfromKwameGyekye’sbookPerson and Community: Ghanaian Philosophical Studies onpageXX.WhatisGyekyesayingabouttheroleoftheindividualinmoderatecommunitarianism?

thinking/Communication

4.Provideanexampleofboththeliberalviewandthecommunitarianviewofacurrentsocialissue.

5.Considertheworldyouliveintoday,withitsissuesofenvironmentaldegradation,privacyandInternetuse,worldwideterrorism,andbusinesswrongdoing.Howapplicablearetheconceptsofthephilosopher-kingandthestateasdivineonEarthforaddressingthesecurrentissues?

6. InwhatwaysaretherightsofminoritiesaccommodatedinCanada’sdemocraticandmulticulturalsystemofgovernment?Withwhichpoliticalphilosophiesdoesoursystemappeartobealigned?

7. HowwouldRawlsandNozickdirectthegovernment’spoliciesandactionsonissuessuchasspendingonnationaldefenceandjoiningtradeagreementsthatmayimpactjobsandthepriceswepayforgoods?


Key Philosophers

Background (where applicable) Concepts Strengths Weaknesses

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Unit 1Unit 2Unit 3Unit 4Unit 5Unit 6Unit 7 Communication/application

8. InarecentarticleintheGlobe and Mail, Charles Taylor wrote about unitywithincommunities.

“Solidarity is essential to democratic societies; otherwise, they fallapart.Theycannotfunctionbeyondacertainlevelofmutualdistrust or a sense on the part of some members that other membershaveabandonedthem.Manyviewthedevelopmentofanindividualisticoutlookasthegreatestthreattosolidarity.Butthisiscloselylinkedtoadiminishingsenseofcommonidentity.”

—Charles Taylor, All for one, and one for all, September 29, 2010

Reflectonthiscomment,usingspecificexamplesfromyourcommunityoranothercommunity.

9. Developapoliticalcartoonthatisbasedontheideasofoneofthephilosophers discussed in this chapter or that connects philosophical ideastopoliticsthroughcurrentevents.(Figure18-3inthenextchapterisagoodexample.)Besuretomakeyourcartoonacceptablefor community standards of decency, so it does not cause undue harm toothers.

10. Conduct a four corners debateonthefollowingproposition:Be it resolved that the House will decide how to best distribute the goods and services needed for society, and will grant only those rights and freedoms deemed to be in the common interest, or for the general benefit, of the people.

Divideyourselvesintofourgroups.Haveeachgroupassumetheroleofoneofthepoliticalphilosopherscoveredinthischapter(Plato,Mill,Nozick,Rawls,Okin,orYoung)todebatetheproposition.Drawontheprimarydocumentsinthischapter,orconductyourownresearch.

Beforethedebateopens,assembleyourgroupinoneofthefourcornersoftheroom.Duringthedebate,trytoincludeasmanyvoicesaspossiblebyrotatingspeakerswithinyourgroup.Oneormorestudentsmayplaytheroleofmoderator,orSpeakeroftheHouse,helpingtoensurethatthereisanexchangeofideasbetweenallfourcorners.


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key terms chapter expectations material - … terms affirmative action classical liberalism...

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