Name: _________________________WHAP 101 Key Concept 5.4- GLOBAL MIGRATION Standard 4.0 3.5 3.0 Not a 3.0 yet

60 – 53 points

52.5- 44 Points

44.5– 40 points

Under 40 points

Take notes of this packet _______/10 pointsScore on essay x 5 _______/30 points Vocab Test ________20 points

2011 C-C-O-T

Analyze changes and continuities in long-distance migrations in the period from 1450- 1750 to 1750 to 1900. Be sure to include specific examples from at least TWO different world regions

Summarize the following in 2-3 sentences from FreemanPeida 5.4

Migration patterns changed dramatically throughout this period, and the numbers of migrants increased significantly. These changes were closely connected to the development of transoceanic empires and a global capitalist economy. In some cases, people benefited economically from migration, while other people were seen simply as commodities to be transported. In both cases, migration produced dramatically different societies for both sending and receiving societies, and presented challenges to governments in fostering national identities and regulating the flow of people.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary

Migation-

Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Push Factors-Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Pull Factors-Defintion-

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Historical Significance -

Seasonal Migrants- Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Indentured Servants-Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Italian Argentines – Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Coolie (this is an offensive term)- Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Chinese CooliesDefintion-

Historical Significance -

Indian Coolies- Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Austrialian Penal ColoniesDefintion-

Historical Significance -

Yello Perial- Defintion-

Historical Significance -

2

Chinese Exclusion Act- Defintion-

Historical Significance -

White Australian Policy-Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Ethnic Enclave-Defintion-

Historical Significance -

Chinatown- Defintion-

Historical Significance -

1. Migration  in many cases was influenced by changes in demography in both industrialized and un-industrialized societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living.

Read the following from Wikipedia

Modern eraDuring the European Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[55] The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.[56][57] Between 1700 and 1900, Europe’s population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million.[58]Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36% of the world's population in 1900.[59]

Population growth in the West became more rapid after the introduction of vaccination and other improvements in medicine and sanitation.[60] Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century.[61] The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006.[62] The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010.[63]

The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large-scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths).[64][65] After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia's population declined significantly – from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012[66] – but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted.[67]

Many countries in the developing world have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953,[68] and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the Indian subcontinent, which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941; [69] today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about 1.63 billion people.[70] Java had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; its present-day successor, Indonesia, now has a population of over 140 million.[71] Mexico's

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population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010.[72][73] Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million.[74]

Take notes on the lectures – Mr. Wood is giving a PowerPoint explanation- this PowerPoint was originally made by JP Harmon-

The PowerPoint lectures is posted on Mr. Wood’s website here –

1. –WHAP 5.4- Global Migration Lecture w/ PowerPoint from JP Harmon - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdJozLXvhVI

2. The orginal PowerPoint is posted here and on Mr. Wood’s webpage - https://powerpoint.officeapps.live.com/p/printhandler.ashx?PV=0&Pid=Fi%3DSDE578A9CE97E0CD9E%214167%26C%3D5_810_BN1-SKY-WAC-WSHI%26ak%3Dt%253D0%2526s%253D0%2526v%253D%2521AAhfSrdmZe9b598%2526aid%253D973cdd8d%252D7110%252D4b59%252D971a%252Dc19856c28c98%2526m%253Den%252Dus%26z%3D6&waccluster=US1

Take notes here

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Look at the above graph and fill out the OPTIC Chart

Overview- 2-3 details- What do you see as a whole

Parts – 3-4 details – what do the individual parts represent?

Title- What does the title tell you about the visuals or make

up your own title.

I learned- Name three ideas or concepts you learned from

the visuals

Context- How are these visuals connected to the context of

our chapter?

Japanese Agricultural Workers in the Pacific- https://prezi.com/bkmzvju4ycxu/japanese-

agricultural-workers-in-the-pacific/

Temporary and Seasonal Migrants- https://apworldhistoryclass.wordpress.com/2015/02/24/temporary-and-seasonal-migrants/

02/24/2015 daniellecaitlin Japanese, Lebanese, Migration, Seasonal Migration, Temporary Migration

Temporary and seasonal migrants are people who move to a new region with the intention of sometime returning home, for one reason or another. They chose to relocate themselves in order to better their lives. There were a few main examples of this phenomenon: Japanese agricultural workers in the Pacific, Lebanese merchants in the Americas, and Italians in Argentina. Here, I will only be focusing on the first two groups listed.

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Sugar plantations in Hawaii, in the mid-1800s were flourishing, almost. The only thing that they needed to grow the production of sugar was workers; a larger number of workers; workers who would work for a pretty low pay. When I say low pay, I mean dirt cheap; the average sugar plantation workers monthly salary here was four measly dollars. Some of which, by the way, they didn’t get to keep. 39 out of the first 148 people actually left the job early and charged the contractors with breach of contract and cruelty. The people that came over were cooks, potters, printers, tailors and samurai, to name a few examples. So many people ended up coming overseas for work that Congress did their best to try and ban Chinese and Japanese immigration.

Lebanese merchants came to the Americas firstly because they wanted out. Mount Lebanon was full of internal turmoil that, more often than not, turned into civil wars. Late 1800s, Lebanon doesn’t seem like a fun place to be. However, the newly found and organized continents called the Americas did. Furthermore, educated Lebanese could easily find jobs on their own country, but this left none for the less skilled. Soon after the influx of the educated, the government in Lebanon allowed free trade. This shifted the economy towards trade and gave merchants a push towards better and different tradable goods. What better place is there to get nicer things but the Americas?

Take notes on the following Wikipedia pageItalian Argentines

Italian Argentines (Italian: italo-argentini, Spanish: ítalo-argentinos) are Argentine-born citizens of Italian descent or Italian-born people who reside in Argentina. After Spain, Italy is the second largest ethnic origin of modern Argentines. It is estimated up to 25 million Argentines have some degree of Italian descent (up to 62.5% of the total population),[1] Italians began arriving in Argentina in great numbers from 1857 to 1940, totaling 44.9% of the entire post-colonial immigrant population; more than from any other country (including Spain at 31.5%).

In 1996, the population of Argentines with partial or full Italian descent numbered 15.8 million [2] when Argentina’s population was approximately 34.5 million, meaning they consisted of 45.5% of the population.

Italian settlement in Argentina, along with Spanish settlement, formed the backbone of today's Argentine society. Argentine culture has significant connections to Italian culture in terms of language, and customs. [3]

History[edit]

Main article: Italian diaspora

Small groups of Italians started to immigrate to Argentina as early as the second half of the 18th century. [4] However, the stream of Italian immigration to Argentina became a mass phenomenon only in the years 1880–1920 during the Great European immigration wave to Argentina, peaking between 1900–1914; about 2 million settled between 1880–1920, and just 1 million between 1900–1914.[5] In 1914, the city of Buenos Aires alone had more than 300,000 Italian-born inhabitants, representing 25% of the total population.[5] The Italian immigrants were primarily male, aged between 14 and 50 and more than 50% literate; in terms of occupations, 78.7% in the active population were agricultural workers or unskilled laborers, 10.7% artisans, while only 3.7% worked in commerce or as professionals.[5] The outbreak of World War I and the rise of Fascism in Italy caused a rapid fall in immigration to Argentina, with a slight revival in 1923–1927, but eventually stopped during the Great Depression and the Second World War.[6] After the end of World War II, Italy was reduced to rubble and occupied by foreign armies. The period 1946–1957 brought another massive wave of 380,000 Italians to Argentina.[7] The substantial recovery allowed by the Italian economic miracle of the 1950s and 1960s eventually caused the era of Italian diaspora abroad to finish, and in the following decades Italy became a migration receiving country. Today, there are still 527,570 Italian citizens living in the Argentine Republic. [8]

