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Kenya Water Towers Status Report

Coordinated Environmental ProtectionA Call To Action 2018

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Report4

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iCoordinated Environmental Protection

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Water Towers the Heart of National and International Development

The right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities and the right to a clean and secure environment are rights enshrined in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of Kenya. This underscores the obligation of the government to meet this provision for the people of this nation. As the Ministry mandated to attain this goal, our vision is to attain a clean, healthy, safe and sustainably managed environment. We do this by facilitating good governance in the protection, restoration, conservation, development and management of the environment, water and natural resources for equitable and sustainable development.

Kenya is a water scarce country. It is estimated that renewable fresh water available to each person is 647 cubic meters per year against a recommended minimum of 1000 cubic meters. This is projected to decrease even further to 235 cubic meters by 2025 unless urgent measures are put in place to ensure a steady flow of this resource from its sources. Environmental phenomenon such as erratic rainfall, desertification and drought due to negative impacts of climate change are some of the challenges faced by the Ministry in attaining its mandate. These are compounded by human activities and their consequences in the form of over exploitation and depletion of water catchments that lead to water scarcity and loss of biodiversity and pollution of water-ways by industries. The rapid population growth accompanied by unplanned settlements endanger the livelihoods and well being of communities as natural resources exceeds the supply. This is a threat my ministry is cognizant of and will mobilize necessary resources from public and private sources to ensure natural resources are protected and preserved for the well being of current and future generations.

Protection of our water towers is crucial to our very survival as country. The role they play in key economic sectors such as agriculture, livestock, industry, energy and tourism, at national, regional and global scale cannot be over emphasized. Take for instance the longest river in the world, the River Nile which traverses through half the continent of Africa and is the lifeline of millions of people along its route is fed by Mau forest complex through Lake Victoria. Our national parks which hold priceless

2/21/2018 Director of Public Prosecutions – Office of the Director of Public Prosecution

http://www.odpp.go.ke/director-of-public-prosecutions/ 1/3

Director of Public Prosecutions

Mr. Keriako Tobiko is the current

holder of this o�ce and the �rst

under the new Constitution of

Kenya having being �rst appointed

in 2005. He was re-designated as

the Chief Public Prosecutor in

August 2010 and appointed to

head the independent

constitutional o�ce in June 2011.

He is an advocate of the High Court of Kenya and formerly a lecturer

at the University of Nairobi.

Mr. Tobiko is an alumni of the University of Nairobi and Cambridge.

Mr. Tobiko is a winner of GadhiSmarak Award for Best “A” Level

student 1984 (Kenya), Barclays Cambridge Commonwealth

Scholarship, 1990 for Kenya and Pegasus Cambridge Scholarship,

1990 as well as Fellow of Cambridge Commonwealth Society

(FCCS). He has served in other national institutions namely:

The Commission of Inquiry into the Land Law Systems in Kenya (The

Njonjo Land Commission, between 1999 – 2002) where he was a

Commissioner;

The Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC, between

2000-2005) where he was a commissioner;

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Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportii

flora and fauna are fed by water towers such as Chyulu, Mt Kenya, Mau Forest complex. Water towers are our source of water, energy and other resources. Continued population growth, unmanaged development, climate change and other heavy social pressures however have had a negative impact on their resilience and health, this call for urgent action to salvage our future.

My Ministry is committed to addressing these challenges and encourages stakeholders to come together to form strategic partnerships and linkages for optimum water and natural resources research, use, management and sustenance. We welcome creative and innovative solutions, particularly initiatives that enhance the technical capacity of rural communities, in a coordinated manner, to secure an environmentally sustainable future for the country.

The Kenya Water Tower Agency (KWTA) with its mandate of coordination and oversight over this nation’s water towers, is one of our strategic working partners in pursuit of the goal of ensuring water security, stability and surplus as planned for in the social pillar of Kenya’s Vision 2030, ‘to ensure that the nation evolves into a truly just and cohesive society enjoying equitable social development in a clean and secure environment.’ I am aware of the fact that the agency is involved in periodic assessments of the water towers and producing status reports and calling for upon stakeholders to take action. I draw attention to the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution of Kenya and urge the County governments to adopt the findings of these assessments in their development plans.

I further wish to appreciate the personal interest taken by H.E the president and the Deputy President to conserve the country for our posterity and heritage.

Mr. Keriako Tobiko, CBS, SCCabinet Secretary Environment and Forestry

iiiCoordinated Environmental Protection

Water Towers are the sources of most rivers in Kenya. They play a critical role in the country as they influence rainfall, provide water in ecosystems and create opportunities for investments in natural resources such as generation of hydroelectric power and preservation of biodiversity which promotes tourism. They are also important resources to the immediate communities and regions where occur primarily because they provide water for a myriad of uses. Unfortunately water towers are sensitive and ecologically fragile ecosystems that need to be protected and conserved.

One of the key threats to the very existence of water towers is rapid population growth and encroachment of human settlements into these sensitive zones. The result has been severe deforestation, whose impact has been felt in the drying up of rivers, dams and springs, loss of species, reduction in agricultural production, and increased community conflicts due to competition for scarce resources,

The Kenya Water Towers Agency (KWTA), has the arduous oversight mandate over the country’s water towers. One of the core functions of the agency is to assess and monitor rehabilitation, conservation and management activities in the water towers and produce periodic Status Reports to serve as a clarion calls to an issue of grave national importance: the health and future of Kenya’s Water Towers and our national development. The Agency’s strategic plan 2016 -2020 provides a road map for the rehabilitation, conservation, protection and sustainable management of water towers in Kenya. Committed strategic partners and collaborators such as the KWS, KFS, County governments, and government ministries are all invited to join hands with the Agency and Ministry in addressing the threats made to our water towers.

The first status report produced in 2015 provided an overview of the all the water towers in the country. The agency has now adopted a more intensive approach by critically analyzing each water tower as an entity focusing on the four problematic areas; the status of land cover; the status of rivers, springs, wetlands, and marshes; the biodiversity dimension particularly the state

Water for Life

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportiv

of endangered species and lastly the human activities with special emphasis on alternative livelihoods which effectively reduces the levels of reliance on resources from the water towers.

The State Department for Environment and Forestry is committed to ensuring the conservation and rehabilitation of all water towers in the country as one of the strategies to mitigate the effects of global warming and climate change. We look forward to the different activities that will emerge out of this report for Chyulu and East Mau Water Towers. We are pleased to be a collaborator in that vision.

Mr. Charles SunkuliPrincipal Secretary Environment and Forestry

vCoordinated Environmental Protection

Saving Water Towers, a National Priority

The Kenya Water Towers Agency (KWTA) is committed to the conservation and preservation of our country’s natural resources through unwavering leadership in the management of the Water Towers that support rich biological heritage and long term national development agenda. As a coordinator, the role of the Agency as trustees and custodians of the immense, rich, diverse and complex natural heritage in the Water Towers, cannot be under estimated. Further, the conservation and preservation efforts by the Agency are for not only the current and future generations in Kenya, but also for the world at large because we are not an island but instead live in a ‘global village’.

As a country we rely on clean and reliable sources of water from the Water Towers for our very survival and the growth of our economy. However, in recent years, we have faced unprecedented challenges and threats to our water towers largely through human activities that have disturbed their structure and functioning. The effect has been deforestation, the drying of rivers and springs, water pollution, crop failure, inadequate pasture, frequent and intense floods, increased incidence of pests and diseases, the shrinking of this country’s distinct diverse biodiversity, and insecure livelihoods. Communities around the water towers that directly utilize the resources as a means of their livelihood are unfortunately the most vulnerable and hardest hit by the disturbances in the ecosystems. The disturbances in the ecosystems have in the past have led to serious conflicts over the use of limited resources, especially water and pasture.

The link between people and the environment is best manifested in the health of the ecosystem they live in. Population pressures, the lack of proper planning and the commensurate increase in the demand for resources have placed undue pressure on our Water Towers. Environmental degradation and more precisely, deforestation have become a common phenomenon in rural landscapes throughout the country. Yet as a young nation that relies heavily on primary agricultural production, we are conscious of the needs of our communities that reside adjacent to the water towers. In the short time the Agency has been in operation, I have had the privilege of a wide and varied interaction

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportvi

with stakeholders, board of management and technical staff. In the process, I have witnessed initiation of conservation programs that have reversed some of the threats that had the potential to cause even greater damage to our water towers. In fact there are some positive examples from East Mau and Chyulu water towers included in this status report that demonstrate what can be achieved through the commitment of all stakeholders working in harmony with a sense of purpose under focused leadership. Chyulu Hills, and East Mau water towers are both of great economic importance to the country yet their history is a great contrast and is an example of what long term conservation can do as in the case of Chyulu and the impact of wanton destruction as exemplified by East Mau. This notwithstanding, both water towers face similar threats, more so for Chyulu which lies in a fragile arid to semi-arid environment.

This and subsequent quarterly reports present an in-depth analysis of the status of the various water towers in the country with a special focus on the status and trends of our forest cover, the state of rivers and their tributaries, changes in biodiversity and finally the activities of the adjacent communities and their impacts on the water towers. The end goal is to determine a workable formula that both protects the environment and sustains community livelihoods.

We are committed to the sustenance of the water towers through partnerships and linkages that will tap the knowledge and technological developments of partners. Given the urgency of the situation, we shall strive even more rigorously to reach out and bring on board more stakeholders that include though not limited to the private sector to mitigate the negative impacts of the threats exacerbated by negative impacts of climate change. The journey has only began and as KWTA, we seek to address the enormous challenge of balancing, not only environmentally conscious living, but also the individual livelihood needs of communities seeking to grow and achieve an equitable, sustainable, productive and efficient use of natural resources from the water towers.

We as a coordinating body therefore call upon all stakeholders to take action in protecting our water towers. KWS and KFS have been our partners in this quest but we also invite the Ministry responsible for energy to look into ways of providing affordable alternative source of fuel to lessen demand for charcoal and firewood. The Ministries responsible for industry and agriculture also need to intensify efforts in promoting alternative livelihoods such as agroforestry, small-scale manufacturing, and agro-processing to lessen demand for resources from water towers.

viiCoordinated Environmental Protection

I wish to acknowledge and thank H.E. Hon Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta, CGH, President and Commander in Chief of the Defense Forces of the Republic of Kenya, for the commitment the Government has made to ensure Kenya plays a leading role in ecological engagement, thinking and practice. I also wish to acknowledge the support provided by the Cabinet Secretaries for Ministries of Environment and Natural Resources, and the National Treasury and Planning in ensuring that the Agency meets its mandate. I also take this opportunity to thank the KWTA board who are expected to provide policy and logistical support towards turning around the fortunes of the country’s water towers. I cannot forget the key role played by the KWTA management and staff who work with due diligence and commitment to address the strategic issues of the organization’s mandate. Finally, I am grateful for the collaboration and support of our partners that include the KWS, KFS, UNEP, various NGOs and urge that we continue to work together towards realization of the Agency’s motto of ‘Coordinated Environmental Protection’.

