Further information

Books and References

Mushrooms. Roger Phillips (2006). Macmillan.

Excellent photographs and descriptions including many

species from pinewoods and other habitats.

Fungi. Roy Watling and Stephen Ward (2003).

Naturally Scottish Series. Scottish Natural Heritage,

Battleby, Perth. Good introduction to fungi in Scotland.

Fungi. Brian Spooner and Peter Roberts (2005).

New Naturalist Series. HarperCollins, London. Very

readable account of fungal ecology.

Recommended English names for fungi in the UK.

Elizabeth Holden (2003). Plantlife International.

Available from the publications page of the Plantlife

website (see below) NB this is an ongoing project with

updates on the BMS website (see below).

Checklist of the British and Irish Basidiomycota. N.W.

Legon and A. Henrici (2005) Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Information and advicewww.britmycolsoc.org The British Mycological Society

website has information on local recording groups, forays,

workshops and all things mycological

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/scottish_fi eld_mycology/

summary A discussion group for those with an interest in

fi eld mycology. Join through this link.

Advice and SupportPlantlife Scotland can help you in your quest

for information and support.

Plantlife Scotland, Balallan House,

Allan Park, Stirling, FK8 2QG

Tel: +44 (0) 1786 478509 www.plantlife.org.uk

Scotland@plantlife.org.uk

© March 2010 ISBN 978-1-907141-21-8

Plantlife Scotland is part of Plantlife International – the Wild Plant

Conservation charity, a charitable company limited by guarantee.

Registered in Scotland (SC038951) and in England and Wales

(1059559). Registered company no 3166339.

This guide has been written and illustrated for Plantlife

Scotland by Liz Holden, Field Mycologist.

All photos © Liz Holden, unless otherwise stated.

Growth form. Fungi come in many different shapes and sizes.

In this fi eld guide most species are the classic toadstool shape

with a cap and stem but also included are some that grow out of

wood like small shelves or brackets and others that have a coral-

like shape. Take note of whether the fungus is growing alone,

trooping or in a cluster.

Cap shape and texture. Fungal caps come in many shapes and

sizes, and can change as the fruit body matures. Some caps have

a distinct hump in the centre, which can be rounded or rather

acute; this is called the umbo and caps that have an umbo are

called umbonate. Cap surface texture can also be variable, for

instance smooth, fi brous, scaly or glutinous/sticky.

Below the cap. This is where the spores are developed and

released. The minute structures that produce the spores cover

the outside of either gills or teeth or the inside of hollow tubes.

Gill attachment. This is best seen if you can cut the fruit body

in half top to bottom and then look closely at how the gills are

attached to the stem. They can be free (not attached to the

stem), adnexed (narrowly attached), adnate (broadly attached,),

emarginate (becoming much shallower before reaching the

attachment point) or decurrent (broadly attached and extending

down the stem).

Rings, veils and cortinas. These structures either link the edge

of the cap to the stem or completely enclose both stem and

cap when the fungus is young. Their purpose is to protect the

developing spores and as the fungus expands they are broken

so that the spores can escape. They can be membranous or

cobwebby (cortina) and their remains form rings on the stem,

spots on the cap and sometimes leave fi bres on both the cap

edge and the stem – the presence or absence of these features

are important clues in identifying fungi.

Fruit body colours. The different parts of the fruit body can

be differently coloured and it is also important to remember

that the caps sometimes change colour completely or as they

dry out. Making notes or taking photographs can help you

remember what they looked like when fresh. In some fungi the

fl esh changes colour when it is damaged. Try cutting the fungus

in half or bruising the fl esh – keep an eye on what happens over

the next few minutes. Other fungi produce a milk like fl uid where

damaged. This comes in a range of colours and sometimes

changes from white to its fi nal colour.

Striations. These are radial lines that are sometimes visible

in the cap. Sometimes they are just at the cap margin and

sometimes they extend to the centre of the cap. They refl ect

the point where the top of the gills attach to the cap but,

be warned, they often disappear as the fungus dries out so

making a note as you collect can be very helpful.