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Italian immigrants to Argentina, 1861–1920 (by decade)[5]

Period Total Italian Proportion

1861–1870 159,570 113,554 71%

1871–1880 260,885 152,061 58%

1881–1890 841,122 493,885 59%

1891–1900 648,326 425,693 57%

1901–1910 1,764,103 796,190 45%

Take Notes on the following Wikipedia pageModern historyEurope

Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate (a Muslim Tatar state) maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East,[146] exporting about 2 million slaves from Poland-Lithuania and Russia over the period 1500–1700.[161]

During the Second World War (1939–1945) Nazi Germany effectively enslaved about 12 million people, both those considered undesirable and citizens of countries they conquered, with the avowed intention of treating these untermenschen as a permanent slave class of inferior beings who could be worked until they died but who possessed neither the rights nor the legal status of members of the Aryan race.[162]

Ottoman EmpireMain articles: Zanj, Arab slave trade, Barbary slave trade, and Devshirme

The Ottoman Empire owned and traded slaves on a massive scale. Many slaves were the created by conquest and the suppression of rebellions, in the aftermath of which, entire populations were sometimes enslaved and sold across the Empire, reducing the risk of future rebellion. The Ottomans also purchased slaves from traders who brought slaves into the Empire from Europe and Africa.

AfricaMain article: Slavery in Africa

In Algiers, the capital of Algeria, captured Christians and Europeans were forced into slavery. Raids by Barbary pirates on coastal villages and ships extending from Italy to Iceland, enslaved an estimated 1 million to 1¼ million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries.[163] This eventually led to the bombardment of Algiers by an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816.[164][165]

Half the population of the Sokoto caliphate of the 19th century (based in the future northern Nigeria) were slaves.[156] The Swahili-Arab slave trade reached its height about 160 years ago, when, for example, approximately 20,000 slaves were considered to be carried yearly from Nkhotakota on Lake Malawi to Kilwa.[166] Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved.[156][167]

According to the Encyclopedia of African History, "It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture."[168][169] The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16 million.[170]

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Take notes on the reading and graph here

Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique).

Hugh Clapperton in 1824 believed that half the population of Kano were enslaved people.[171] W. A. Veenhoven wrote: "The German doctor, Gustav Nachtigal, an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way ... Keltie (The Partition of Africa, London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid. Livingstone puts the figure as high as ten to one."[172]

One of the most famous slave traders on the eastern Zanj (Bantu) coast was Tippu Tip, himself the grandson of a slave. The prazeros were slave-traders along the Zambezi. North of the Zambezi, the waYao and Makua people played a similar role as professional slave-raiders and -traders. Still further north were the Nyamwezi slave-traders.[173]

Asia

In Constantinople, about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves.[156] The city was a major centre of the slave trade in the 15th and later centuries. By 1475 most of the slaves were provided by Tatar raids on Slavic villages. [174] It has been estimated that some 200,000 slaves—mainly Circassians—were imported into the Ottoman Empire between 1800 and 1909.[175] As late as 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[176] A slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves was centred in the Central Asian khanate of Khiva.[177] In the early 1840s, the population of the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khiva included about 900,000 slaves.[175] Darrel P. Kaiser wrote, "Kazakh-Kirghiz tribesmen kidnapped 1573 settlers from colonies [German settlements in Russia] in 1774 alone and only half were successfully ransomed. The rest were killed or enslaved."[178]

According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8 or 9 million slaves in India in 1841. About 15% of the population of Malabar were slaves. Slavery was abolished in British India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843.[3]

In East Asia, the Imperial government formally abolished slavery in China in 1906, and the law became effective in 1910.[179] The Nangzan in Tibetan history were, according to Chinese sources, hereditary household slaves.[180]

In the Joseon period of Korea, members of the slave class were known as nobi. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling yangban class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it's inappropriate to call them "slaves",[181] while some scholars describe them as serfs.[182]

[183] The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[184] In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated,[185] and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea.[186] The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894,[186]but traces remained until 1930.

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In late 16th century Japan, slavery as such was officially banned, but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labour.[187]

The hill tribe people in Indochina were "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Anamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians".[188] A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".[189] The census, taken in 1879, showed that 6% of the population in the Malay sultanate of Perak were slaves.[175]Enslaved people made up about two-thirds of the population in part of North Borneo in the 1880s.[175]

Throughout the 1930s and 1940s the Yi people (also known as Nuosu) of China terrorized Sichuan to rob and enslave non-Nuosu including Han people. The descendants of the Han Chinese slaves are the White Yi (白彝) and they outnumber the Black Yi (黑彝) aristocracy by ten to one.[190]As much as tens of thousands of Han slaves were incorporated into Nuosu society every year. The Han slaves and their offspring were used for manual labor. [191] There is a saying goes like: "the worst insult to a Nuosu is to call him a "Han" (with the implication being that "your ancestors were slaves")".[192]

AmericasFurther information: Atlantic slave trade, Encomienda, Mita (Inca), Slavery in Brazil, and Slavery in the United States

Slavery in the Americas had a contentious history, and played a major role in the history and evolution of some countries, triggering at least one revolution and one civil war, as well as numerous rebellions. The Aztecs had slaves.[193] Other Amerindians, such as the Inca of the Andes, the Tupinambá of Brazil, the Creek of Georgia, and the Comanche of Texas, also owned slaves.[3]

The maritime town of Lagos was the first slave market created in Portugal (one of the earliest colonizers of the Americas) for the sale of imported African slaves—the Mercado de Escravos, opened in 1444.[194][195] In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania.[195]

In 1519, Mexico's first Afro-Mexican slave was brought by Hernán Cortés.

By 1552, black African slaves made up 10% of the population of Lisbon.[196][197] In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas—in the case of Portugal, especially Brazil.[195] In the 15th century one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold. [198]

In order to establish itself as an American empire, Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of the New World. The Spanish conquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas included using the Natives as forced labour. The Spanish colonies were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, see Atlantic slave trade.[199]

Bartolomé de Las Casas a 16th-century Dominican friar and Spanish historian participated in campaigns in Cuba (at Bayamo and Camagüey) and was present at the massacre of Hatuey; his observation of that massacre led him to fight for a social movement away from the use of natives as slaves and towards the importation of African Blacks as slaves. Also, the alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513).

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The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.[200] In 1518, Charles I of Spain agreed to ship slaves directly from Africa. England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. The "slave triangle" was pioneered by Francis Drake and his associates. In 1640 a Virginia court sentenced John Punch to slavery, forcing him to serve his master, Hugh Gwyn, for the remainder of his life. This was the first legal sanctioning of slavery in the English colonies. [201][202] In 1655, A black man, Anthony Johnson of Virginia, was granted ownership of John Casor as the result of a civil case.[203]

The Henrietta Marie was probably built in France sometime in the 17th century and carried a crew of about eighteen men. The ship came into English possession late in the 17th century, possibly as a war prize during the War of the Grand Alliance. It was put to use in the Atlantic slave trade, making at least two voyages carrying Africans to slavery in the West Indies. On its first voyage, in 1697–1698, the ship carried more than 200 people from Africa that were sold as slaves in Barbados. In 1699 the Henrietta Marie sailed from England on the first leg of the triangular trade route with a load of trade goods, including iron and copper bars, pewter utensils, glass beads, cloth and brandy. The ship sailed under license from the Royal African Company (which held a monopoly on English trade with Africa), in exchange for ten percent of the profits of the voyage. It is known to have traded for African captives at New Calabar on the Guinea Coast. The ship then sailed on the second leg of its voyage, from Africa to the West Indies, and in May 1701 landed 191 Africans for sale in Port Royal, Jamaica. The Henrietta Marie then loaded a cargo of sugar, cotton, dyewoods (indigo) and ginger to take back to England on the third leg of the triangular route. After leaving Port Royal on 18 May 1701, the ship headed for the Yucatán Channel to pass around the western end of Cuba (thus avoiding the pirates infesting the passage between Cuba and Hispaniola) and catch the Gulf Stream, the preferred route for all ships leaving the Caribbean to return to Europe. A month later, the Henrietta Marie wrecked on New Ground Reef near the Marquesas Keys, approximately 35 miles (56 kilometres) west of 