Isaac P Kalua, PhD, CBSChairpersonKenya Water Towers Agency

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportviii

Kenya Water Towers Agency Board Members

Isaac P. Kalua, PhD, CBS Board Chairperson

Ms. Margaret M. MarangaIndependent Board Member

Mr. Robert K. TigogoIndependent Board Member

Mr. Robert Mutuma (HSC)Independent Board Member

Mr. Peter Leitoro, OGW, NDC (K)Alternate to PS Environment & Forestry

Ms. Esther WangombeAlternate to PS Energy & Petroleum

Mr. Warui MainaAlternate to CS National Treasury

Eng. David K ChepkwonyIndependent Board Member

Mr. Bernard MulwaAlternate to PS Water & Sanitation

Prof. Julius Gordon Tanui PhDAg. DG, Secretary to the Board

ixCoordinated Environmental Protection

Executive SummaryThis Water Towers Status Report is a detailed assessment of the status of Chyulu and East Mau water towers. It provides an overview of the changes that have taken place in the two towers for the period between 1990 and 2016 (26 years) for the purposes of establishing trends and determining when the towers began to deteriorate and what could have been done and what should be done to avert and reverse the situation.

The main areas of focus are the changes that have occurred in land cover as a result of human activity and to determine the effects of this change to the environment. The second aspect was the change in water flows from the rivers, springs, wetlands and even dams as a result of the

changes in land cover. The third was to investigate the biodiversity dimension as to whether species are becoming endangered and what should be done to preserve them. Lastly and most importantly was to assess the human activities around the water towers. In this respect the study sought to determine the effect of the ever increasing population densities around the water towers; the main sources of livelihoods in the face of climate change and dwindling agricultural productivity; how the communities interact and benefit from the ecosystem and what conservation measures are being undertaken to preserve the environment.

Chyulu Hills Water tower encompasses the Chyulu National Park, Tsavo West National Park, Kibwezi Forest Reserve and Mbirikani and Kuku Game Reserves, and traverses Makueni, Taita Taveta and Kajiado Counties. The tower lies in precarious and fragile arid to semi - arid region which accentuates the need for its preservation. The tower measures approximately 52,000 ha of land most of which has remained largely undisturbed due to the conservation efforts at the national game reserves that are major tourist attractions for the country.

A wide range of plant and animal species are found here although some are now becoming endangered. The hills were once home to the African elephants and black rhinos but their numbers

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportx

have drastically reduced and are classified by international watchdogs as critically endangered. The water tower is a major source of water for various rivers and springs in the surrounding vicinity of which Mzima springs has the most discharge; its waters supply is 15% of the water requirements for the city of Mombasa. Despite the seemingly undisturbed nature of the ecosystem, communities around the water tower rely on primary agriculture for their livelihood and often venture into the forest for firewood, charcoal, honey and pasture. Population increase is now a major threat to the water tower due to increased demand for resources especially water, grazing ground and timber for firewood, charcoal and building, most of which are acquired illegally. But there is hope as there are over 30 stakeholders engaged in conservation and preservation activities both in the game reserves and among the communities. Construction of an electric fence around some of the game reserves is underway to reduce the human wildlife conflicts and this will inevitably have a positive impact on the water tower.

The East Mau Water Tower is a contrast to Chyulu in as far as conservation and preservation is concerned. The tower is located in Nakuru and Narok Counties with a total of 157,633 ha of land comprising of 66,192 ha gazetted forest and 91,442 ha buffer zone. The area is highly fertile and receives 1000 -2000 mm of rain annually. The key threat facing the water tower is the resettlement of communities close to the water tower and the subsequent encroachment by the settlers into protected areas of the forest due to population pressure and demand for resources.

Between 1990 and 2016, there was drastic change in the landscape of East Mau. Within the gazetted forest zone, forestland decreased by about 40% from 54,804 ha in 1990 to 21,740 ha in 2016. Trees were cut down to give way to grazing land, and cultivated crops. In the 5 km buffer zone, crop land increased by 12,953 ha to become the dominant land cover and forest land occupied only 25% of the area. This conversion of forest lands to open grasslands for cultivation upset the balanced nature of the ecosystem and as a result many of the rivers from the Mau forest complex started to dry up leading to a national outcry over the destruction of the forest. Restoration efforts are ongoing and are yielding fruits. The promotion of the shamba system is helping to restore the forests, the establishment of the Joint Enforcement Unit is enforcing the law; and plans are underway to fence off the water tower.

xiCoordinated Environmental Protection

The general recommendations for sustainable management of water towers include:

1. Mapping and Valuation of Water Towers: Water towers are highly undervalued in the country. it is therefore necessary to map out and evaluate them to determine their total economic value to the immediate communities and the wider region in which they occur.

2. Policy and Strategy: A national policy and conservation strategy for all water towers should be developed in consultation with stakeholders including county governments. The strategy should be integrated into County Integrated Development Plans (CIDP) to attract interest and funding towards conservation and preservation of water towers in line with the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution of Kenya.

3. Capacity Building: The capacity needs of various organizations and institutions, including KWTA for long-term, effective and sustainable management of the water towers should be established and addressed. The needs include policy and legal formulation and implementation; collaboration and networking; emerging technologies and innovations on conservation and group formation and management.

4. Gazettement and Titling: Non-gazetted water towers should be gazetted coupled with issuance of title deeds for those lacking formal land ownership documents. This will protect and secure them in the long-term, particularly against encroachment and land excision.

6. Planting of Bamboo Belts: There is need to secure the water towers against encroachment by planting Bamboo belts along the boundaries. The belts will enhance security, spur economic growth, and create employment while providing other ecological benefits to the surrounding communities. The belts are cheaper than conventional electric fence, both in terms of initial capital investment and overall maintenance requirements.

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxii

7. Promotion of Green Investments: There is a need to promote and establish ecological friendly enterprises and businesses that would contribute to the preservation and conservation of water towers. Further, appropriate success stories on green investments at the local, regional and international levels should be domesticated and up-scaled examples include: bamboo farming, sport fishing, eco-tourism, herbal medicines and products.

8. Control of Forest and Bush Fires: A community-based approach in dealing with the fire disasters should be employed. CBOs should provide a platform for consensus building, culminating in the formation of Community-Based Forest Fire Management (CBFFM) groups. Adequate policy and legislative interventions for successful establishment of CBFFM, strongly backed by institutional and financial support are necessary.

9. Enforcement of Charcoal Rules: Full rollout and implementation of the Charcoal Rules (2009) including strict enforcement of the provisions that require tree planting to replace those harvested for charcoal production. The rules also need to be aligned to the constitution by specifying role of county governments. Further, Energy and Forest Acts should be harmonized to remove ambiguity on the licensing of charcoal value chain players. Promotion of alternative sources of energy such as cooking gas which should be made available and affordable to more households country wide.

10. Promote Payment for Ecosystem Services: There is need to generate awareness and interest in provision of both ecosystem services (sellers) and their market (buyers) to the local communities surrounding the water towers through piloting PES schemes in selected water towers and scaling up lessons learnt.

Prof. Julius Gordon Tanui PhD.Ag. Director General Kenya Water Towers Agency

xiiiCoordinated Environmental Protection

AcknowledgementThis status report for East Mau and Chyulu Hills water towers is the result of an extensive ecosystem assessment to determine the current state of degradation, the causes thereof and the conservation efforts. On behalf of the team that coordinated this assessment, I wish to acknowledge the contribution by various key stakeholders towards completion of this report. First and foremost, I wish to thank KWTA Board of Management under the leadership of Dr. Isaac Kalua, for endorsing and supporting the development of this report. Also acknowledged is the Ag. Director General Prof. Julius Gordon Tanui for providing the

technical backstopping and logistical support required to develop and finalize the report.

Further appreciation is extended to fellow KWTA Directors, Senior Management and the entire KWTA staff for providing technical data and information which was invaluable in developing the report. In particular, I would like to appreciate the team of Stephen Kibet, Miriam Wandia and Georgina Kokonya from the Directorate of Ecosystem Planning and Audit who worked tirelessly in collecting, collating, analyzing and presenting data and information incorporated into this report. The team worked closely with Department of Remote Sensing and Resource Surveys who provided data on land use and land cover changes in the water towers. Also appreciated are the drivers and othe support staff from KWTA for their service throughout the exercise.

The invaluable input from Dr. Jones Agwata, Mr. Stanilaus Gachara and Ms. Faith Muturi who peer reviewed the report during the Nakuru workshop with KWTA senior management and technical staff is also highly appreciated. I wish to equally acknowledge the support from the KFS through the ecosystem conservators, KWS through the senior wardens, the government officials at the counties and the community members who participated in the exercise.

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxiv

I cannot also forget Dr. Samuel Guto and Josephine Mogere who carried out the final editing and proof reading of the report, and Jane Njeru and Barnabas Kimani who handled the layout, design and printing of the final report. Finally, I anonymously thank all those I have not mentioned who provided support in one way or the other towards the finalization of this report.

Dr. Winfred Musila, PhD. Director, Ecosystem Assessment, Planning and Audit Kenya Water Towers Agency

xvCoordinated Environmental Protection

The Big Four

Food and

NutritionalSecurity

Universal Health

Coverage

Affordable Housing

Enhancing Manufacturing

During the next 5 years, I will dedicate the energy, time and resources of my adminstration to the Big Four.

The Big Four will create jobs, which will enable our people to meet their basic needs. Jobs will transform the lives of our people from that of hardship and want, to new lives of

greater comfort and wellbeing. And that is the future I have seen.Uhuru Kenyatta

PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF KENYA

Ecosystem goods and services are the foundation for the success of all the sectors in Kenya and thus the big four agenda will not be achieved without conserving the environment, especially the water towers. The water Towers have direct and indirect linkages with Health, Food and Nutrition, Housing, Industrial and Manufacturing sectors due to their heavy reliance on natural resources such as water and wood. Therefore, the protection and sustainable management of Water Towers must be given high priority in order to provide an enabling environment towards achievement of the Big Four.

