Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

What is Motivation?

Motivation and Performance

Motivation

Ability

Effort

Environment

Performance

3 Major Types of Motivation Theories

• Content Theories of Motivation– WHAT motivates us

• Process Theories of Motivation– WHY and HOW motivation occurs

• Reinforcement Theory– HOW outcomes influence behaviors

Content Perspectives on Motivation

• Content Perspectives– Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,

“What factors in the workplace motivate people?”

• Content Perspectives of Motivation– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Aldefer’s ERG Theory– McGregory’s Theory X and Theory Y– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory– McClelland’s Achievement,

Power, and Affiliation Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Self-

actualizationactualization

EsteemEsteem

BelongingnessBelongingness

SecuritySecurity

PhysiologyPhysiologyFoodFood

AchievementAchievement

StatusStatus

FriendshipFriendship

StabilityStability

JobJob

FriendsFriends

PensionPension

BaseBase

NEEDSNEEDSGeneral ExamplesGeneral Examples Organizational ExamplesOrganizational Examples

jobjobChallengingChallenging

titletitle

at workat work

planplan

salarysalary

Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy

Movement up the Pyramid

•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

Maslow Application:

A homeless person

will not be motivated to

meditate!

Maslow Application:

A homeless person

will not be motivated to

meditate!

•Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsA Content Perspective

• What factor or factors motivate people• Weakness of Theory

– Five levels of need are not always present– Order is not always the same– Cultural differences

• Need’s Hierarchy in China…an example:

– Belonging– Physiological– Safety– Self actualizing in service to society

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryA Content Perspective

• Existence needs– Physiological

• Relatedness needs – How one individual relates to his/her social

environment

• Growth needs– Achievement and self actualization

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryA Content Perspective

Satisfaction-ProgressionSatisfaction-Progression Frustration-RegressionFrustration-Regression

Growth NeedsGrowth Needs

Relatedness Relatedness NeedsNeeds

Existence NeedsExistence Needs

Content Theories

• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y– Theory X

• Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.

– Theory Y• Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction,

desire responsibility, and like to work.

– Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.

Content Theories

• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory– Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are

created by different factors.• Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors

that create job dissatisfaction.

• Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction.

– Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance.

• The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

McClelland’s Needs Theory

• Three-Needs Theory– There are three major acquired needs that are

major motives in work.– Need for achievement (nAch)

• The drive to excel and succeed

– Need for power (nPow)• The need to influence the behavior of others

– Need of affiliation (nAff)• The desire for interpersonal relationships

Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of nAch, nAff, and nPow

Process Perspectives of Motivation

• Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.

• Process perspectives of Motivation– Goal Setting Theory– Equity Theory– Expectancy Theory

Goal-Setting TheoryA Process Perspective

Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

• Difficulty– Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

• Specificity– Clarity and precision of the goal.

Goal Achievement Depends on:• Acceptance

– Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.• Commitment

– Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.

Equity Theory: A Process Perspective

• Individuals equate value of rewards to effort and compare it to other people.

Inputs/Outcomes Inputs/Outcomes Comparison of Comparison of self with othersself with others

EquityEquity

InequityInequity

Motivation to maintain Motivation to maintain current situationcurrent situation

Ways to reduce inequityWays to reduce inequity• Change inputsChange inputs• Change outcomesChange outcomes• Alter perceptions of selfAlter perceptions of self• Alter perceptions of otherAlter perceptions of other• Leave situationLeave situation• Change comparisonsChange comparisons

outcomes(selfoutcomes(self))inputs (self)inputs (self)

==outcomes outcomes

(other)(other)inputs (other)inputs (other)

Justice and Equity Theory

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final

distribution).

“Who got what?”

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process used to

determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what

decided?”Interactional Justice

The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.

“Was I treated well?”

Three types of Justice Three types of Justice

Expectancy TheoryThe Basic Idea

• People tend to prefer certain goals, or outcomes, over others.

• They anticipate experiencing feelings of satisfaction should such a preferred outcome be achieved.

• Basically, people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.

Expectancy TheoryA Process Perspective

• Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it– Elements

• Effort to Performance Expectancy (E) is the probability that effort will lead to performance.

• Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I) is the perception that performance leads to an outcome.

• Outcome is the consequence or reward for performance.• Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is valued.

Expectancy TheoryA Process Perspective

M = E x I x V

• For motivated behavior to occur:– Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0– Performance-to-outcome must be greater than 0– Sum of valences must be greater than 0*

* One or more valences may be negative!

The Expectancy Model of Motivation

Environment

Motivation Effort Performance

Ability

Outcome

Outcome

Outcome

Valence

Outcome Valence

Outcome Valence

Valence

Valence

High Effort

Decision toExert Effort

Low EffortPerformance

Goal

PerformanceGoal

Expectancy“What are my chances

of reaching my performance goalif I work hard?”

Expectancy“What are my chances

of reaching my performance goal

if I slack off?”

Instrumentality“What are my chances

of getting variousoutcomes if I achieve

my performance goal?”

Valence“How much do I value

these outcomes?”

Outcome 3

Outcome 2

Outcome 1

Outcome 3

Outcome 2

Outcome 1

A General Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Assumptions:

•Behavior is environmentally caused.

•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Assumptions:

•Behavior is environmentally caused.

•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Motivation: From Concepts to Applications

Chapter SEVEN

Job Design Theory

Characteristics:

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

Characteristics:

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

Job Characteristics Model

Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

Job Design Theory (cont’d)

• Job Characteristics Model– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,

autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:

• Knowledge of results

• Meaningfulness of work

• Personal feelings of responsibility for results

– Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

The Job Characteristics Model

E X H I B I T 7–1E X H I B I T 7–1Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by

Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.

Job Design Theory (cont’d)Skill Variety

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?).Task Identity

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).

Task Significance

The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

Job Design Theory (cont’d)Autonomy

The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

Feedback

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

Prentice Hall, 2003 34

Characteristics Examples

Skill Variety• High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,

does body work, and interacts with customers• Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day

Task Identity• High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the

object, and finishes it to perfection• Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs

Task Significance• High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit• Low significance Sweeping hospital floors

Autonomy• High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and

decides on the best techniques for a particular installation• Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a

routine, highly specified procedure

Feedback• High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to

determine if it operates properly• Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a

quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it

Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics

Computing a Motivating Potential Score

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.

Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.

Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.