Pirates often targeted slavers. For example, the 300 ton English frigate Concord launched in 1710 but was captured by the French one year later. She was modified to hold more cargo, including slaves, and renamed La Concorde de Nantes. Sailing as a slave ship, she was captured by the pirate Captain Benjamin Hornigold on November 28, 1717, near the island of Martinique. Hornigold turned her over to one of his men, Edward Teach (later known as Blackbeard), and made him her captain. Teach then renamed her the Queen Anne's Revenge.[205] By 1750, slavery was a legal institution in all of the 13 American colonies,[206][207] and the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.[208]

The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire,[209] the kingdom of Dahomey,[210] and the Aro Confederacy.[211] Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods. A significant portion of African Americans in North America are descended from Mandinka people.[212] Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fulani Jihad States, about half of the Senegambian Mandinka were converted to Islam while as many as a third were sold into slavery to the Americas through capture in conflict.[212]

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Slaves on a Virginia plantation (The Old Plantation, c. 1790)

An estimated 12 million Africans arrived in the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries.[213] Of these, an estimated 645,000 were brought to what is now the United States. The usual estimate is that about 15% of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships.[214]

Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[215] The transformation from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640 where a negro, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, as two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[216] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts and kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker, where the court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[217][218] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[219] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[220]

The largest number of slaves were shipped to Brazil.[221] In the Spanish viceroyalty of New Granada, corresponding mainly to modern Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela, the free black population in 1789 was 420,000, whereas African slaves numbered only 20,000. Free blacks also outnumbered slaves in Brazil. By contrast, in Cuba, free blacks made up only 15% in 1827; and in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) it was a mere 5% in 1789.[222]

Author Charles Rappleye argued that:

In the West Indies in particular, but also in North and South America, slavery was the engine that drove the mercantile empires of Europe. It appeared, in the eighteenth century, as universal and immutable as human nature.[223]

Although the trans-Atlantic slave trade ended shortly after the American Revolution, slavery remained a central economic institution in the Southern states of the United States, from where slavery expanded with the westward movement of population.[224] Historian Peter Kolchin wrote, "By breaking up existing families and forcing slaves to relocate far from everyone and everything they knew" this migration "replicated (if on a reduced level) many of [the] horrors" of the Atlantic slave trade.[225]

Historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration the Second Middle Passage. Characterizing it as the "central event" in the life of a slave between the American Revolution and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that whether they were uprooted themselves or simply lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free.."[226]

By 1860, 500,000 slaves had grown to 4 million. As long as slavery expanded, it remained profitable and powerful and was unlikely to disappear. Although complete statistics are lacking, it is estimated that 1,000,000 slaves moved west from the Old South between 1790 and 1860.[227]

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Most of the slaves were moved from Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Michael Tadman, in a 1989 book Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South, indicates that 60–70% of interregional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820, a child in the Upper South had a 30% chance to be sold south by 1860.[227] In Puerto Rico, African slavery was finally abolished on March 22, 1873.

Middle East

Ottoman wars in Europe resulted in many captive Christians being carried deep into Muslim territory.

According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries.[228][229] There was also an extensive trade in Christian slaves in the Black Sea region for several centuries until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by the Russian Empire in 1783.[230] In the 1570s close to 20,000 slaves a year were being sold in the Crimean port of Kaffa.[231] The slaves were captured in southern Russia, Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Circassia by Tatar horsemen.[232] Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate.[233][234]

The Arab enslavement of the Dinka people.

The Arab slave trade lasted more than a millennium.[235] As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300,000.[236] Along with Yemen, the Saudis abolished slavery only in 1962.[237] Historically, slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions, including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj),[238] the Caucasus (mainly Circassians),[239] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[240]

Under Omani Arabs Zanzibar became East Africa's main slave port, with as many as 50,000 enslaved Africans passing through every year during the 19th century.[241][242] Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million

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African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.[3][243] Eduard Rüppell described the losses of Sudanese slaves being transported on foot to Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5000 made it to Egypt.."[244]

The Moors, starting in the 8th century, also raided coastal areas around the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean, and became known as the Barbary pirates.[245] It is estimated that they captured 1.25 million white slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[246][247] The mortality rate was very high. For instance, plague killed a third to two-thirds of the 30,000 occupants of the slave pens in Algiers in 1662.[228]

Take Notes on the following Wikipedia Page:

CoolieFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Coolie (alternatively spelled cooli, cooly, quli, koelie, and other such variations), during the 19th and early 20th century, was a term for an indentured servant indentured to a company, mainly from the Indian subcontinent or South China.

Today, it is used varyingly as a legal, inoffensive word (for example, in India for helpers carrying luggage in railway stations)[1] and also used as a racial slur in Africa for certain people from Asia,[2] particularly in South Africa.[3]

The origins of the word are uncertain but it is thought to have originated from the Tamil word for a payment for work, kuli (கூலி).[4][5] An alternative etymological explanation is that the word came from the Urdu qulī (कु़ली, قلی), which itself could be from the Turkish word for slave (or as a general name for imperial subjects regardless of other social status), kul.[4] The word was used in this sense for labourers from India. In 1727, Dr. Engelbert Kämpfer described "coolies" as dock labourers who would unload Dutch merchant ships at Nagasaki in Japan.[6][7]

The Chinese word 苦 力 (pinyin: kǔlì) means "bitterly hard (use of strength)" and is occasionally translated as "bitter labour".

History of the coolie trade[edit]

Social and political pressure led to the abolition of the slave trade throughout the British Empire in 1807, with other European nations following suit. Labour-intensive industries, such as cotton and sugar plantations, mines and railway construction, in the colonies were left without a cheap source of manpower. [8] As a consequence, a large-scale slavery-like trade in Asian (primarily Indian and Chinese) indentured labourers began in the 1820s to fill this vacuum. Some of these labourers signed contracts based on misleading promises, some were kidnapped and sold into the trade, some were victims of clan violence whose captors sold them to coolie brokers, while others sold themselves to pay off gambling debts.[9][10] British companies were the first to experiment with this potential new form of cheap labour in 1807, when they imported 200 Chinese men to work in Trinidad.

The coolie trade was often compared to the earlier slave trade and they accomplished very similar things. [11][12][13]

Although there are reports of ships for Asian coolies carrying women and children, the great majority of them were men. Finally, regulations were put in place, as early as 1837 by the British authorities in India to safeguard these principles of voluntary, contractual work and safe and sanitary transportation although in practice this rarely occurred especially during examples such as the Pacific Passage or the Guano Pits of Peru. The Chinese government also made efforts to secure the well-being of their nation's workers, with representations being made to relevant governments around the world.

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Chinese coolies[edit]

Workers from China were mainly transported to work in Peru and Cuba, but they also worked in British colonies such as Singapore, Jamaica, British Guiana (now Guyana), British Malaya, Trinidad and Tobago, British Honduras (now Belize) and in the Dutch colonies Dutch East Indies and Suriname.[14][15][16][17] The first shipment of Chinese labourers was to the British colony of Trinidad in 1806.