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxvi

Table of ContentsMessage from the Cabinet Secretary ........ ...................................................................... i

Message from the Principal Secretary ............................................................................ iii

Message from the Chairman, KWTA ................................................................................ v

Kenya Water Towers Agency Board Members ................................................................ viii

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................ ix

Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. xiii

Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................ xxii

Definition of Terms .............................................................................................................. xxiv

1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview of Water Towers .......................................................................................... 2

1.1.1 Threats to Water Towers .................................................................................... 5

1.2 Quarterly Water Tower Status Reports ...................................................................... 9

1.3 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 10

2. Chyulu HIlls Water Tower ............................................................................................... 14

2.1 Hydrology .................................................................................................................... 15

2.1.1 Water flow changes .......................................................................................... 19

2.1.2 Critical water catchment areas ......................................................................... 21

2.1.3 Water Resource Users Associations ................................................................. 22

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2.2 Biodiversity ................................................................................................................ 23

2.2.1 Rich biodiversity ................................................................................................ 23

2.2.2 Biodiversity hot spots ........................................................................................ 25

2.3 Land Use and Land Cover ......................................................................................... 29

2.4 Socio Economics and Livelihoods of Adjacent Communities .................................... 33

2.5 Community Interaction ............................................................................................... 35

2.6 Total Economic Valuation ...........................................................................................36

2.7 Threats ....................................................................................................................... 39

2.8 Priority Areas for Intervention .................................................................................... 43

2.9 Proposed Interventions .............................................................................................. 48

2.10 Interventions and Achievements .............................................................................. 50

2.11 Potential Community Projects ................................................................................... 50

2.12 Stakeholder Analysis .................................................................................................. 51

3. East Mau Water Tower .................................................................................................... 56

3.1 Hydrology .................................................................................................................... 57

3.1.1 Rivers ................................................................................................................. 58

3.1.2 Swamps, Wetlands and Springs ........................................................................ 59

3.1.3 Water Resources Users Association ................................................................. 63

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxviii

3.2 Biodiversity .................................................................................................................. 64

3.3 Land Use and Land Cover ......................................................................................... 65

3.4 Socio Economics and Livelihoods of Adjacent Communities .................................... 70

3.5 Total Economic Valuation ........................................................................................... 72

3.6 Community Interaction ............................................................................................... 73

3.7 Threats ....................................................................................................................... 75

3.8 Priority Areas for Intervention .................................................................................... 79

3.9 Interventions and Achievements ................................................................................ 83

3.9.1 Establishment of the Joint Enforcement Unit .................................................. 84

3.10 Stakeholder Analysis ................................................................................................. 87

4. Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................. 93

References ............................................................................................................................ 99

Annexes ................................................................................................................................ 103

List of TablesTable 1.1: Gazetted Water Towers and their Location/County ........................................................ 3Table 1.2: Non-Gazetted Water Towers and their Location/County ................................................ 4Table 1.3: The Key Threats to the Gazetted Water Towers .............................................................. 7Table 2.1: Establishment of WRUAs and SCMPs at Chyulu Sub Catchments ................................... 22Table 2.2: Summary of Biodiversity Richness and Hotspots in Chyulu ........................................... 26Table 2.3: IUCN Red-Listed Animal Species of Chyulu ..................................................................... 27Table 2.4: CITES listed Animal Species found in Chyulu .................................................................. 27

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Table 2.5: Medicinal Plants of Chyulu Hills ...................................................................................... 28Table 2.6: Conservation Priority Issues and Proposed Interventions ............................................. 45Table 2.7: Community Projects Identified and Prioritized ............................................................... 50Table 2.8: Diversity of Stakeholders in Chyulu and their Roles ....................................................... 51Table 3.1: WRUAs within East Mau .................................................................................................. 64Table 3.2: Threats facing Rivers in East Mau .................................................................................... 64Table 3.3: Land Use and Land Cover in East Mau ............................................................................ 66Table 3.4: Total Economic Value ...................................................................................................... 72Table 3.5: Community Interaction ................................................................................................... 74Table 3.6: Threats .............................................................................................................................76Table 3.7: Conservation Priority Issues and Proposed Interventions ............................................. 81Table 3.8: Activities of the Joint Enforcement Unit .......................................................................... 85Table 3.9: Achievements of the Joint Enforcement Unit ................................................................ 86Table 3.10: Stakeholders and their Roles ......................................................................................... 89

List of FiguresFigure 2.1: Location of Chyulu .......................................................................................................14Figure 2.2: Mean Rainfall Distribution in Chyulu ...........................................................................15Figure 2.3: Spatial Rainfall Distribution in Chyulu .........................................................................15Figure 2.4: Water Catchments of Chyulu .......................................................................................16Figure 2.5: Watershed Area for Chyulu .........................................................................................17Figure 2.6: Minimum flow for Kibwezi River ..................................................................................18Figure 2.7: Spring Discharge and its Corresponding River Flow ....................................................19

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxx

Figure 2.8: Critical watershed hotspots in Chyulu Hills ..................................................................21Figure 2.9: Biodiversity Hotspots in Chyulu ....................................................................................26Figure 2.10: Land Use and Land Cover Changes ...........................................................................29Figure 2.11: Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Buffer Zone ....................................................30Figure 2.12: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Forested Area ...................31Figure 2.13: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Buffer Zone .......................31Figure 2.14: Spatial Land Cover Maps for Chyulu Water Tower .....................................................32Figure 2.15: Population density in Chyulu .....................................................................................33Figure 2.16: Maasai and Kamba Activities ......................................................................................36Figure 2.17: Total Economic Valuation for Chyulu Water Tower ....................................................37Figure 2.18: Priority Areas for Intervention ....................................................................................44Figure 3.1: Location of East Mau ...................................................................................................56Figure 3.2: East Mau Rainfall Distribution ......................................................................................57Figure 3.3: Drainage System of East Mau ......................................................................................59Figure 3.4: Molo River Flow ...........................................................................................................60Figure 3.5: Njoro River Flow ...........................................................................................................60Figure 3.6: Land Use and Land Cover for East Mau Forest Zone ...................................................67Figure 3.7: Land Cover Maps for East Mau ...................................................................................67Figure 3.8: Land Use and Land Cover for East Mau Buffer Zone ...................................................68Figure 3.9: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Gazetted Forest ...................69Figure 3.10: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Buffer Zone ........................69Figure 3.11: Population Density in East Mau .................................................................................71Figure 3.12: Years Lived Adjacent to the East Mau .......................................................................71Figure 3.13: Environmental Threats Facing East Mau ....................................................................75Figure 3.14: Priority Areas of Intervention in East Mau .................................................................80

xxiCoordinated Environmental Protection

The ecosystem services and goods provided by the water towers include micro-climate regulation, water storage and purification, waste treatment and carbon sinks. The communities living adjacent to water towers benefit directly through provision of goods such as firewood, pasture and honey. The contribution of water towers and natural resources in general to the national economy has been grossly undervalued, leading to inadequate resource allocation for their conservation and preservation.

For example, in the current financial year (2017/18), the water and natural resource management has been allocated 78 billion, representing a mere 4% of the total national budget as can be seen in the Figure below. There is need for awareness creation and promoting appreciation of the importance of conservation and protection of the natural resources and the associated need for adequate budgetary allocation.

Budgetary Allocation to Sustainable Natural Resource Management

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxxii

Abbreviations and Acronyms ALs Alternative Livelihoods

App Appendix

AWF Africa Wildlife Foundation

CBFFM Community Based Forest Fire Management

CFA Community Forestry Associations

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

GBM Green Belt Movement

GIS Geographical Information System

GoK Government of Kenya

GPS Global Positioning System

ha hectares

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature

JEU Joint Enforcement Unit

KAM Kamba

KCB Kenya Commercial Bank

KEFRI Kenya Forestry Research Institute

KENGEN Kenya Electricity Generating Company Limited

KES Kenya Shillings

KFN Kenya Forestry Network

KFS Kenya Forestry Service

xxiiiCoordinated Environmental Protection

KFWG Kenya Forestry Working Group

KIFCON Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation

KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

KWS Kenya Wildlife Service

KWTA Kenya Water Towers Agency

LULC Land Use and Land Cover

LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Program

MAA Maasai

MOALF Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries

Mt Mountain

NEMA National Environmental Management Authority

PELIS Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme

PES Payment for Ecosystem Services

SCMP Sub-Catchment Management Plan

SLM Sustainable Land Management

Swa Swahili

TEV Total Economic Value

WRA Water Resource Authority

WRUA Water Resource Users Association

WWF World Wildlife Fund

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxxiv

Definition of TermsWater TowerMountainous regions and highland areas that act as a receptacle for rain water, stores it in aquifers and gradually releases the water to the rivers and springs emanating from it

WatershedAn area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers, basins or seas

Drainage BasinIt is an area of land where all water that falls on that land flows into one river

Drainage systemThe pattern formed by streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin

LandcoverIs the physical material on the surface of the earth

Land useRefers to human activities/foot prints on the surface of the earth

Land Use and Land Cover ChangesChanges that occur in land use and land cover over time based on satellite imagery analysis

Land Use and Land Cover Trends Transitional changes in land use and land cover over a period of time

BufferAn area of specified distance around a forest (in this case 5 km from the edge of the forest)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)Is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present geographical data

xxvCoordinated Environmental Protection

Remote SensingProcess of obtaining data without being in physical contact with the object, as applied mainly by space satellite in acquiring satellite imagery of the earth from space

Global Positioning System (GPS)Is a network of orbiting satellites that send precise details of their position in space back to earth and are used to provide position on the earth surface

Ecosystem servicesAre the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems

Ecosystem valuesMeasures the importance of ecosystem services to people

Total Economic Valuation It is a tool for determining the benefits of an environmental system to people by assigning monetary value to all ecosystem goods and services

Plantation Establishment Livelihood Improvement System (PELIS)Scheme ran by Kenya Forest Service (KFS) to help increase forest cover and restore degraded forests in the country whereby Forest Adjacent Communities (FAC) are allocated plots to inter plant tree seedlings and crops and care for seedlings until they form a canopy

River flowVolume of water flowing on a stream at a given time

Biodiversity The variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat, which is usually considered to be important and desirable

Chyulu Hills & East Mau Water Towers Status Reportxxvi

1Coordinated Environmental Protection

1.0 Introduction Water towers are extensive hilly and forested mountainous landscapes that are sources of rivers and streams for the main drainage systems (Wass 1995). The towers are multi-functional and provide significant ecosystem goods and services that are important for the livelihoods, hydrology and biodiversity of the surrounding communities and the wider region in which they occur. The ecosystem goods from the towers include firewood, honey, pasture, herbs and medicinal plants, and water for domestic and livestock production. The ecosystem services include provision of carbon sinks for climate change mitigation, water purification and storage for recharge of springs and rivers, and reservoirs of biodiversity (Kinyanjui, 2011).

In early 2000, only five water towers were recognized namely; Mau Forest Complex, Mt. Kenya, Aberdares, Cherangany hills and Mt Elgon(GOK, 2006). Thereafter, the Kenya Water Master Plan (GOK, 2012) identified other smaller but significant water towers that provide water to the local comunities, particularly in arid and semi-arid lands. These other smaller water towers have been given better recognition by the formation of the Kenya Water Towers Agency (KWTA) established in 2012 to coordinate and oversee the protection,

rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of water towers.

The Vision of KWTA is “to be a global leader in sustainable management of water towers” while the Mission is “to sustainably manage water towers and their ecosystems through coordination and conservation for socio-economic development”.

1. Coordinate Water Towers Ecosystem

Health and Resilience

2. Coordinate and Oversee Securing of Catchment

Lands, Wetlands, and Critical Biodiversity

Hotspots Within the Water Towers Ecosystems

3. Acquire Appropriate Infrastructure to Support

Sustainable Management of Water Towers

4. Promote Sustainable Livelihood Support

Programmes Within the Water Towers

5. Establish Strategic Partnerships and Linkages

for Sustainable Management of Water Towers

6. Undertake Institutional Strengthening

for Effective Service Delivery

The strategic objectives of KWTA are to:


1.1 Overview of Water TowersThe initial mandate of the Agency was to coordinate and oversee sustainable management of 18 gazetted water towers but later included 23 other non-gazzeted towers distributed across the country as shown in Figure 1.1. The Water Towers are located and spread in over 40 counties across the country (Table 1.1 and Table 1.2).