Smells. Some fungi are characterised by interesting smells

including coconut, curry, garlic, fresh meal, stewed apple,

honey and coal gas. Interestingly not everybody can detect

fungal smells – check out your ‘nose’ by gently rubbing the

stem or gills, particularly the base of the stem, and having

a sniff!

Spore colour. Individual spores can only be seen with

a microscope but if you make a simple spore print, the

thousands of spores together show a range of colours that form

the basis of fungal identifi cation in many books. Cut off a cap

and place it fl at on a piece of glass or Perspex (paper works

well but you need black and white as some fungal spores are

white). Put a drop of water on top of the cap and then cover

with a glass for a couple of hours or overnight. Do not leave it

any longer as you may fi nd some unwelcome guests (larvae of

the fungus gnat) trying to leave.

Key features for the identifi cation

of the fungi in this guide

Calocera viscosa Yellow Stagshorn. This bright yellow

coral-like fungus (growing up to 10cm high) is usually

seen growing from conifer stumps and logs. It is often

still visible in the winter months and is capable of

continuing to release spores even after it has been

frozen. The texture is tough but somewhat gelatinous.

Spores white.

Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca False Chanterelle. Cap

max. 8cm. and slightly funnel shaped. Bright orange

colours and decurrent gills sometimes get this fungus

confused with Cantharellus cibarius, the Chanterelle.

True Chanterelles are egg yolk yellow throughout

and have thick gill like structures that are technically

wrinkles! Spores of both species are white to pale

yellow.

Hypholoma marginatum Snakeskin Brownie. Cap

max. 3cm. These small fungi often form large troops

on conifer debris. The orange brown caps contrast

with the white veil remains on the stem, which often

forms a snakeskin pattern along its length. Spore print

purplish brown.

Pholiota fl ammans Flaming Scalycap. Cap max.

8cm. This spectacular fungus grows singly or in

tufts on rotten pine logs and stumps. Chrome

yellow throughout, the cap and stem are covered in

upturned yellow scales, which gives it a rather fl eecy

appearance. There is a yellow, cottony ring on the

stem. Spore print rust brown.

Pleurocybella porrigens Angel’s Wings. Growing in

large clustered groups from fallen trunks in humid

woodlands, this fungus is attached to the wood

without an obvious stem. Individual caps can reach

10cm. The texture is not woody however and the

underside supports white, decurrent gills. Rarely

recorded outside Scotland, the spore print is white.

Tapinella atrotomentosa Velvet Rollrim. Cap max.

20cm. This chunky species grows on rotten wood. It

has a large mid brown, velvety cap with an inrolled

margin and the stem is often short and set to one

side. The stem is also covered in dark brown dense

velvet. The gills are pale brown, decurrent and can

easily be scraped from the cap fl esh with a thumbnail

or blade. Spore print sienna brown.

Trichaptum abietinum Purplepore Bracket. Fruiting

on dead standing and fallen pinewood, this fungus

produces often overlapping tiers of small, tough caps

(max. 3cm). The caps are thin, brown grey and hairy,

with a pale edge. Underneath the cap the pores are

large and often run into each other; when fresh they

are a lilac purple colour. Spore print white.

Tricholomopsis rutilans Plums and Custard. Cap

max. 15cm. Often on buried wood and so appearing to

grow from the soil. Purple brown fi bres on the yellow

fl esh of the cap give rise to the ‘plums’. The ’custard’

is the bright yellow of the gills – despite the name

this fungus is not recommended for eating. The stem

also has purple brown fi bres but no veil remains. Spore

print white.

Phaeolus schweinitzii Dyer’s Mazegill. When young,

the fruit body is covered in lemon yellow velvet. This

can be bruised dark red brown and, as the fruit body

matures, the yellow becomes restricted to the cap

edge until eventually it becomes dark red brown

entirely. A parasite on tree roots this fungus usually

fruits in the soil around the tree involved; the mature

fruit bodies often form large plate like discs with a

rudimentary ± central stem beneath. The pores are

slot-like and create a labyrinthine pattern beneath

the cap.

Sparassis crispa Wood Caulifl ower. This very distinct

fungus fruits at the bottom of trees. It is composed

of numerous pale brown to buff coloured, undulating

lobes, which are very popular as a food source for

invertebrates and mammals including deer and

squirrels.