In 1847 two ships from Cuba transported workers to Havana to work in the sugar cane fields from the port of Xiamen, one of the five Chinese treaty ports opened to the British by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The trade soon spread to other ports in Guangdong and demand became particularly strong in Peru for workers in the silver mines and the guano collecting industry.[18][19][20][21] Australia began importing workers in 1848 and the United States began using them in 1865 on the First Transcontinental Railroad construction. These workers were deceived about their terms of employment to a much greater extent than their Indian counterparts, and consequently, there was a much higher level of Chinese emigration during this period.

The trade flourished from 1847 to 1854 without incident, until reports began to surface of the mistreatment of the workers in Cuba and Peru. As the British government had political and legal responsibility for many of the ports involved, including Amoy, the trade was shut down at these places. However, the trade simply shifted to the more accommodating port in the Portuguese enclave of Macau.[22]

Many coolies were first deceived or kidnapped and then kept in barracoons (detention centres) or loading vessels in the ports of departure, as were African slaves. In 1875, British commissioners estimated that approximately eighty percent of the workers had been abducted.[citation needed] Their voyages, which are sometimes called the Pacific Passage, were as inhumane and dangerous as the notorious Middle Passage of the Atlantic slave trade.[23][24] Mortality was very high. For example, it is estimated that from 1847 to 1859, the average mortality for coolies aboard ships to Cuba was 15.2 percent, and losses among those aboard ships to Peru were 40 percent in the 1850s and 30.44 percent from 1860 to 1863. [24]

They were sold and were taken to work in plantations or mines with very bad living and working conditions. The duration of a contract was typically five to eight years, but many coolies did not live out their term of service because of the hard labour and mistreatment. Those who did live were often forced to remain in servitude beyond the contracted period. The coolies who worked on the sugar plantations in Cuba and in the guano beds of the Chincha Islands (the islands of Hell) of Peru were treated brutally. Seventy-five percent of the Chinese coolies in Cuba died before fulfilling their contracts. More than two-thirds of the Chinese coolies who arrived in Peru between 1849 and 1874 died within the contract period. In 1860 it was calculated that of the 4000 coolies brought to the Chinchas since the trade began, not one had survived. [25]

Because of these unbearable conditions, Chinese coolies often revolted against their Ko-Hung bosses and foreign company bosses at ports of departure, on ships, and in foreign lands. The coolies were put in the same neighbourhoods as Africans and, since most were unable to return to their homeland or have their wives come to the New World, many married African women. The coolies' interracial relationships and marriages with Africans, Europeans and Indigenous peoples, formed some of the modern world's Afro-Asian and Asian Latin American populations.[26][27][28][29][30]

[31][32][33]

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Chinese immigrant workers building the Transcontinental Railroad.

Chinese immigration to the United States was almost entirely voluntary, but working and social conditions were still harsh. In 1868, the Burlingame Treaty allowed unrestricted Chinese immigration into the country. Within a decade significant levels of anti-Chinese sentiment had built up, stoked by populists such as Denis Kearney with racist slogans – "To an American, death is preferable to life on a par with the Chinese." [34]

Although Chinese workers contributed to the building of the first Transcontinental Railroad in the United States and of the Canadian Pacific Railway in western Canada, Chinese settlement was discouraged after completion of the construction. California's Anti-Coolie Act of 1862 and the federal Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 contributed to the curtailment of Chinese immigration to the United States.

Notwithstanding such attempts to restrict the influx of cheap labour from China, beginning in the 1870s Chinese workers helped construct a vast network of levees in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. These levees made thousands of acres of fertile marshlands available for agricultural production.

The 1879 Constitution of the State of California declared that "Asiatic coolieism is a form of human slavery, and is forever prohibited in this State, and all contracts for coolie labour shall be void."[35]

Colonos asiáticos is a Spanish term for coolies.[36] The Spanish colony of Cuba feared slavery uprisings such as those that took place in Haiti and used coolies as a transition between slaves and free labor. They were neither free nor slaves. Indentured Chinese servants also labored in the sugarcane fields of Cuba well after the 1884 abolition of slavery in that country. Two scholars of Chinese labor in Cuba, Juan Pastrana and Juan Perez de la Riva, substantiated horrific conditions of Chinese coolies in Cuba[37] and stated that coolies were slaves in all but name.[37] Denise Helly is one researcher who believes that despite their slave-like treatment, the free and legal status of the Asian laborers in Cuba separated them from slaves. The coolies could challenge their superiors, run away, petition government officials, and rebel according to Rodriguez Pastor and Trazegnies Granda.[38] Once they had fulfilled their contracts the colonos asiáticos integrated into the countries of Peru, The Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Cuba. They adopted cultural traditions from the natives and also welcomed in non-Chinese to experience and participate into their own traditions.[36] Before the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Havana had Latin America's largest Chinatown.

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In South America, Chinese indentured labourers worked in Peru's silver mines and coastal industries (i.e., guano, sugar, and cotton) from the early 1850s to the mid-1870s; about 100,000 people immigrated as indentured workers. They participated in the War of the Pacific, looting and burning down the haciendas where they worked, after the capture of Lima by the invading Chilean army in January 1880. Some 2000 coolies even joined the Chilean Army in Peru, taking care of the wounded and burying the dead. Others were sent by Chileans to work in the newly conquered nitrate fields.[39]

The Chinese Engineering and Mining Corporation, of which later U.S. president Herbert Hoover was a director, was instrumental in supplying Chinese coolie labour to South African mines from c.1902 to c.1910 at the request of mine owners, who considered such labour cheaper than native African and white labour. [40] The horrendous conditions suffered by the coolie labourers led to questions in the British parliament as recorded in Hansard.[41]

In 1866, the British, French and Chinese governments agreed to mitigate the abuse by requiring all traders to pay for the return of all workers after their contract ended. The employers in the British West Indies declined these conditions, bringing the trade there to an end. Until the trade was finally abolished in 1875, over 150,000 coolies had been sold to Cuba alone, the majority having been shipped from Macau. These labourers endured conditions far worse than those experienced by their Indian counterparts. Even after the 1866 reforms, the scale of abuse and conditions of near slavery did not get any better – if anything they deteriorated. In the early 1870s increased media exposure of the trade led to a public outcry, and the British, as well as the Qing government, put pressure on the Portuguese authorities to bring the trade at Macau to an end; this was ultimately achieved in 1874.[22] By that time, a total of up to half a million Chinese workers had been exported.[42]

The term coolie was also applied to Chinese workers recruited for contracts on cacao plantations in German Samoa. German planters went to great lengths to secure access to their "coolie" labour supply from China. In 1908 a Chinese commissioner, Lin Shu Fen, reported on the cruel treatment of coolie workers on German plantations in the western Samoan Islands. The trade began largely after the establishment of colonial German Samoa in 1900 and lasted until the arrival of New Zealand forces in 1914. More than 2000 Chinese "coolies" were present in the islands in 1914 and most were eventually repatriated by the New Zealand administration.[citation needed]

Indian coolies[edit]

By the 1820s, many Indians were voluntarily enlisting to go abroad for work, in the hopes of a better life. European merchants and businessmen quickly took advantage of this and began recruiting them for work as a cheap source of labour. [43][44] The British began shipping Indians to colonies around the world, including Mauritius, Fiji, Natal, British East Africa, and British Malaya. The Dutch also shipped workers to labour on the plantations on Suriname and the Dutch East Indies. A system of agents was used to infiltrate the rural villages of India and recruit labourers. They would often deceive the credulous workers about the great opportunities that awaited them for their own material betterment abroad. The Indians primarily came from the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but also from Tamil Nadu and other areas to the south of the country.[22]

Without permission from the British authorities, the French attempted to illegally transport Indian workers to their sugar producing colony, the Reunion Island, from as early as 1826. By 1830, over 3000 labourers had been transported. After this trade was discovered, the French successfully negotiated with the British in 1860 for permission to transport over 6,000 workers annually, on condition that the trade would be suspended if abuses were discovered to be taking place. [13][45]