Figure 1.1: Gazetted and Non-Gazetted Water Towers in Kenya


Water Tower Immediate /Bordering Counties

1. Aberdare Range Nyeri and Muranga to the east, Kiambu to the south,Nyandarua to the west and Laikipia to the north

2. Cherangani Hills Most of Elgeyo Marakwet, West Pokot to the North,Trans Nzoia to the North-west and Uasin Gishu to the South-west.

3. Chyulu Hills Makueni, TaitaTaveta and Kajiado

4. Huri Hills Marsabit

5. Kirisia Hills Samburu

6. Loita Hills Narok

7. Marmanet Forest Laikipia, Nakuru, Baringo and Nyandarua

8. Matthews Range Samburu

9. Mau Forest Complex Nakuru, Baringo, Kericho, Narok, Bomet, Nandi andUasin Gishu

10. Mt. Elgon Bungoma and Trans Nzoia

11. Mt. Kenya Embu and Tharaka Nithi to the eastern side, Meru to the northern and eastern side, Laikipia to the west, Nyeri to the south west and Kirinyaga to the south

12. Mt. Kipipiri Nyandarua

13. Mt. Kulal Marsabit

14. Mt. Marsabit Marsabit

15. Mt. Nyiru Samburu

16. Ndotos Ranges Samburu

17. Nyambene Hills Meru

18. Shimba Hills Kwale

Table 1.1: Gazetted Water Towers and their Location/County


Water Tower Immediate /Bordering Counties

1 Namanga Kajiado

2 Gwassi Hills Migori & Homabay

3 Loima Hills Turkana

4 Karasuk Hills Turkana

5 Imenti hills Meru

6 Endau Kitui

7 Enosupukia Narok

8 Mkogondo Laikipia

9 Nandi Hills Nandi

10 Taita Hills TaitaTaveta

11 Kasigau Hills TaitaTaveta

12 Maungu Hills TaitaTaveta

13 Mwang’ea Hills Kilifi

14 Ngong Hills Kajiado

15 OlDoinyo Orok Kajiado

16 Emali Hills Kajiado

17 Machakos hills Machakos, Makueni

18 Makuli Hills Makueni

19 Nzaui Hills Makueni

20 OlDoinyo Sabuk Machakos

21 Mutitu Hill Kitui

22 Mumoni Hill Kitui

23 Tugen Hills Baringo

Table 1.2: Non-Gazetted Water Towers and their Location/County


1.1.1 Threats to Water TowersWater towers are sensitive and fragile ecosystems susceptible to various threats, which compromise their ability to provide ecosystem goods and services. The key threats facing the water towers are highlighted in Table 1.3. The major threats to the water towers are:

1. Population pressure: The rapid growth in human population has led to shortage of land for agriculture and settlement resulting in encroachment into the water towers. In addition, there is increased demand for ecosystem goods leading to intesification of poaching, illegal logging and grazing in the water towers which hinders their conservation and protection.

2. Deforestation: Conversion of forestland in the water towers to croplands by adjacent communities degrades land through loss of

vegetation cover causing soil erosion and landslides. In addition, illegal logging, forest fires and overgrazing rampant in most water towers further speeds up deforestation thereby accelerating soil erosion.

3. Poor infrastructure: There are limited investments in the water towers due to the “tragedy of commons” whereby adjacent communities are keen to derive maximum benefits while incurring minimum cost. Further, negative local factors such as steep slopes and their location in remote areas limits interest of potential investors. There is also minimal infrastructural development investments in water towers by the Central Government and County Government, compromising conservation efforts. This limits the ability of Water towers to optimally perform their socio-economic and ecological roles to benefit the communities.


4. Invasive species: Some water towers are threatened with rapid spread of invasive species such as Prosopis juliflora, Dodonea viscosa and Lantana camara. These species threaten the survival of indigenous and endemic species hence compromising biodiversity concentration and diversity.

5. Resource use conflicts: There is escalation of resource use conflicts amongst communities surrounding the water towers due to competition over scarce natural resources occasioned by negative impacts of climate change, population growth and degradation.

6. Enforcement of laws and regulations: There is weak institutional framework that compromises the enforcement of existing laws and regulations e.g. the Forest Act of 2016 (which prohibit people to live inside the forest) and Charcoal Rules of 2009 (for sustainable charcoal production) hampering conservation and protection of the water towers. Gaps in legal and institutional framework has led to poor coordination in lead agencies, thereby contributing to conflicting roles.

7. Lack of sustainability and ownership: There is limited community ownership of conservation and protection programs initiated by state and non-state actors in the water towers making them unsustainable in the long term. Additionally, weak or lack of mechanisms for strengthening community ownership of projects contribute to unsustainable projects.

8. Partnerships and linkages: Weak partnerships and linkages exist between stakeholders initiating and implementing programs in the water towers leading to unnecessary duplication and overlapping of conservation initiatives. Weak partnerships also contribute to poor coordination and ties among stakeholders and partners, weak monitoring and evaluation mechanisms and poor funding.

9. Monitoring and evaluation: There is inadequate information about key drivers and actual status of degradation in the water towers and the conservation measures undertaken by various stakeholders due to a weak monitoring and evaluation system.


Water Tower Threats

Bush

/For

est F

ires

Illeg

al l

oggi

ng Li

vest

ock

graz

ing

Culti

vatio

n

Char

coal

bur

ning

Bush

mea

t poa

chin

g

Illeg

al h

oney

har

vesti

ng

Illeg

al g

rass

har

vesti

ng Er

osio

n

Deba

rkin

g

Sand

Har

vesti

ng Se

ttle

men

t

1. Aberdare Range

2. Cherangani Hills

3. Chyulu Hills

4. Huri Hills

5. Kirisia Hills

6. Loita Hills

7. Marmanet Forest

8. Matthews Range

9. Mau Forest Complex

10. Mount Elgon

11. Mount Kenya

12. Mount Kulal

13. Mount Marsabit

14. Ndotos

15. Nyambene hills

16. Shimba hills

Key Yes No

Table 1.3: Key Threats to Gazetted Water Towers


Reduction in forestland cover

Limited availability of

Increased soil and wind erosion

Destruction of water catchment areas

Increased siltation and clogging of water ways, dams and wetlands

Loss of ecosystem services e.g.

Declining water quality

Increased costs of

production

Reduced power generation from hydro-electric plants

Reduced mitigation to causes of climate change

Vulnerability to negative impacts of climate change e.g. acid rain

Increased incidences

Loss of biodiversity

Extinction of medicinal herbs and trees

Impacts of Threats to the Water Towers


1.2 Quarterly Water Tower Status ReportsTo address the first strategic objective of KWTA on “coordination of water tower ecosystem health and resilience”, current information on the status of water towers is required. The information should indicate temporal and spatial changes in their health and resilience by establishing the present level of degradation and the corresponding causes coupled with the conservation efforts. The information will assist government and non-government actors to identify and prioritize measures for safeguarding the water tower resilience and health. Additionally, the status information is crucial in formulation of water tower management plans and for identification of rehabilitation and conservation strategies.

Consequently, KWTA is expected to undertake regular water tower assessments and publish the findings in quarterly reports to be disseminated to Cabinet, Parliament, County Governments and other key stakeholders. In this regard KWTA has prepared this status report for Chylu and East Mau Water Towers following an assessment carried out between October and December 2017. The overall objective of the report is to provide key information on the status of the target water towers for informed decision making and sustainable management by government and other stakeholders.

The specific objectives are to:1. Establish the location, size and bio-

physical attibutes of the water towers;2. Analyze land cover land use changes

between 1990 and 2016;


3. Carry out hydrological analysis and analyze the relationship with land use land cover changes

4. Establish socio-economic status of the communities bordering the water towers

5. Identify critical catchment and biodiversity roles in the water towers and map related hotspots for conservation

6. Identify the threats and challenges facing the waters towers

7. Identify stakeholders and their functions in the protection and conservation of the water towers

8. Establish actions undertaken to protect and rehabilitate the water towers by KWTA and other stakeholders

9. Recommend appropriate measures to be undertaken for the conservation and rehabilitation of the water towers

1.3 MethodologyThe study employed various methods to assess the current status of water towers. As a first step, existing secondary information was gathered by desktop literature review from existing sources and any related past surveys on the two water towers. This was followed by

land use and land cover assessment for the two water towers and their respective 5km buffer zones through Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). Additional GIS analysis yielded hotspot information for the water towers based on slope angle, elevations and deforestation. All the biodiversity and catchment hotspots were further combined in a GIS environment and the potential areas for conservation prioritized along a three tier ascending scale of low, moderate and high.

Household interviews were carried out to assess socio-economic impact of human activities on land use and land cover in the water towers and its environs. Physical observations and photographs taken by field officers traversing the adjacent villages were used to ground truth the general land use and land cover status in the area studied.

River flow analysis was carried out using data on daily river discharge acquired from Water Resources Authority (WRA), which was measured in cubic meters per second. The criteria for selecting the data was availability of time series data covering the period under study (1990-2017) with limited gaps. Only river flow data within 5 km buffer of the water towers was used for the study.


Geo-referenced sub-location level population statistics of 2009 was acquired from KNBS for analyzing human population density within the 5 km buffer zone of the water towers. The population density was computed in ArcGIS where the number of people per square kilometer was computed at sub-location level and chloropleth maps used to generate the status in the 5 km buffer zone of the water tower.

When the well’s dry, we know the worth of water Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), Founding Father, USA


Highlights• The water tower lies in a fragile arid to semi arid

region

• It is surrounded by gazzeted national parks and therefore reasonably well conserved

• The population around the water tower is increasing and posing a threat through over extraction of resources

• Key threats - over grazing, illegal cutting down of trees, charcoal burning and forest fires

• There are critical hot spots where forest cover has been reduced to the bare minimum

• Water flow from the main springs is constant but smaller springs have dried up due to over extraction of water and land degradation

• Over 34 stakeholder organizations are involved in conservation and protection of the water tower

Chyulu Hills Water Tower


Chyulu hills water tower is situated 211 km South-East of Nairobi and 20 km South-West of Kibwezi town. It traverses Makueni, Taita Taveta and Kajiado Counties.

The water tower comprises of Chyulu National Park, Tsavo West National Park, Mbirikani Game Reserve, Kuku Game Reserve and Kibwezi Forest (Figure 2.1). The National parks were gazetted in 1983 and the local communities resettled between 1988 and 1991. Socio-economic activities within the Parks became illegal after the gazettement.

The total area of Chyulu hills water tower is 110,945 hectares, of which the gazetted forest is approximately 7,895

ha. The hills are made up of a series of hills of varying altitude that rise from 600 m to over 2,188 m above sea level that cover about 100 km between Emali and Mtito Andei townships in Makueni County. They are volcanic in nature with the ability to retain underground water and are among the key water catchment areas found in the coastal region.

2. Chyulu Hills Water Tower

Figure 2.1: Location of Chyulu Water Tower


Figure 2.3: Spatial Rainfall Distribution in Chyulu

2.1 HydrologyChyulu water tower is characterized by an arid to semi-arid environment. The annual rainfall ranges between 800 to 1,200 mm and falls during the long rain season from March to April and the short rain season between October and December (Fig 2.2 and 2.3). Temperatures range between 17- 300C.