Saprotrophic recycler fungi ...continued

Parasitic fungi

Fungi of Scottish Pinewoods Guide 1: Widespread and common fungi of pinewoods

Strongly umbonate cap Teeth beneath the cap Fragile ring of Cortinarius caperatus

A cobwebby veil or cortina A striate cap Spore prints on paper

© B

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British Lichen Society

Introduction

This Plantlife fi eld guide is for anyone interested

in identifying some of the more distinctive fungi

of pinewoods, using features that can be assessed

without a microscope. It looks at some of the most

commonly encountered species in both ancient

native and younger plantation pine woodland. Some

of these species will also occasionally occur in

other habitats. Any references to distribution apply

only to distribution within the UK and do not take

account of a species occurrence in other countries. A

companion guide (Guide 2) looks at some of the rarer

fruiting fungi usually associated with ancient native

pinewoods.

What are pinewoods?

Scotland’s native pinewoods are found on the poor

and infertile soils of the central and north eastern

Grampians and the north and west Highlands. They

are thought to be the relicts of an ancient forest

dominated by pine (Pinus sylvestris) that was far

more extensive in prehistoric times. The remaining

woodland certainly represents ecosystem continuity

but management for timber, grazing and sporting

interests has meant that many woods are no longer

naturally regenerating and few contain bulky dead

wood elements, standing or fallen. Much of the

pinewood cover remaining in Scotland takes the form

of plantation stands. These can be very rewarding

places to hunt for fungi although they often do not

contain the rarer pine associating species.

A word about names

The scientifi c names used in this guide are

internationally recognized names for each species

(Legon & Henrici 2005). The fi rst part of the name

refers to the genus - a group of closely related fungi.

The second part refers to the species - which identifi es

fungi with recognisable differences within the genus.

The English names used include those few vernacular

names that exist in British culture and also new names

generated by the Recommended English Names for

Fungi in the UK project, 2003.

What is a fungus?

Not quite animals and certainly not plants, these

fascinating organisms are members of one of the

largest kingdoms on the planet: the fungi - essential

to the health of all ecological systems and without

which over 85% of our higher plants and trees would

not survive.

The parts of a fungus that we see above ground are

the spore producing structures, (the ‘fruit bodies’)

of a much larger organism that is mostly hidden

from sight and composed of a branching network

of fi lamentous cells. This underground network,

(the ‘mycelium’) enables fungi to acquire nutrients

amongst plant litter and wood and, for some species,

to link up with the roots of living trees in a symbiotic

‘mycorrhizal’ relationship wherein both partners gain

nutrients.

Fungal communities

Many fungi are microscopic in size but although

micro fungi are equally important in ecological terms,

this guide will only deal with the macro fungi - those

species whose fruit bodies are easily visible to the

naked eye. The spore-shooting ‘ascomycetes’ which

often form cup, disc or morel shaped fruit bodies have

also been excluded.

Fungi cannot photosynthesise as higher and lower

plants do, so their energy does not come directly from

the sun. Thus the macro fungi of pinewoods can be

divided into three broad ecological groupings based on

the way that they obtain their food.

Symbiotic exchanger fungi – these species work

in partnership with another organism to the benefi t

of both. A well-known example of this is the lichens,

which represent a partnership between a fungus and

various algae or cyanobacteria. Less well known but of

crucial importance to over 85% of the planet’s plants

and trees, including pine, is the intimate relationship

between mycorrhizal ‘exchanger’ fungi and the roots

of their partner trees. The mycelia of these species

are linked into the pine’s root system allowing an

exchange of nutrients to fl ow between the two. The

fruit bodies appear close to trees but grow from a

mycelium hidden in the soil. The fungus will scavenge

nutrients from the surrounding soil (particularly

important in infertile soils such as those preferred

by pine) and make them available to their partner. In

return the tree will supply sugars and carbohydrates to

the fungus.

Saprotrophic recycler fungi – these species break

down much of the already dead plant material found

in all habitats and release nutrients from this process

back into the soil. The breakdown of dead wood is

principally undertaken by specialised fungi that can

cope with the decay resistant conditions presented

by wood including the presence of lignin and assorted

oils, resins and tannins. With very little dead wood,

particularly from large mature trunks, in any of our

woodlands, the wood rotting fungal community

in our pine woods is limited when compared

with, for example, some Eastern European woods.