The British began to transport Indians to Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, starting in 1829. Slavery had been abolished with the planters receiving two million pounds sterling in compensation for the loss of their slaves. The planters turned to bringing in a large number of indentured labourers from India to work in the sugar cane fields. Between 1834 and 1921, around half a million indentured labourers were present on the island. They worked on sugar estates, factories, in transport and on construction sites.[46]

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In 1837, the Raj issued a set of regulations for the trade. The rules provided for each labourer to be personally authorised for transportation by an officer designated by the Government, it limited the length of service to five years subject to voluntary renewal, it made the contractor responsible for returning the worker after the contract elapsed and required the vessels to conform to basic health standards.[22]

Despite this, conditions on the ships were often extremely crowded, with rampant disease and malnutrition. The workers were paid a pittance for their labour, and were expected to work in often awful and harsh conditions. Although there were no large scale scandals involving coolie abuse in British colonies, workers often ended up being forced to work, and manipulated in such a way that they became dependent on the plantation owners so that in practice they remained there long after their contracts expired; possibly as little as 10% of the coolies actually returned to their original country of origin. Colonial legislation was also passed to severely limit their freedoms; in Mauritius a compulsory pass system was instituted to enable their movements to be easily tracked. Conditions were much worse in the French colonies of Reunion and Guadeloupe and Martinique, where workers were 'systematically overworked' and abnormally high mortality rates were recorded for those working in the mines.[22]

However, there were also attempts by the British authorities to regulate and mitigate the worst abuses. Workers were regularly checked up on by health inspectors, and they were vetted before transportation to ensure that they were suitably healthy and fit to be able to endure the rigours of labour. Children under the age of 15 were not allowed to be transported from their parents under any circumstances.[22]

The first campaign against the 'coolie' trade in England likened the system of indentured labour to the slavery of the past. In response to this pressure, the labour export was temporarily stopped in 1839 by the authorities when the scale of the abuses became known, but it was soon renewed due to its growing economic importance. A more rigorous regulatory framework was put into place and severe penalties were imposed for infractions in 1842. In that year, almost 35,000 people were shipped to Mauritius.[22]

In 1844, the trade was expanded to the colonies in the West Indies, including Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara, where the Asian population was soon a major component of the island demographic.

Starting in 1879, many Indians were transported to Fiji to work on the sugar cane plantations. Many of them chose to stay after their term of indenture elapsed and today they number about 40% of the total population. Indian workers were also imported into the Dutch colony of Suriname after the Dutch signed a treaty with the United Kingdom on the recruitment of contract workers in 1870. In Mauritius, the Indian population are now demographically dominant, with Indian festivals being celebrated as national holidays.[22]

This system prevailed until the early twentieth century. Increasing focus on the brutalities and abuses of the trade by the sensationalist media of the time, incited public outrage and lead to the official ending of the coolie trade in 1916 by the British government. By that time tens of thousands of Chinese workers were being used along the Western Front by the allied forces (see Chinese Labour Corps).[47]

Sex ratios and intermarriage among coolies[edit]

A major difference between the Chinese and the Indian coolie trades was that women and children were brought from India, along with men, while Chinese coolies were 99% male.[48] This led to a high rate of Chinese men marrying women of other ethnicities like Indian women and mixed race Creole women. The contrast with the female to male ratio among Indian and Chinese immigrants has been compared by historians.[49] In Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies just 18,731 Chinese women and 92,985 Chinese men served as coolies on plantations.[50] Chinese women migrated less than Javanese and Indian women as indentured coolies.[51] The number of Chinese women as coolies was "very small" while Chinese men were easily taken into the

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coolie trade.[52] In Cuba men made up the vast majority of Chinese indentured servants on sugar plantations and in Peru non-Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies.[53]

Chinese women were scarce in every place where Chinese indentured laborers were brought, the migration was dominated by Chinese men.[54] Up to the 1940s men made up the vast majority of the Costa Rican Chinese community. [55] Males made up the majority of the original Chinese community in Mexico and they married Mexican women.[56]

In the early 1900s, the Chinese communities in Manila, Singapore, Mauritius, New Zealand, Victoria in Australia, the United States, and Victoria in British Columbia in Canada were all male dominated.[57]

Watch the following video from Mr. Wood’s webpage- Slave Trade to Coolie Trade - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROT69WD767g

Watch the following video from Mr. Wood’s webpage- AUSTRALIA: Colonisation to Federation (1788-1901) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1PLNK1bht0

Watch the following video from Mr. Wood’s webpage- Australian History - Penal Colonies- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5qYjm6xRZk

Take notes on the following video The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lZMFHntBEyQTake notes on the following PowerPoint slides- focus both on the words on the PowerPoint and what the teacher is lecturing about

- Slide One “Yellow Peril”

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Slide Two- Seven – Some Early Laws ( Foreign Miner’s tax, People vs. Hall, Anti-Coolie Act, Anti- Prostitution Act, Naturalization Act of 1870)

Slide Eight- Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (also A Chain Reaction, - stop watching at 16:15.)

Watch the following video from Mr. Wood’s webpage - Coolies: How British Reinvented Slavery https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxl4q_jfDPI&list=PLPUZp-I0qkC1vm6C7CUEYJrzss-aKAR1Q

Watch from 2:30- 4:40 How did Indian or “Coolie” indentured labor replace African slavery?

Watch from 6:05- 6:45- Where were the first 400 Indian Laborers (Coolies) taken and what jobs were they to do?

Watch from 11:35 –13:15 How was Professor Brij Lal’s grandfather taken into indentured labor?

Watch from 13:15- 17:40 Describe the conditions on the ship for the indentured laborers (Coolies)? How many people made the trip on these voyages and how long did they take? What happened to “Coolies” as they landed? What was the main crop produced from “Coolie” labor?

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Watch from 19:35 – 23:55 What was life like for Indians from South Asia as they were moved to Fiji in far Southeast Asia? How did cultures mix here? What were the living conditions like?

25:40 – 30:00 What was life like for the planters in Guyana (in South America) who were in charge of the “Coolie” labor? How were the indentured labors seen by the planters?

Watch and take notes on all white Australia - immigration nation ep. 1https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TX6x28dnPVEWatch from 3:15- 5:00 - How was Australia supposed to be a country like no other? What were the goals for building Australia?

5:00 - 6:35 - What was “White Australia” based on? How were Aboriginal (Native people of Australia) and Asians viewed at this time?

7:40 – 9:30 - What was the Chinese cooridor like Melbourne, Australia around 1900 (turn of the century)?How did other ethnic groups “feed the nation’s economy?” Why were non-white people seen as a threat?

11:25- 15:30 - What is the dictation test? How was it used to keep up any non-white immigrants? What did Labour Party politicatians what to do and say? What law ends up passing in 1901?

16:15- 19:50 - How and why were South Sea Islanders brought to Australia originally from 1863- 1906? What happened after their period of indentured labor ran out? What ends up happening to them under them by 1908 (under the White Australian Policy)?

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19:50 – 22:00- How did Austrialians almost gurantee that no one would pass the dication test to enter the country as an immigrant?

Ethnic enclave

New York City is home to the largest overseas Chinese population of any city proper in the Western Hemisphere, with over half million.

Multiple large Chinatowns in Manhattan, Brooklyn (above), and Queens are thriving as traditionally urban ethnic enclaves, as large-

scale Chinese immigration continues into New York,[1][2][3][4] with the largest metropolitan Chinese population outside of Asia.[5]

In sociology, an ethnic enclave is a geographic area with high ethnic concentration, characteristic cultural identity, and economic activity.[8] The term is usually used to refer to either a residential area or a workspace with a high concentration of ethnic firms.[9]Their success and growth depends on self-sufficiency, and is coupled with economic prosperity.