Figure 2.2: Mean Rainfall Distribution in Chyulu


Chyulu hills water tower is part of the 15,000 km2 Kilimajaro aquifer that holds ground water originating from Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru in Tanzania. The aquifer has three main river basins; Athi Galana in Kenya and Umba and Pangani river basins in Tanzania. The hills do not hold permanent surface water but rainfall percolating through the porous volcanic rocks feed many permanent fresh water sources in the form of rivers and springs in the surrounding plains and the Coastal region.

Most of the underground water drains to the eastern side of the water tower. The hills are the source of water for a number of springs and rivers that include Mzima, Umani, Kiboko,

KwaKyai, Masimba Mang’ellete, Kibwezi and Makindu spring and Tsavo, Galana, Kibwezi Kiboko, Makindu, Thange, Ngai Ndeithia, Mtito Andei and Kambu rivers all situated east of the water tower mostly clustered to the northern and southern parts.

The western side of the water tower, neighbors Loolturesh swamp which is recharged by Motiknaju, Kuku, Loolturesh and Kiramankol streams. No river drains into the swamp as there is a physical divide that separates the water tower and the swamp. Figure 2.4 and 2.5 presents the water catchment and watershed areas for Chyulu hills.

Figure 2.4: Water Catchments of Chyulu


Figure 2.5: Watershed Area for Chyulu


2.1.1 Water flow changesThe flow of water from rivers and springs especially those fed through underground water is affected by changes in land cover particularly forests. In determining the changes that occur, an examination of the dry season water flow is a good indicator as to whether ground water is available or is depleted.

a. Rivers

The water tower is an important source of water for many rivers in the region. The tower supplies water to Tsavo, Galana, Kibwezi Kiboko, Makindu, Thange, Ngai Ndeithia, Mtito Andei and Kambu rivers.

Kibwezi River is fed through underground water systems emanating from the water tower. There has been significant changes to the flow of water in the river since the 1950 and again in 1990s.

Hydrological analysis carried out in 2013 indicates that land cover had changed in the middle section of the hills that increased surface runoff. This increased minimal flow from Kibwezi River from 1990 by 50% as shown in Figure 2.6.

b. SpringsThe main springs found in the Chyulu water tower are Mzima, Umani, Mang’ellete, Kibwezi and Makindu. Mzima spring has the highest discharge and is an important source of water for the city of Mombasa as it supplies about 30% of the city’s daily water requirement. The spring also serves Voi, and other coastal towns.

Umani spring located upstream of the Kibwezi and Mtito Andei rivers serve Kibwezi town while Kiboko spring which feeds into both Kiboko Swamp and Kiboko river serves Makindu town and its environs. Measurements of water discharged from the various springs indicate that water flows during the dry season from the major springs have remained constant over

Figure 2.6: Minimum Flow for Kibwezi River


time. This is an indication that overall ground water storage is still abundant. Observations have shown that the smaller springs dry up

during the dry season. Figure 2.7 shows the discharge rates from various springs.

Figure 2.7: Spring Discharge and Corresponding River Flow

2.1.2 Critical water catchment areas

Chyulu water tower has a network of water sources, comprising of rivers, streams, swamps, springs and underground water. Although the water tower is reasonably well conserved, there exist critical hot spots where forest cover has been reduced to the bare minimum. Loss of

forest cover reduces the rate at which rainwater percolates to the ground and increaseas surface runoff. This affects the overall level of undergroundwater water which leads to reduced water discharge at various outlets. Figure 2.8 shows the critical hotspots that require urgent conservation and protection.


Mzima Springs - Tsavo National Park

Kwa Kyai spring - Kibwezi


Figure 2.8: Critical Watershed Hotspots in Chyulu Hills


Table 2.1: Establishment of WRUAs and SCMPs at Chyulu Sub Catchments

Sub Catchment Water Resource User Association

Sub Catchment Management Plan

Mtito Andei Yes Draft SCMP

Upper Kambu Yes None

Thange Yes None

Shilishili No None

Esoitpus No None

Kibwezi Yes None

Wetland near Umani spring has dried due to over abstraction of water upstream

2.1.3 Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs)

Chyulu water tower has 6 sub catchments out of which 4 WRUAs have been established and one had developed a draft Sub catchment Management Plan (SCMP) (Table 2.1).


2.2 Biodiversity Chyulu water tower is an important biodiversity region due to presence of a wide variety of plant and animal species (biodiversity) with diverse habitats. Over the last fifty (50) years, the water tower and the surrounding areas have undergone environmental degradation that not only threatens its biodiversity status and water catchment role, but also its importance as a major economic hub in the country. Poor agricultural practices, encroachment into the forest zone, forest fires, settlements, over-grazing and extractive practices such as charcoal burning, wood for carving and large scale abstraction of water are some of the

pressures experienced that degrade the natural environment which in turn threatens the natural habitat unique for plant and animal species.

2.2.1 Rich biodiversity

Chyulu water tower has a rich diversity of plants and animals including threatened species (IUCN Red-Listed, CITEs Listed), endemic, invasive and also a variety of medicinal plants (Musila et al, 2011). The ecology of Chyulu is rich and diverse; composed of aquatic vegetation, dry forest, forest glades and grasslands. The ecosystem is rich in animal fauna including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates.

Hilltop Forests Grasslands


Mammals - Mammals found in the water tower include black rhino, buffalo, bushbuck, eland, elephant, bush pig, giraffe, leopard, lion, mountain reedbuck, steinbok, wildebeest and plains zebra. Forty eight large mammal species have been recorded in Chyulu National Park and six of these are of conservation concern; Black rhino, African elephant, leopard, lion and cheetah.

Birds - Chyulu water tower is an important bird sanctuary with 249 recorded bird species. The bird species include: Francolinus shelleyi, Pogonocichla stellata, Zoothera gurneyi,

Bradypterus cinnamomeus, Hieraaetus ayresii, Stephanoaetus coronatus, Polemaetus bellicosus and Cinnyricinclus femoralis.

Other animals - Various reptiles including snakes (e.g. black mamba, puff adder and rock python) and lizards are found in the water tower.

Plants - Chyulu water tower has remained relatively undisturbed and still shelters indigenous vegetation. There are 476 plant species recorded in Chyulu National Park out of which 21 are endemic and 2 are rare species in the IUCN Red List.

Plains Zebra Maasai Giraffe


2.2.2 Biodiversity hot spots

A biodiversity hotspot is an area with a high concentration of species potentially threatened by destruction or extinction. The biodiversity

hotspots in Chyulu hills are shown in Figure 2.9 and Table 2.2. They include; South of Mang’elete, South of Chyulu Game reserve Northern area of Muthingiini and North West of Olorika.

Aloe secundiflora

White browed sparrow weaver Blue-eared starling

Erythrina abyssinica


Figure 2.9: Biodiversity Hotspots in Chyulu

Table 2.2: Summary of Biodiversity Richness and Hotspots in Chyulu

Indicator class No. of species

High Medium Low

1. Reptiles + Amphibians

30 None Central part of Chyulu Game Reserve

Central part of Chyulu Game Reserve; NE of Olorika; SW of Muthingiini

2. Invertebrates 200 Iltilal including northern part; North of Olorika

Iltilal including northern part; North of Olorika; Eastern Oltiasika

Western part of Chyulu; SW Mangelete

3. Mammals 40 Central part of Forest Reserve

Central part of Forest Reserve; SW Muthingiini

SW Muthingiini, SW Mangelete, Western Oltiasika

4. Plants 670 Central part of Forest Reserve

Central part of Forest Reserve; SW Muthingiini

SW Muthingiini; SW Mangelete; SW Muthingiini; SW Utithi; NE Olorika; Eastern Oltiasika

5. Birds 300 Central part of Forest Reserve

Central part of Forest Reserve; NE Iltilal; NE Olorika; SW Muthingiini

SE Mangelete; SW Muthingiini; SW Utithi; West Oltiasika


Table 2.3: IUCN Red-Listed Animal Species of Chyulu

Key: Swa - Swahili

Class Common Name Other Names IUCN Red List Status

Bird Abbott’s Starling Vulnerable

Mammal Leopard Chui (Swa.) Near Threatened

Mammal Lion Simba (Swa.) Near Threatened

Mammal Black Rhinoceros Kifaru (Swa.) Critically Endangered

Mammal Cheetah Duma (Swa.) Vulnerable

Threatened Species - Many plant and animal species in Chyulu are of conservation importance as listed in the IUCN red list and CITES (Table 2.3 and 2.4). The black rhino is critically endangered, the lion and leopard are near threatened while the cheetah and Abbort sterling are vulnerable. CITES has listed African elephant, Nile crocodile, Southern rock python

and flap necked chameleon as endangered.

For plants, the hills host 8 species that appear in the IUCN red list, whereby 3 species are near threatened and 3 vulnerable. The hills also have about 20 plant species endemic to the area and 6 that are invasive and medicinal with great value to the surrounding communities (Table 2.5).

Table 2.4: CITES Listed Animal Species found in Chyulu

Class Common Name Other Names CITES Appendix

Mammal African Elephant Ndovu (Swa.) App. I

Reptile Nile Crocodile Mamba (Swa.) App. II

Reptile Southern Rock Python Chatu (Swa.) App. II

Reptile Nile Monitor Lizard Mburukenge (Swa.) App. II

Reptile Flap-necked Chameleon Kinyonga (Swa.) App. II

Key: Appendix 1 – Endangered Appendix 11 – Likely to endangered unless protected


Table 2.5: Medicinal Plants of Chyulu Hills

Species Local Name Other Uses

Erythrina abyssinaca

(Standard name: Red hot poker tree)

Mvuti (KAM), Ol-Opongi (MAA)

The wood is used for making doors, stools and beehives; Maasai brew a tonic tea from the roots.

Carissa edulis Mukawa (KAM), Olamuriaki (MAA)

The fruits are edible, tasty, bitter and are sometimes used as a treatement for dysentery, a decoction (boiled mixture) of the roots is used as pain killer

Kigelia africana

(Standard name: Sausage tree)

Muatine, Kiatine (KAM) Ol-Sunguroi, Ol-Darpoi (MAA)

Baked slices of the dried fruit are used to ferment beer

Bridelia micrantha Oleragia (MAA) The wood is used for building poles and it is termite resistant. The bark decoction is used by the Maasai against dysentry in children

The root is given to women after child birth and as a stimulant

Toddalia asiatica Maluia (KAM), Ole-Purmunya (MAA)

The fruit is chewed as a cough remedy; the root decoction is used to induce vomiting and cleanse digestive system by the Maasai

Key: KAM = Kamba, MAA = Maasai, SWA = Swahili)


2.3 Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Chyulu hills lie in an arid to semi arid area with relatively low rainfall and maintaining its ground cover is vital for the region. The predominant ground cover for the water tower is open savannah grasslands with scattered perenial bushes. This gives way to wooded grasslands and dense forests towards the hilltops.