Smaller items of litter can be decayed by a range of

saprotrophic organisms but in pinewoods the soil is

rather acidic, and invertebrates and bacteria struggle

to function: some fungi have become specially

adapted to function in these conditions, breaking

down needles and twigs under the pine.

Parasitic fungi – many parasitic fungi kill only a

few of their host’s cells and the host itself is not

killed. Others can cause the death of trees and in the

pinewood there are several fungi that can enter the

tree through the root system and cause ‘butt rots’

low down in the trunk of otherwise healthy trees.

This is a perfectly normal part of life in the wild wood

with glades being opened up as trees topple; not

surprisingly unwelcome in commercial plantations.

Finding fungi

First and foremost, always follow the Scottish Wild

Mushroom Code (see right).

The most exciting time to visit the wood for

macrofungi is the late summer and autumn. Fungi

generally fruit a few days after heavy rain and foraying

during a hot, dry spell is unlikely to be very productive.

Greaseproof or waxed paper, plastic boxes, an old

knife, a hand lens, notebook and pencil are important

tools to take with you. The species illustrated in this

leafl et are by no means a comprehensive list of what

you might fi nd in the pinewoods and further texts are

suggested at the end.

It will be necessary to collect some specimens to look

at closely for identifi cation and to establish the spore

colour but never take more than you need; it may not

even be necessary to take a whole fruit body. Only

collect fungi in good condition - sometimes it is useful

to collect a young fruit body as well as one that is

more mature to check whether or not a veil is present.

Lift the fruit body from the very bottom of the

stem using an old knife; there can be important

identifi cation features associated with the stem

base. Place it in a twist of greaseproof paper or an

empty plastic container - never use plastic bags to

collect the fungi in as they rapidly break up into an

unrecognisable ‘soup’ in the bottom of the bag!

Make notes about what trees were close to your

fungus as well as what it was growing in; needle litter,

fallen branch, stump, soil etc. Recording any smells

or colour changes in the fl esh of the fungus, whether

it was growing by itself or as a cluster, is all useful

information that will help you with your identifi cation.

Please note that this guide is not intended to aid

identifi cation of edible species. Always consult a

comprehensive guide or seek expert advice before

eating any fungi. Foraying with a local expert or

fungus recording group will be of enormous help in

getting you started.

Boletus badius Bay Bolete. Cap max. 13cm. The top

of the cap is a rich brown and beneath it, the tubes

have lemon yellow pores that are closely packed

together. A fi nger pressed onto them will immediately

cause a blue/grey bruise to appear. The stem is

generally not swollen and is a similar colour to the

cap, with longitudinal fi bres. Spore print yellow brown.

Chroogomphus rutilus Copper Spike. Cap max. 12cm.

The habitat, copper brown colours, decurrent gills

and dark brown to black spore print characterise this

fungus. The cap is usually umbonate and the gills are

dark coloured even in the young fungus and a cottony

veil leaves irregular patches on the stem. Commonly

recorded in Scotland, this species is less frequent

elsewhere in the UK.

Cortinarius semisanguineus Surprise Webcap. Cap

max. 8cm.The cap and stem are yellow brown whilst

the surprise is the striking blood red colour of the

adnate gills beneath the cap. The Webcaps have a

cobwebby veil called a cortina; which links the edge

of the cap with the stem in young fruit bodies.. The

cap of this species is usually umbonate and the stem

often has pinkish tones at the base. Spore print rust

brown.

Lactarius rufus Rufous Milkcap. Cap max.10cm.The

cap is a rich red brown, dry and felty and often has a

central depression with a small umbo in the centre.

Like all the members of the genus Lactarius, if you

break the fl esh a milky latex will appear. The milk

of this fungus is white and a drop on the tongue will

become very hot in about one minute. Spore print

cream white.

Russula caerulea Humpback Brittlegill. Cap max.

10cm. The dark wine red cap with a distinct umbo or

hump in the centre contrasts with the white stem and

cream gills. Like most members of this genus, the gills

and fl esh have a ‘crumbly’ feel between the fi ngers.