The theory of social capital and the formation of migrant networks creates the social foundation for ethnic enclaves. Douglas Massey describes how migrant networks provide new immigrants with social capital that can be transferred to other tangible forms.[10] As immigrants tend to cluster in close geographic spaces, they develop migrant networks—systems of interpersonal relations through which participants can exchange valuable resources and knowledge. Immigrants can capitalize on social interactions by transforming information into tangible resources, and thereby lower costs of migration. Information exchanged may include knowledge of employment opportunities, affordable housing, government assistance programs and helpful NGOs.[11] Thus by stimulating social connections, ethnic enclaves generate a pool of intangible resources that help to promote the social and economic development of its members. [11]

By providing a space for co-ethnics to create potentially beneficial relations, ethnic enclaves assist members in achieving economic mobility. Enclaves create an alternative labor market that is ethnic-specific and does not demand social and cultural skills of the host country. By eliminating language and cultural barriers, enclave economies employ a greater proportion of co-ethnics and speed the incorporation of new immigrants into a bustling economy. By increasing employment opportunities and facilitating upward mobility, studying ethnic enclaves helps to explain the success of some immigrant groups.[9] Additionally, while the ethnic enclave theory was developed to explain immigrant incorporation into the receiving society, it has also been linked to migration processes at large as successful incorporation of immigrants has the potential to lower migration costs for future immigrants, an example of chain migration.

Despite their immediate benefits, the long-term implications of participation in an ethnic enclave are a topic of debate. Enclave economies have been linked to a glass ceiling limiting immigrant growth and upward mobility. While participation in the enclave economy may assist in achieving upward mobility through increased availability of employment opportunities in the enclave labor market, it may also impede acquisition of host country skills that benefit the immigrant over the long-run.[12] Latency in learning the language and social norms of the receiving country constrains immigrants to activity within the enclave and secludes them from the larger receiving context. Opportunities available to mainstream society can thus be out of reach for immigrants who lack both the knowledge of these services and the ability to access them. Thus, the accelerated path toward economic mobility that lures new immigrants into enclave economies pose a challenge to potential success. Integration into an ethnic enclave may delay and even halt assimilation to the host society, preventing the immigrants from benefiting from mainstream institutions.[13]

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ChinatownFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A Chinatown (Chinese: 唐人街; pinyin: Tángrénjiē; Jyutping: tong4 yan4 gaai1) is historically any ethnic enclave, of Chinese or Han people outside of Mainland China or Taiwan, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including the Americas, Europe, Africa, Australasia, and Asia.

A Chinatown, as a "Chinese enclave", is defined as "... any small, distinct area or [Chinese] group enclosed or isolated within a larger [Non-Chinese] group." The development of most Chinatowns typically start with mass migration to an area having zero or very few Chinese. The most notable example is San Francisco's Chinatown caused by the California Gold Rush of the mid 1800s and a more modern example occurring in Montville, Connecticut caused by the displacement of Chinese workers in New York's Chinatown in Manhattan following the September 11th attacks in 2001.[1][2]

Definition[edit]

The Oxford Dictionary defines "Chinatown" as "... a district of any non-Chinese town, especially a city or seaport, in which the population is predominantly of Chinese origin".[3]However, some Chinatowns may have little to do with China.[4] Some "Vietnamese" enclaves are in fact a city's "second Chinatown", and some Chinatowns are in fact pan-Asian, meaning they could also be counted as a Koreatown or Little India.[5] One example includes Asiatown in Cleveland, Ohio. It was initially referred to as a Chinatown but was subsequently renamed due to the influx of non-Chinese Asian Americans who opened businesses there. Today the district acts as a unifying factor for the Chinese, Taiwanese, Korean, Japanese, Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Laotian, Nepalese and Thai communities of Cleveland.[6]

Further ambiguities with the term can include Chinese ethnoburbs which by definition are "...suburban ethnic clusters of residential areas and business districts in large metropolitan areas [7] where the intended purpose is to be "... as isolated from the white population as Hispanics".[8] A New York Times article blurs the line further by categorizing very different Chinatowns such as Chinatown, Manhattan, which exists in an urban setting as "traditional"; Monterey Park's Chinatown, which exists in a "suburban" setting (and labeled as such); and Austin, Texas's Chinatown, which is in essence a "Chinese themed mall", known as "fabricated". This contrasts with narrower definitions, where the term only described Chinatown in a city setting.[9]

History[edit]

Trading centres populated predominantly by Chinese men and their native spouses have long existed throughout Southeast Asia. Emigration to other parts of the world from China accelerated in the 1860s with the signing of the Treaty of Peking (1860), which opened the border for free movement. Early emigrants came primarily from the coastal provinces of Guangdong (Canton, Kwangtung) and Fujian (Fukien, Hokkien) in southeastern China – where the people generally speak Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew (Chiuchow) and Hokkien.

As conditions in China have improved in recent decades, many Chinatowns have lost their initial mission, which was to provide a transitional place into a new culture. As net migration slows, the smaller Chinatowns have slowly decayed, often to the point of becoming purely historical and no longer serving as ethnic enclaves.[10]

In Asia[edit]

Binondo's Chinatown located in Manila, Philippines is the oldest Chinatown in the world, established in 1594.[11]

Several Asian Chinatowns, although not yet called by that name, have a long history. Those in Nagasaki, Japan,[12] Binondo in Manila, Hoi An and Bao Vinh in central Vietnam[13] all existed in 1600. Glodok, the Chinese quarter of Jakarta, Indonesia, dates to 1740.[14]

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Chinese presence in India dates back to the 5th century AD.[15] A Chinatown first appeared in the Indian city of Calcutta (now renamed Kolkata) and subsequently in Mumbai and Chennai. The first Chinese settler in Calcutta was Young Atchew around 1780.

The Chinatown centered on Yaowarat Road in Bangkok, Thailand, was founded at the same time as the city itself, in 1782.[16]

In the West[edit]

An early enclave of Chinese people emerged in the 1830s in Liverpool, England when the first direct trading vessel from China arrived in Liverpool's docks to trade in goods including silk and cotton wool.[17] Many Chinese immigrants arrived in Liverpool in the late 1850s in the employ of the Blue Funnel Shipping Line, a cargo transport company established by Alfred Holt. The commercial shipping line created strong trade links between the cities of Shanghai, Hong Kong and Liverpool, mainly in the importation of silk, cotton and tea.[17]

The Chinatown in San Francisco is one of the largest in North America and the oldest north of Mexico. It served as a port of entry for early Chinese immigrants from the 1850s to the 1900s.[18] The area was the one geographical region deeded by the city government and private property owners which allowed Chinese persons to inherit and inhabit dwellings within the city. Many Chinese found jobs working for large companies seeking a source of labor, most famously as part of the Central Pacific [19]  on the Transcontinental Railroad. Other early immigrants worked as mine workers or independent prospectors hoping to strike it rich during the 1849 Gold Rush. Other cities in North America where Chinatowns were founded in the mid-nineteenth century include almost every major settlement along the West Coast from San Diego to Victoria.

Economic opportunity drove the building of further Chinatowns in the United States. The initial Chinatowns were built in the Western United States in states such as California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. As the transcontinental railroad was built, more Chinatowns started to appear in railroad towns such as St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Butte Montana, and many east coast cities such as New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, and Baltimore. With the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation, many southern states such as Arkansas, Louisiana, and Georgia began to hire Chinese for work in place of slave labor.[citation needed]

The history of Chinatowns was not always peaceful, especially when labor disputes arose. Racial tensions flared when lower-paid Chinese workers replaced white miners in many mountain-area Chinatowns, such as in Wyoming with the Rock Springs Massacre. Many of these frontier Chinatowns became extinct as American racism surged and the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed.