Protected zoneThe protected zone is composed of 3, 757 ha (47%) dense forest, 2,501 ha (31.2%) wooded

grassland, 1,735 ha (21.6%) open grassland and 7.5 ha (0.09%) other land. There has been conservation efforts in the water tower as evidenced by the overall increase in forest cover from the initial 2,805 ha (35%) in 1990 to 3,757 ha (47%) in 2016 (Figure 2.10). Wooded grassland decreased significantly over the period while open grassland decreased until 2010 then later increased from the same year to 2016. This trend indicates a general reforestation of the water tower. It is important to note that cultivation of crops has degraded the water tower, and it is recommended that mechanisms should be put in place to stop this trend.

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Land

Use

and

Lan

d C

over

(ha)

Forest land Wooded grassland Open grassland Other land Cropland

Figure 2.10: Land Use and Land Cover Changes


Buffer zoneEvery water tower has a 5km buffer zone that acts as a barrier towards its protection. The Chyulu water tower buffer zone is about 44,200 ha. Activities in this zone are a measure of the potential stability of the water tower as

increased human activities in this region have encroached to the protected zone. Trends show that forest land in this zone increased over time while wooded grasslands and open grasslands decreased indicating a general trend towards conservation efforts (Figure 2.11).

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Land

Use

and

Lan

d C

over

(ha)

Forest land Wooded grassland Open grassland Other land Cropland

Figure 2.11: Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Buffer Zone

“We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our children.” » Native American Proverb


Figure 2.12: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Forested (1990 - 2016)

Figure 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14 show thematic land conversions for the protected and the buffer zone whereby conversion to forest was the predominant activity.

Figure 2.13: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Buffer Zone (1990 - 2016)


Figure 2.14: Spatial Land Cover Maps for Chyulu Water Tower


2.4 Socio Economics and Livelihoods of Adjacent Communities Communities around Chyulu water tower depend on its resources for their livelihoods in the form of water, grazing ground, firewood and medicinal plants among other resources. Population pressure is however threatening the fragile ecosystem due to over extraction of these resources.

Population

Chyulu hills is inhabited mainly by the Maasai and the Kamba communities. The population distribution based on the 2009 census shows that the areas east of the water tower and adjacent to the Tsavo National Park were more densely populated.

About 65,000 people, live in Kibwezi sub-county. The western side of the water tower has fewer people, mainly the Maasai whose population is estimated at 6,000 - 6,500 people residing in Loitoktok sub county in Kajiado county.

Various towns situated along the Nairobi - Mombasa road and railway line namely Mtito Andei, Kathekani, Darajani, Kambi, Ngwata, Masongaleni, Kikumbulya, Kibwezi, Kaluliu,

Makindu, Ikoye, Kiboko and Mwaito have relatively high population densities (Figure 2.15).

Figure 2.15: Population Density (persons per km squared) in Chyulu (2009 census)


Livelihoods

The main occupation of the communities living adjacent to the water tower is crop and livestock production. The Kamba people on the Eastern side grow crops such as beans, maize, green grams, millet, sweet potatoes, and horticultural crops. Other important crops include cotton and mangoes which are of significant economic value. Pastoralism is practiced in the western side by the Maasai community who own group ranches. Livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep,

donkeys and poultry are kept. The average household size for these communities ranges between 4 and 9 persons. The average land size is 2 - 10 acres under communal land tenure.

Other socio economic activities in the water tower include:Game Ranching - To enhance wildlife conservation, various community conservancies have been established in the western side of the hills namely Kuku A, Kuku B and Mbirikani.

Kitui Governor calls for a crackdown on anybody found burning or ferrying charcoal from Kitui to other counties saying that charcoal burning was killing the economy and destroying the environment. This is in the context of illegal logging and charcoal burning that has depleted forest cover in Ukambani


Mining - Sand and ballast/stone harvesting is a major economic activity in the eastern side of the water tower.

Wood carving - Small traders make various artefacts and souvenirs mostly in the form of wood carvings. These are then sold locally to tourists.

Honey harvesting - Honey harvesting using traditional bee hives is still widely practiced by the Kamba community. Majority of the hives are placed in the forest.

Charcoal production - This is a lucrative business around Chyulu Hills. Stacks of charcoal bags by the road side indicate booming business.

2.5 Community InteractionMost people residing close to the water tower depend on its natural vegetation for both wood and non-wood products for their needs. Many do not have trees on their farms as established through the satellite images. They derive direct benefits from the water tower in terms of grazing land, honey and as a source of herbal medicine, wood for carving, water, firewood and building materials.

The water tower is an important habitat for wild animals such as buffaloes, cheetahs, elephants, snakes, hyenas, monkeys, antelopes, dikdiks,

leopards, zebras and baboons among others. The communities benefit from the wild animals through provision of employment to people who work in the ranches and earnings from tourism related activities. Despite these benefits from the wild animals, instances of human wildlife conflict in the area is high for about 90% of the households. The conflict is in the form of crop and property destruction, and attacks on human and livestock.


Some activities carried out by the adjacent communities have had a negative effect on the water tower. These include overgrazing, charcoal burning, frequent forest fires created to hasten regeneration of new grass for livestock, overharvesting of wood products and in recent years cultivation in the water tower (Figure 2.16).

The impact of the activities on the water tower is reflected in a reduction in the amount and quality of water from water points, frequent and prolonged droughts, loss of livestock due to drought and degraded pasture land and increased cases of human wildlife conflicts. These negative impacts have been compounded by effects of climate change.

In order to cope with these impacts, the local communities sink boreholes to extract water while others take their livestock deeper into the water tower during prolonged droughts for grazing. Chyulu hills ecosystem supports the livelihoods of an ever increasing human population through provision of water, wood fuel, timber, grazing land, hunting and wood carving. It also serves a large part of the coastal region with water.

2.6 Total Economic Valuation The Total Economic Valuation (TEV) of Chyulu Water tower was carried out by KWTA in 2015 to determine its worth in monetary terms as an indicator of what the country would lose through its degradation.

Three key ecosystem services and goods were valued as shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.16: Maasai and Kamba Activities


The estimated total economic value of the water tower was about Ksh 40.92 billion (USD 409 Million). Of this value, Chyulu and Mzima tourism accounted for about 52%; water (domestic, irrigation and livestock) accounted for 8%; issues related to Chyulu hills (carbon

sequestration, land/biodiversity, aquifers) accounted for 27% and the rest 15%.

These results show importance of the water tower to the environs and to the country in the broader context.

Figure 2.17: Total Economic Valuation for the Chyulu Water Tower


Total Economic Valuation

Kenya Water Towers Agency | Saving our Future & Heritage: A Call To Action 3

domestic water supply

KES 2.035B(USD 22,286,276)

irrigation (central province)

KES 6.3B(USD 68,994,368)

irrigation (lake naivasha)

KES 931M(USD 10,195,834)

traditional farming

KES 21.9B(USD 239,837,552)

carbon fixing and soil erosion control

KES 1.385B(USD 15,167,809)

benefits to forest adjacent communities

KES 712M(USD 7,797,459)

biodiversity

KES 20B(USD 219,029,744)

energy

KES 3.03B(USD 33,183,008)

tourism sector and nyayo tea

KES 227M(USD 2,485,987)

Exchange rate

USD1 = KES 91.3

ABERDARE

56.520B

cultural values

KES 64M(USD 700,895) recreation

KES 3.584B(USD 39,250,128)

livestock

KES 8.552B(USD 93,657,120)

climate regulation & carbon storage

KES 7.12B(USD 77,974,592)

other ecosystems services

KES 44.304B(USD 485,194,688)

genetic resources

KES 1.312B(USD 14,368,351)

tourism

KES 5.264B(USD 57,648,628)

soil erosion control

KES 7.84B(USD 85,859,656)

energy

KES 10.528B(USD 115,297,256)

fish production

KES 1.688B(USD 18,486,110)

subsistence agriculture

KES 7.22B(USD 79,069,736)

tea production

KES 13.056B(USD 142,982,608)

Exchange rate

USD1 = KES 91.3

MAU

110.512B

Aberdares and Mau Water Towers Economic Valuation

Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) 2009


2.7 Threats i. Encroachment into the water tower The population of Chyulu hills has increased significantly over the years. The 2009 population census shows that the eastern part of the water tower had 65,000 people while the western side had about 6,500 people. Many town centers have expanded and new ones sprung up along the major highways that include Makindu, Ikoye, Kiboko, Mwaito Masongaleni, Kikumbulya, Kibwezi, Mtito Andei, Kathekani, Darajani, Kambi, Ngwata, and Kaluliu. These centres have high population densities which inevitably lead to high demand for products and services from the water tower.

Extraction of various products from the water tower as well as access to water points inside the water tower for both domestic and animal use is on the increase. The major challenge is extraction of water directly from the spring which leads to drying of rivers and wetlands.

ii. Illegal loggingIllegal logging especially of the endangered and indigenous tree species and charcoal burning are on the increase. This is due to the fact that some sections of the water tower are not fenced, mainly those in Kajiado and Taita Taveta counties.

iii. Frequent forest firesForest fires are frequent in the water tower and are mainly caused by pastoralists who burn vegetation to allow for re-growth. Poachers also burn vegetation to attract wildlife after grass re-grows. Controlling the fires is a challenge as there is lack of proper firefighting equipment, inadequate staff and limited /lack of community involvement.

iv. Human wildlife conflictsThe human / wildlife conflicts involve wildlife destroying crops or killing people and attacks on domestic animals. Human beings respond by killing the wildlife Delayed compensation is an issue that needs to be addressed through the relevant authority.

v. Declining forest cover and biodiversityThere is evidence that conservation efforts increased between 1990 and 2010. The trend however reversed between 2010 and 2016 as the area under forest cover decreased mainly through human activities.

vi.Reduced water flows from springs and riversThe average flows from Mtito Andei and Kibwezi rivers had decreased significantly overtime due to reduced rate of infiltration. . This trend will in the long run affect the many springs that are a source of water in the area as they are fed through ground water.


vii. Reduced economic value

The economic value of the Chyulu ecosystem is estimated at Ksh. 40 billion as at 2015 mainly from tourism and water provision. The potential however is much higher. Conversion of land to inappropriate uses along with other human interferences will reduce biodiversity which will reduce the number of tourists to the region hence depressing the economic value.

viii. Water shortageIncreased water abstraction upstream has led to the drying of rivers downstream. This has been caused by increased human population and farming activities. Reduced water levels affect both humans and animals and is a major threat to the ecosystem.

ix. Inter-community tensionsIncreased population pressure on the limited resources leads to poor relationships between the communities especially during drought season when there is scarcity of pasture and water. These quickly culminates into inter clan conflicts.

x. Differing Inter county prioritiesThe three Counties, Kajiado, Taita Taveta and Makueni have different priorities in terms

of implementing activities geared towards safeguarding the water tower. The three counties also tend to compete for the water tower resources (water and pasture). In the case of Mzima spring, Mombasa County has a high stake as the county receives about 30% of its water supply from the springs.

This has led to vandalism of water installations by the local communities who are not direct beneficiaries.

xi. Weak enforcement of laws and regulationsPoor enforcement of existing laws and regulations is the greatest threat to the water tower as this allows people to act with impunity to the detriment of the ecosystem.