Spore print ochre. Commonly recorded in Scotland,

this species is less frequent elsewhere in the UK.

Russula emetica Sickener. Cap max. 10cm. There is

a dramatic colour contrast between the bright scarlet

cap and the white gills and stem. The fruit body is

rather fragile and some people can detect a faint

fruity smell (coconut) on this fungus. Spore print

white.

Russula sardonia Primrose Brittlegill. Cap max.

10cm.The purple colour of the cap contrasts with the

primrose yellow of the gills. The stem is also fl ushed

with purple and is fi rm to touch. A drop of household

ammonia on the gills will slowly go bright pink

(always follow the safety instructions on the bottle

when using chemical solutions). Very hot to taste.

Spore print cream.

Suillus bovinus Bovine Bolete. Cap max. 10cm. Said

to be the colour of Jersey cows, the cap of this fungus

has tubes with large yellowish angular pores beneath.

The cap is very sticky to touch in wet weather. There

are no fi brous or membranous veil remains on the

stem. Spore print dull brown.

Suillus luteus Slippery Jack. Cap max. 12cm. As

the name suggests, in damp weather this fungus

is dripping with slime! When dry, the cap looks

shiny and is a distinctive crimson brown. The pores

of the tubes beneath it are yellow. There is a wide,

membranous ring on the stem of mature fruit bodies –

the remains of a white (with purple-brown tinges) veil.

Particularly above the ring, the stem is covered by

small glandular dots. Spore print clay brown.

Auriscalpium vulgare Earpick Fungus. Cap max. 2cm.

This unmistakeable rather tough little species grows

on buried, fallen pinecones. It has a dark brown hairy

stem, which is often set to the side of the cap. The cap

itself is rather kidney-shaped and also dark brown and

hairy and the spores are borne on lots of little grey

brown teeth hanging beneath it. Spore print white

Symbiotic exchanger fungi (Colours refer to the surface tissues unless otherwise specifi ed)

Saprotrophic recycler fungi

© M

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© B

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© D

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© M

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The Scottish Wild Mushroom Code

The countryside is a working landscape. Please be

aware of your own safety and follow the Scottish

Outdoor Access Code. In accordance with this code

and as a matter of courtesy you are advised to make

contact with the land manager before you collect

mushrooms.

By respecting the natural environment you can help

to manage and conserve the countryside. When

collecting mushrooms for any purpose, please

consider the following points:

What to collect

• Wildlife, especially insects, need mushrooms too, so

only collect what you will use.• Some mushrooms are poisonous and others rare

and should not be collected – only collect what you

know and take a fi eld guide with you to identify

mushrooms where you fi nd them.

• Some species are vulnerable, so please consider

whether there is an alternative species that is more

common that might suit your purpose.

How to collect

• Allow mushrooms to release spores, do not pick

mushrooms until the cap has opened out and leave

those that are past their best.

• The main part of the mushroom is below the

surface, take care not to damage or trample it, and

not to disturb its surroundings.

• Scatter trimmings discreetly in the same area as the

mushrooms came from.

Where to collect

• Before you collect mushrooms at a nature reserve

please always seek advice from the manager, as

special conditions may apply.

• Plantation woodlands are less vulnerable than semi-

natural woodlands; please carefully consider where

you are planning to collect.

If you own or manage land:

• Mushrooms are a critical part of the natural cycle in

grassland and woodlands; if these are compromised

all elements of the ecosystem will be affected. Be

aware that your management activities may affect

mushrooms.

If you wish to run a foray or collect for scientifi c

purposes remember to:

• Ensure the safety of your party; make contact with

the land manager in advance of your visit.

• Give a record of what you have found to the land

manager and explain the signifi cance of your

fi ndings.

This code was created by the Scottish Wild Mushroom

Forum, a group consisting of representatives of conservation

organisations, landowners, public landowning bodies,

mushroom buyers and mushroom pickers. The creation of the

Forum and the Code was funded by Scottish Natural Heritage,

The Millennium Forest for Scotland Trust and Moray,

Badenoch and Strathspey Enterprise.