Other Chinatowns in European capitals, including Paris and London, were established at the turn of the 20th century. The first Chinatown in London was located in the Limehouse area of the East End of London [20]  at the start of the 20th century. The Chinese population engaged in business which catered to the Chinese sailors who frequented the Docklands. The area acquired a bad reputation from exaggerated reports of opium dens and slum housing.

France received a large settlement of Chinese immigrant laborers, mostly from the city of Wenzhou, in the Zhejiang province of China. Significant Chinatowns sprung up in Belleville and the 13th arrondissement of Paris.

Chinatown, ManhattanFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Manhattan's Chinatown (simplified Chinese: 曼哈顿华埠; traditional Chinese: 曼哈頓華埠; pinyin: Mànhādùn huábù; juytping: Maan6haa1deon6 faa1bou6) is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, bordering the Lower East Side to its east, Little Italy to its north, Civic Center to its south, and Tribeca to its west. Chinatown is home to the largest enclave of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere.[1] With an estimated population of 90,000 to 100,000 people, Manhattan's Chinatown is also one of the oldest Chinese ethnic enclaves.[2] The Manhattan Chinatown is one of nine Chinatown neighborhoods in New York City, as well as one of twelve in the New York metropolitan area, which contains the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia, enumerating an estimated 819,527 uniracial individuals as of 2014.[3] Historically it was primarily populated by Cantonese speakers. However, in the 1980s-90s, large numbers of Fuzhounese-speaking immigrants also arrived. As many Fuzhounese and Cantonese speakers now speak Mandarin—the official language in China and Taiwan—in addition to their native languages, this made it more important for Chinatown residents to learn and speak Mandarin.[4]

Citywide demographics[edit]

See also: List of U.S. cities with significant Chinese-American populations and Chinese Americans in New York City

The Manhattan Chinatown is one of nine Chinatown neighborhoods in New York City, as well as one of twelve in the New York metropolitan area, which contains the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia, enumerating an estimated 779,269 individuals as of 2013;[8] the remaining Chinatowns are located in the boroughs of Queens (up to four, depending upon definition)[9]and Brooklyn (three) and in Nassau County, all on Long Island in New York State; as well as in Edison [10]  and Parsippany-Troy Hills in New Jersey. In addition, Manhattan's Little Fuzhou ( 小福州 , 紐約華埠 ) , an enclave populated primarily by more recent Chinese immigrants from the Fujian Province of China, is technically considered a part of Manhattan's Chinatown, albeit now developing a separate identity of its own.

A new and rapidly growing Chinese community is now forming in East Harlem ( 東哈萊姆 ) , Uptown Manhattan, nearly tripling in population between the years 2000 and 2010, according to U.S. Census figures.[11][12][13][14] This neighborhood has been described as the precursor to a new satellite Chinatown within Manhattan itself,[15] which upon acknowledged formation would represent the second Chinese neighborhood in Manhattan, the tenth large Chinese settlement in New York City, and the twelfth within the overall New York City metropolitan region.

As the city proper with the nation's largest Chinese American population by a wide margin, with an estimated 573,388 individuals in 2014,[16] and as the primary destination for new Chinese immigrants,[17] New York City is subdivided into official municipal boroughs, which themselves are home to significant Chinese populations, with Brooklyn and Queens, adjacently located on Long Island, leading the fastest growth.[18][19] After the City of New York itself, the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn encompass the largest Chinese populations, respectively, of all municipalities in the United States.

CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT- HTTP://WWW.HISTORY.COM/TOPICS/CHINESE-EXCLUSION-ACT

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law restricting immigration into the United States. Those on the West Coast were especially prone to attribute declining wages and economic ills on the despised Chinese workers. Although the Chinese composed only .002 percent of the nation’s population, Congress passed the exclusion act to placate worker demands and assuage prevalent concerns about maintaining white “racial purity.”The statute of 1882 suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and declared the Chinese as ineligible for naturalization. Chinese workers already in the country challenged the constitutionality of the discriminatory acts, but their efforts failed. The act was renewed in 1892 for another ten years, and in 1902 Chinese immigration was made permanently illegal. The legislation proved very effective, and the Chinese population in the United States sharply declined.American experience with Chinese exclusion spurred later movements for immigration restriction against other “undesirable” groups such as Middle Easterners, Hindu and East Indians, and the Japanese. The Chinese themselves remained ineligible for citizenship until 1943.

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The Chinese Exclusion Act Explained: US History Review- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JOgIjSI0FrM

10 Best Chinatowns In The World-HD- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLQxWGjg5co

- No notes needed for this video, just watch

Take notes on the following reading from Wikipedia

Indian South Africans are South Africans of Indian descent. The majority live in and around the city of Durban, making it 'the largest 'Indian' city outside India'.[2] Many Indians in South Africa are descendents of migrants from colonial India (South Asia) during late 19th-century through early 20th-century. At times Indians were subsumed in the broader geographical category "Asians".[3]

There remains a cultural, religious and racial overlap for "Asians" and "Indian South Africans". During the most intense period of segregation and apartheid, "Indian", "Asian", "Coloured", and "Malay" group identities defined where a classified person was permitted to live under the Group Areas Act.[4]

During ideological apartheid from 1948 to 1994, Indians were called, and often voluntarily accepted, terms that ranged from "Asians" to "Indians". Some citizens believed that these terms were improvements on the negatively defined identity of "Non-White", which was their previous status. Politically conscious and nationalistic Indian South Africans wanted to show both their heritage and their local roots. Increasingly they self-identified as "African", "South African" and, when necessary, "Indian South Africans".[citation needed]

History[edit]

Further information: History of Cape Colony Pre-1806

Dutch servitude in the Cape[edit]

A significant proportion of slaves imported into the Cape were from parts of India including Bangladesh .[6] Note that these slaves were only from Goa, Kerala and Bengal and were likely to have been sold to Dutch traders by Muslim rulers such as Mughals at the time.The Dutch in particular had good trade relations with Muslim rulers in India during the 1600s.[7][better source needed] Many slaves had no identity as Indians and were conveniently classified by the Dutch in the Cape as part of "Cape Coloured" and Cape Malay communities.[8] White Afrikaners also may have some Indian slave ancestry,[6] an example of this being former State President F.W. de Klerk, who revealed in his autobiography that one of his ancestors was a female slave called Diana of Bengal.[9] There is no reference to the real names of these Indians and were given "Christian" names for convenience. This all contributed to the loss of identity similar to the Mozambicans and other slaves who were brought to the Cape.