Further relevant strategic planning documents specifically focusing on the management of the water tower i.e. Environmental Management Plan (EMP) and Forest Management Plan (FMP) have not been developed making conservation efforts difficult.

xii. Other issues • Poor road infrastructure, few guards and

warden stations located far apart makes it difficult to coordinate emergencies and to provide adequate security for the water tower


There is over-reliance on charcoal since about 90% of the households in Kenya use it as fuel (Githomi et al., 2002) with the highest levels of production in the ecologically fragile Arid and semi-arid lands. The major charcoal producing counties are Kajiado, Makueni, Kitui, Kwale, Baringo, Elgeyo Marakwet and Tana River where some of the water towers are located. There are about 700,000 charcoal producers whose average monthly production is about 30 bags. Most trees used for charcoal production as can be seen in the Figure below are sourced from producers’ own farms (76%) followed by community and private lands (18%) and then public forest (6%).

There has been a decline in type and number of high quality tree species on farms and in community/private forests due to continued exploitation without replanting making the producers to invade protected forests in the water towers for feedstock.

Key Challenges to Sustainable Charcoal Production

1. Unregulated/illegal charcoal trade: Wood harvesting, charcoal burning, transport and trade are still unregulated in spite of the enactment of the charcoal rules (2009).

2. Decline in type and number of high quality tree species: Most of the preferred tree species for feedstock for charcoal production are becoming rare due to continued exploitation without replacement.

3. Unsustainable wood resource exploitation: No strategies exist for sustainable fuelwood

exploitation within the charcoal hotspots and where they do, the implementation is poor. Adoption of energy conservation mechanisms such as improved charcoal stoves and alternative sources of cleaner energy is low.

Recommendations1. Full roll-out and implementation of the Charcoal

Rules (2009) in the counties including the provisions that require tree planting to replace those harvested for charcoal production. The Counties should customize and enforce the rules as per the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution.

2. Harmonization of Energy and Forest Acts in relation to licensing of charcoal value chain players.

3. Facilitate access to affordable and clean energy alternatives e.g. LPG gas

Charcoal Production


• Understaffing within institutions mandated to protect and manage the water tower. This puts a lot of pressure on the available staff thereby limiting their efficiency

• Even though the ecosystem is worth over Ksh.40 billion, financial allocation for the protection and management of the water tower has been limited

• Poor coordination of relevant stakeholders involved in conservation activities. This has resulted in duplication of duties which lead to wastage of resources

• Limited education and awareness on importance of conservation and protection of the water tower to the surrounding communities

2.8 Priority Areas for InterventionPriority areas of intervention for conservation require appropriate actions to be taken to ensure rehabilitation and protection from further deterioration for long term ecosystem health and resilience. Conservation of the priority areas would ultimately guarantee preservation of the upstream and downstream biodiversity and water catchments in the Chyulu Hills Water Tower.

Priority areas of intervention consist of hotspots based on critical water catchment areas, critical biodiversity areas, critical steep areas, high elevation areas, areas with high population density, riparian areas (200m buffer) and, deforested areas. Integration of the different hotspots through modelling led to intersection of conservation issues which gave three priority areas for conservation on an ascending scale. Priority 1 intervention areas require immediate attention, Priority 2 in the mid-term and Priority 3 in the long term (Figure 2.18).

Table 2.6 gives the priority areas that require immediate action by stakeholders. These areas are mainly found in Chyulu Game Reserve and Muthngiini areas. Some of the suggested conservation actions in these areas involve enforcing observance of 10% tree cover for forest regeneration, detailed study of endemic species and their distribution and, stabilizing soils on steep slopes. The priority areas that require action by stakeholders in the mid to long term are presented in Annex I and II.

The following overall actions should be undertaken to address concerns in the priority hotspots:

i. The rehabilitation of the critically degraded water catchments


Figure 2.18: Priority Areas of Intervention


ii. Rehabilitation of degraded forest habitats with important ecological function such as biodiversity hotspots

iii. Alternative community livelihood options should be designed and implemented to alleviate pressure on the forest resources such as agro-forestry practices that can meet charcoal and fuelwood demands; enforcement of 10% on farm tree cover

iv. Protection of ecologically sensitive areas such as those in high altitude and steep slopes

where soil and water conservation measures should be implemented

v. Replanting and buffering to allow forest regeneration in areas of extensive forest loss in the Kibwezi and upper Kambu sub catchment areas

vi. Habitat improvement in biodiversity hotspots and adoption of participatory approach in conservation of species of conservation importance, encouraging natural adoption of endemic plant species on farms by local residents

Table 2.6: Conservation Priority Issues and Proposed Interventions

Intersecting conservation matrix (priority issues)

Suggested interventions Sublocations

Critical Water Catchment Areas

Biodiversity Hotspot [Species richness,Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)]

- Conservation of areas of significant plants and animal occupancy.

- Participatory conservation of species of conservation importance on areas of occupancies

- Improving habitat conditions (e.g. cover) for the animals

- Initiate promulgation of 10% on-farm tree covers

Chyulu Game ReserveMuthingiini

Endemic Species - Detailed study on endemic species and their specific distribution

- Specific species-conservation effort directed on species in areas of concern

- Encouraging natural adoption of endemic species on farms by local residents





Forest Loss - Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration, enforce the 10% on-farm tree cover


Biodiversity Hotspot [Species richness,Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)]

- Conservation of areas of significant plants and animal occupancy.

- Participatory conservation of species of conservation importance on areas of occupancies

- Improving habitat conditions (e.g. cover) for the animals

- Initiate promulgation of 10% on-farm tree covers

Endemic Species - Detailed study on endemic species and their specific distribution


- Encouraging natural adoption of endemic on farms by local residents





High Population Density - Creating buffers to prevent destructions by trampling on areas with water resources such as springs, swamps

- Planting indigenous trees species (or bamboo) within the buffers


Slope - Stabilization of soils on the slopesPlanting indigenous trees (bamboo) on the slopes

⁻ Avoid cultivation on steep slopes in critical water areas.

Wetlands ⁻ Replanting, buffering to allow for vegetation regeneration

⁻ mapping/surveying and gazettement,

Riparian degradation - Reservation of riverines up to 30m - Establishing sustainable activities on the areas

e.g. proper cultivation strategies within the 30-100m buffer

Springs ⁻ Replanting, buffering to allow for vegetation regeneration

⁻ mapping/surveying and gazettement

Elevation ⁻ Restoration of deforested areas⁻ Restriction of settlements in those areas⁻ Prevention of cultivation⁻ Encouraging zero-grazing only


2.9 Proposed interventionsPolicy measures

i. Survey and demarcation of the water tower in order to establish the boundaries. This to be accompanied by electric fencing, demarcation of the buffer zones and enforcement of the existing laws. This will pave way for controlled access and utilization of resources within the water towers

ii. Consultative preparation of relevant documents i.e. Environmental Management Plan and Forest Management Plan for the water tower and the entire ecosystem

iii. Development of joint inter-county management plans for the protection and management of the water tower. This includes the need to have the plans anchored in the CIDPs

iv. Increase water monitoring stations and automate existing ones to ensure acquisition of timely, reliable and quality data on water flows

v. Strengthen legal and institutional frameworks for respective lead agencies to fill in the gaps and to avoid conflicting roles.

Stakeholder activitiesi. Introduction of Participatory Forest

Management schemes through the formation of Community Forest Association and strengthening existing ones.

ii. Formation of relevant stakeholder committees at various levels i.e. county, sub-county, ward etc. to oversee improved protection and management of the water towers.

iii. Empowerment of actors involved in management, conservation and protection of the water tower through allocation of more financial resources and technical staff to enhance their activities on the ground

Actions for the Community i. Promotion of alternative livelihoods (ALs)

through income generating activities such as apiculture, agro-forestry, tree nursery establishment and on-farm tree planting

ii. Implementation of conservation activities such as spring protection, tree planting/agro forestry, soil water conservation, protection of wetlands and riverbank protection


iii. Provision of alternative access to water by creating water intakes that are some distance from the springs, developing water harvesting structures and creating strategic watering points outside the water tower

iv. Establishment of additional fire breaks and rehabilitation of the existing ones

v. Establishment of breeding centers for animals in order to improve the quality of existing ones and sensitization of the

community on the need to keep few but quality animals

vi. Awareness creation/ training on the need to conserve the water

vii. Capacity building and empowerment of the community with relevant clean and energy efficient technologies technologies such as making of improved jikos and training on the latest climate-smart technologies. This also includes provision of extension services in areas such as agroforestry.


2.10 Interventions and achievements

1. KFS has been engaged with other partners notably David Sheldrick/ GAA Biglife foundation to fence the water tower

2. The WRUAs have collaborated with the county government to support their activities aimed at protecting the sources of water

3. There is collaboration between KFS and KWS in ensuring the forest and the park are well protected

4. A community development action plan and an ecosystem management plan have been formulated

2.11 Potential community projectsIn pursuit of alternative livelihoods, the communities identified and prioritized their preferred projects for implementation as shown in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7: Community Projects Identified and Prioritized

Name of Project 1 Agroforestry projects 2 Tree nurseries establishment3 Water harvesting and community boreholes4 Bee keeping for individuals and groups5 Earth dams and sand dams, Water pans for

ranches, dams at the bottom of hills6 Bamboo projects for individuals and groups7 Poultry keeping and rabbit keeping8 Protection of water catchments especially springs and

wetlands, forest and parks by fencing i.e Kilui wetlands9 Fencing of the Makueni County side

of the Chyulu Hills and Forest10 Horticultural projects: Vegetables,

melon, pumpkin, green gram11 Dairy goat farming as an alternative to extensive agric.

12 Ecotourism projects: tented camps and lodges

13 Greenhouses for higher value crop production

14 Fruit farming - passion, oranges, watermelons.

15 Livestock breed multiplication centre

16 Zero grazing

17 Pasture enhancement project in the shambas.

18 Fish farming

19 Conservation of community/private land

20 Brick making

21 Hay projects/Grass bank for pasture during low supply

22 Cultural festival centres

23 Marketing of handcrafts

24 Geographical viewpoints - Hot springs, caves, birds and nature walks


Table 2.8: Diversity of Stakeholders in Chyulu and their Roles

Stakeholders Role Area of Operation

NGOs

David Sheldrick wildlife trust Conservation and livelihood Kibwezi FR

Maasai Wilderness Conservation Trust Conservation and livelihood

Maasai land preservation trust Conservation and livelihood Mbirikani group ranch

Big life Foundation Conservation and enterprise Mbirikani group ranch

AWF nature conservation Selected landscapes

Kenya Forests Working Group Advocacy and lobbying Country wide

2.12 Stakeholder analysisStakeholders are important actors in water towers and include organizations or individuals who interact with the water tower in a number of ways. Several stakeholders are actively involved in diverse activities within the Chyulu water tower. They range from government Ministries

and institutions to civil society organizations. While some operate in specific land units like Kenya Wildlife Service in the Chyulu and Tsavo West national park, others operate within the expansive ecosystems, particularly state actors such as WRMA. Table 2.8 is a list of stakeholders active in the Chyulu water tower.