An early Indian to settle in South Africa was Kalaga Prabhu, a Goud Saraswat Brahmin merchant from Cochin. He was the foremost among the Konkani merchants in Cochin (modern day Kochi in Kerala). As punishment for conspiring with the Mysorean Muslim

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king Hyder Ali to overthrow the king of Cochin, Kalaga Prabhu and his son Chorda Prabhu were arrested by the Dutch and exiled with their families for life to the Cape of Good Hope in 1771. No further record of this individual and his descendants if any exists.[10]

[better source needed]

Indentured labourers and passenger Indians[edit]See also: Indian indenture system

The modern South African Indian community is largely descended from Indians who arrived in South Africa from 1860 onwards. The first 342 of these came on board the Truro from Madras,[11][12] followed by the Belvedere from Calcutta.[12] They were transported as indentured labourers to work on the sugarcane plantations of Natal Colony, and, in total, approximately 150,000 Indians arrived as indentured labourers over a period of 5 decades,[12][13] later also as indentured coal miners and railway workers.[14][15] The indentured labourers tended to speak Tamil, Telugu and Hindi,[16] and the majority were Hindu with Christians and a few Muslims among them.[12] Indians were imported as it was found by colonial authorities that local black Africans were economically self-sufficient, and thus unwilling to subject themselves to employment by colonial farmers, while other colonial authorities believed that the "hunting and warrior" African culture of the time was incompatible with a sudden shift to employed labour. The Mercury newspaper favoured the importation of labour, although other Natal newspapers were against the idea. In general, the importation of labour was not viewed as politically important by colonists when it was proposed, and the importation of Indian labour was driven by lobbying by a relatively small group of sugar planters, and the long-term consequences of Indian immigration (the establishment of a permanent Indian population in Natal) were not taken into account.[17] (by 1904, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal).[18] It should be noted that although 1860 is dated as the beginning of Indian settlement in Natal, a farmer called ER Rathbone was the first to introduce Indian labour to the colony in 1849.[11][19]

Indentured labourers on sugar plantations were frequently mistreated, and lived in unsanitary conditions. A large percentage of indentured labourers returned to India following the expiry of their terms, and some of those who returned alerted authorities in India to abuses taking place in Natal, which led to new safeguards being put in place before further recruiting of indentured labourers was allowed to take place.[14]

Former indentured labourers who didn't return to India quickly established themselves as an important general labour force in Natal particularly as industrial and railway workers, with others engaging in market gardening, growing most of the vegetables consumed by the white population.[20] Indians also became fishermen, and worked as clerks; in the postal service; and as court interpreters.[15]

The remaining Indian immigration was from passenger Indians, comprising traders and others who migrated to South Africa shortly after the indentured labourers,[11] paid for their own fares and travelled as British Subjects. These immigrant Indians who became traders were from varying religious backgrounds, namely Hindu and Muslims but largely from Gujarat (including Memons and Surtis),[21] later joined by Kokanis, and Urdu speakers from Uttar Pradesh.[20] These Muslims played an important part in the establishment of Islam in the areas where they settled. There was also a significant number of Gujarati Hindus in this group. Indian traders were sometimes referred to as "Arab traders" because of their dress, as large numbers of them were Muslim.[21]

Passenger Indians, who initially operated in Durban, expanded inland, to the South African Republic (Transvaal), establishing communities in settlements on the main road between Johannesburg and Durban. Natal's Indian traders rapidly displaced small white shop owners in trade with other Indians, and with black Africans, causing resentment among white businesses.

Researchers have made efforts to collect and make available shipping lists of Indian immigrants.[22

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From bondage to freedom - The 150th anniversary of the arrival of Indian workers in South Africa  - http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/indian-south-africans

The feature on Indian South Africans forms part of our larger feature on the People of South Africa. It is a long term project to build a comprehensive overview of the rich diversity of peoples, traditions and culture that address the question, 'Who are South Africans?' This year, 2010, is the 150th anniversary of the arrival of the Indian indentured labourers and the birth of this community in South Africa. We are using this to launch and major project to build a comprehensive social and political history of this African community.

Origins:

South Africans of Indian origin comprise a heterogeneous community distinguished by different origins, languages, and religious beliefs. The first Indians arrived during the Dutch colonial era, as slaves, in 1684. A conservative calculation based strictly on records shows over 16 300 slaves from the Indian subcontinent having been brought to the Cape. In the decades 1690 to 1725 over 80% of the slaves were Indians. This practice continued until the end of slavery in 1838. They made up the majority of slaves that came from the Far East and were by the 1880s totally integrated into the Cape White and Coloured communities.

In the second half if the 19th Century, Indians came to South Africa in two categories, namely as indentured workers in 1860 and later as 'free' or 'passenger' Indians. The former came as a result of a triangular pact among three governments, which stated that the indentured Indians were to work for the Natal colonial government on Natal's sugar plantations. The 'free' Indians came to South Africa mainly as traders alert to new opportunities abroad. These 'free Indians' came at their own expense from India, Mauritius, and other places. However, emigration was stopped in 1914.

Between November 1860 and 1911(when the system of indentured labour was stopped) nearly 152 184 indentured labourers from across India arrived in Natal. After serving their indentures, the first category of Indians were free to remain in South Africa or to return to India. By 1910, nearly 26.85% indentured men returned to India, but most chose to stay and thus constituted the forbearers of the majority of present-day South African Indians.

With 1994 and the advent of a democratic constitution, immigration policy restrictions, imposed by the apartheid regime, were scrapped. People from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, arrived in South Africa as new immigrants. However, there is a major cultural division between these new groups and Indian South Africans.

A key factor that helped forge a common South African "Indian" identity was the political struggles waged against harsh discriminatory laws enacted against Indians and the other Black oppressed groups in the country. As a consequence, the Indian community established a number of political formations, the most prominent being the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) established by Gandhi in 1894, and the Transvaal and Cape Indian Congresses in the early part of the 20th century. Members of the Indian Congress, together with socialist activists in the Communist Party of South Africa were instrumental, from the 1930s, in building cross racial alliances. The small Indian, Coloured and White progressive sectors joined with progressive African activists and together, they conducted a common non-racial struggle for Freedom and Equality.

Language, culture and beliefs:

English is spoken as a first language by most Indian South Africans, although a minority of the Indian South African population, especially the elders, still speak some Indian languages. These languages include Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Punjabi, and Gujarati. Indian South Africans are predominantly Hindu, but Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs also came to South Africa from India from as early as 1860.

Hindu, the most prominent religion in India, originated 5000 years ago. The Hindu religion prescribes a three fold approach to serving God. This approach includes knowledge, or the studying of the Bhagavad-Gita and other texts; yoga, to connect both body and mind,

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and devotion or bhakti, which promotes serving God through prayer and benevolent acts. Notable Hindu festivals include Diwali/Deepavali, the festival of lights, and the Tamil Thai Poosam Kavady annual festival.

Muslim/Islamic influence began in South Africa with the arrival of indentured workers from the west and south coast of India. As only 7- 10% of these workers were Muslim, Sheikh Ahmad, the founding father of Islam in Natal, and later Soofie Saheb ensured that impoverished Muslim Indians were not drawn to Hinduism. Therefore, a concerted effort was made to retain their religious heritage, through the demarcation of Islamic festivals and the establishment of Muslim schools or madrasahs.

The Islamic community continues to thrive in South Africa, in both Natal and the Western Cape - where indentured labourers moved with their families after the completion of their contracts. Followers of the Muslim faith are committed to praying at least five times a day, and are not permitted to drink alcohol. Notable Muslim celebrations include Eid, and Ramadan.

The Sikh faith forms a slender portion of the local population, and is a religion influenced by both Hindu and Islam. The Sikh religion is concerned with a belief in One Immortal Being and ten gurus. Many Sikhs wear an iron or steel bracelet as a symbol of their devotion to their religion. Originating in the Punjab region, prominent Sikh celebrations include Parkash Utsav, which celebrates 'Divine Light' or 'Divine Knowledge'.

The diverse Indian population in South Africa is concentrated in Kwa-Zulu Natal's largest city, Durban, which has the most substantial Indian population in sub-Saharan Africa. South Africa as a whole also has a substantial Indian population, with over 1 million people of Indian descent. Therefore, Indian influences have contributed to the multi-cultural diversity of South Africa. The local culinary landscape has been infused with a diverse array of Oriental flavour - most notably in the Natal region. Popular dishes include curry, and an intrinsic Durban dish called 'bunny chow', which is half a loaf of bread, hollowed out and filled with curry.

South African Indians retain a sense of cultural and social connection to India, and a concept of primary local and secondary ancestral identity is prevalent among people of Indian descent.

Why a million Indians call South Africa home- http://www.cnn.com/videos/world/2015/09/21/spc-inside-africa-indians-of-durban-a.cnn

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