Stakeholders Role Area of Operation

Community groups

Friends of the Chyulu Umbrella CBOs, most active in the Chyulu conservation

Kibwezi and Makindu districts

Kibwezi forest CFA Participatory management of Kibwezi FR - Forest conservation and livelihood

Around Kibwezi FR

Kiboko, Makindu and Kibwezi WRUAS Water resources management and conservation

3 river sub-catchments

At least 8 other CBOS Conservation, afforestation Eastern side of the Chyulu

Imbirikani Group ranch Conservation and enterprise Imbirikani ranch

Kuku A and Kuku B group ranch Conservation and enterprise Kuku A and B ranch

Expert institutions and other stakeholders

KWS Biodiversity and ecosystem management

Chyulu hills NP

Tsavo west NP

KFS Forest ecosystem management Kibwezi FR

Water Resources Authority (WRA) Water resources management sub-catchments

Water service boards like KIMAWASCO Water supply within the ecosystem and outside

TanaAthi region

Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation

Research in agricultural sector Kiboko research centre

National Museums of Kenya conservation through research and dissemination of information

Country wide


Umani twin pools before 1998

Umani twin pools irreversibly damaged


Highlights• Located in Nakuru and Narok counties with total

area of about 157,000 ha

• Declining water flow in springs and rivers such as Molo, Njoro and Sondu

Key threats include:• Forestland in the gazetted forest has decreased

upto 40% of the area

• Encroachment into the gazetted forest area due to lack of clear demarcation and fencing of boundary coupled with rapid population growth in the region

• Land degradation due to unsustainable land management

Key interventions include:• Survey and clearly demarcate boundaries followed

by fencing

• Promote sustainable land management practices

• Strengthen Joint Enforcement Unit

East Mau Water Tower


3. East Mau Water Tower

The East Mau water tower located in the Great Rift Valley is one of the two largest blocks that make up the great Mau Forest Complex (Figure 3.1). The tower is mainly found within Nakuru County while the 5 km buffer zone extends to Narok County. The tower forms the upper catchment for the main rivers in Rift Valley and Western Kenya that include Sondu, Mara, Ewaso Ngiro, Molo, Njoro, Nderit, Makalia and Naishi which feed Lake Victoria, Lake Baringo, Lake Nakuru and Lake Natron.

The size of the tower was 66,000 ha of land but in 2001, about 35,000 ha were excised for human settlements. The excisions affected the vegetation cover in the main water catchments of Elburgon, Kuresoi, Keringet, Kiptagich, Njoro and Olposimoru. This change in vegetation cover had adverse effects on the water generating Figure 3.1: Location of East Mau

“I think the environment should be put in the category of our national security. Defense of our resources is just as important as defense abroad. Otherwise what is there to defend?” »

Robert Redford, American Actor


Figure 3.2: East Mau Rainfall Distribution

ability of the water tower and by 2009, over forty water sources in the Mau Forest Complex had dried up. Further, changes were observed in the Sondu River where the flow of water became irregular hindering hydroelectric power generation in Sondu-Miriu plant during dry seasons.

The rainfall pattern is bimodal with peaks in April and August (Figure 3.2). The rainfall ranges between 1000 and 2000 mm. The temperatures range from 16 to 22°C with July being the coldest month.

3.1 HydrologyThe East Mau water tower feeds the following rivers and their tributaries; Mara and its tributaries that drain into lake Victoria; Ewaso Nyiro South and its tributaries into lake Natron; Njoro, Enderit and Naishi into lake Nakuru; and Molo and Rongai rivers into Lake Baringo (Figure 3.3). These rivers cover a large geographical area and are a source of water and livelihood for surrounding communities.


Figure 3.3: Drainage System of East Mau

3.1.1 Rivers

The Mara river traverses the world renowned Maasai Mara game reserve and is crossed by world animals during the world famous wildebeests migration. There is evidence that in the last three decades, water discharge from East Mau has reduced as exemplified by the Njoro and Molo rivers which drain the North and South regions respectively. Molo river is fed by two tributaries; Elburgon and Rongai Rivers and between 1984 to 2002, there was a steady decline in the flow of water (Figure 3.4).

Njoro river


This period coincided with the excision of forest land for human settlements leading to changes in land use and land cover from forest to cultivated land. Frequent water use conflicts occurred as a result of the declining river flows and increased water demand for irrigation.

Njoro river had even more challenges compared to Molo. There was declining river flow due to destruction of the water catchment

areas, change in land use and land cover, and degradation of riparian areas (Figure 3.5) coupled with pollution by effluent from Njoro Town. Before 1992, the river had water all the year round but became seasonal thereafter.

3.1.2 Swamps, wetlands and springs

East Mau has numerous swamps, wetlands and springs scattered throughout the region

Sugutek Springs in Teret with serious erosion is taking place and there is absence of tree cover

Maji Moto spring


Figure 3.4: Molo River Flow

Figure 3.5: Njoro River Flow

that are the sources of many rivers. They are recharged from the underground storage of the water tower and are sensitive to slight changes in the levels of the water table.

Declining forest cover increases surface run off thus reducing the levels of rain water infiltration, leading to the drying up of many of these natural water points.


Forest FiresForest fires during severe droughts are a major challenge to forest rehabilitation efforts in Kenya. Kenya faces an average of 78 human induced forest fires annually with 40% due to arson, 20% by negligence and carelessness, and 40% due to unknown causes. Rehabilitated forests and plantations, particularly in water towers are the most damaged by these fires. The findings from a study conducted by Mutiso et al. (2015) indicate that the Mau Forest Complex (MFC) is historically a high fire risk area whereby the forest frequently burns. In the recent past, reported forest losses due to fire in the MFC according to the study were: Koibatek forest lost 1000 ha, Maji Mazuri 300 ha, Esageri 100 ha, Kiptunget 2900 ha, Chemususu 100 ha, Dundori 440 ha, Logoman 350 ha, Sururu 548 ha, Baraget 105 ha, Nessuit 300 ha, Eburu 1100 ha, Central Ontulili 200 ha, Ontulili 500 ha among others. The burnt forest areas even when rehabilitated hardly grew to maturity to provide any significant economic or ecological value.

There is limited empowerment and participation of the local communities in fire prevention and control. Local communities can successfully incorporate fire usage into sustainable land use and vegetation management systems. The underlying concept of integrated fire management also referred to as Community-Based Integrated Fire Management (CBFFM) focuses on integrating fire and local communities into a sustainable fire control and prevention management system. CBFFM ensures sustainable forest fire prevention and control in the water towers by enforcing sanctions for starting uncontrolled fires besides establishing fire breaks, buffer strips and fire-lines;

Recommendations for improved control of forest fires1. Establish a community-based approach in dealing with the fire disasters in the water towers whereby

Community Forest Associations provide a platform upon which consensus building on forest fire control and prevention can be anchored, culminating in the formation of Community-Based Forest Fire Management (CBFFM) units. The County governments to take the lead in their formation

2. Participatory policy and legislative interventions should be undertaken to support successful establishment and operation of CBFFM

3. Institutional and financial support should be provided to CBFFM towards enforcement of sanctions for starting uncontrolled fires, establishing fire breaks, fire-lines and buffer strips

4. Implement a monitoring system for patrolling fire prone areas during the dry season and build watch towers


Human activities such as bush clearing, grazing and over extraction of water resources accelerates the decline in water levels.

Maji Moto wetland

Maji Moto spring locally referred to as`Upatinishi’ originates from maji moto wetland which is relatively well preserved. The spring serves a large community of over 15,000 homesteads with water for domestic and livestock use. These are from Sirgotik, Teret and Simotet sublocations in Nessuit Location.

The swamp from which the spring originates is also a breeding site for birds. The area occupied by the swamp is private land and therefore needs to be conserved due to threats by encroachment through cultivation and overgrazing.

Napuyapui Swamp

It is found in Mariashoni location, within the Kiptunga Forest in East Mau. It is a source of

the Mara River which drains into Lake Victoria. It also serves as an elephant corridor. At the time of this study, the swamp was dry. Most of the trees near the swamp which were planted in 2010 during the Mau Restoration programme had also dried.

3.1.3 Water Resource Users Association (WRUA)

East Mau has been divided into four main sub catchments namely: Rongai, Njoro, Makalia and Upper Enderit for management purposes. Each sub catchment has a WRUA in place which has developed a Sub Catchment Management Plan (SCMP) as indicated in Table 3.1.

Most of these catchment areas face serious threats in the form of river bank cultivation, deforestation, water pollution, water scarcity, and soil erosion as indicated in Table 3.2. The SCMPs are aimed at promoting sustainable development by ensuring that land use

Napuyapui swamp


Table 3.2: Threats facing Rivers in East Mau

River Drainage basin

Hot Spots Threats

1 Molo L. Baringo Sandai area Over use and dwindling water flows resulting in water use conflicts

2 Rongai L Baringo From source to Eldama Ravine Road

Over use associated with water use conflicts

3 Njoro L. Nakuru Stretch between Egerton to Lake Nakuru

Solid waste disposal from Njoro Town, over abstraction of water and sand mining

4 Makalia L. Nakuru Stretch between Mau Narok and Makalia Waterfall

Forest destruction in the upper catchments. Farming along the river banks

5 Nderit L. Nakuru Stretch between Mau Narok Centre and the Lake

Forest destruction in the upper catchments and within Mau Narok

6 Naishi L. Nakuru Stretch between Naishi and the Lake

Forest destruction in the upper catchment. Farming along the river banks near Likia

and other agro-economic activities do not undermine critical resources and ecological functions of the ecosystem thus affecting local livelihoods.

3.2 BiodiversityThe East Mau water tower is renowned for its wealth in biodiversity. The tower has a wide range of plant and animal life some of which

Table 3.1: Water Resource Users Association within East Mau

No. Sub Catchment WRUA SCMP

1. Njoro Njoro In place

2. Makalia Makalia In place

3. Enderit Enderit In place

4. Rongai Rongai In place

5. Molo Molo In place


Enapuiyapui Swamp, a non-gazetted wetland within the gazetted Kiptunga forest in East Mau complex which feeds Mara river has dried up

are endangered. The vegetation is composed of shrubs, thick bamboo forest and a dense indigenous forest.

The animal species in the water tower include the African elephant, African Golden cat, leopard, Nile Monitor lizard, Africa rock python, Jackson’s widowbird and Crowned eagle all of which are classified as most threatened species in the IUCN red list.

Over 200 species of butterflies are also found in the forest and at least 20 are dependent entirely on the forest.

The tower also has a rich diversity of birds and has been accorded the Important Bird Areas status by CITES. Forty-nine of Kenya’s 67 Afro-tropical highland bird species are known to occur in the Mau Forest Complex, including the grey throated barbet, bush shrike, Equatorial akalat, red-chested owlet, Banded prinia and Black faced rufous warbler.

3.3 Land Use and Land Cover East Mau is a gazetted forest reserve that receives high rainfall throughout the year as a result of the influence of the dense forest cover which favourably alters the microclimate of the region. Maintenance of appropriate forest cover is crucial to avoid rivers drying up during the dry season and flooding in the wet season.

East Mau water tower covers approximately 160, 895 ha of land out of which 67,335 ha is the gazetted forest area and 93,560 ha is the area within the 5 km buffer zone. In 2001, approximately 35,000 ha of land was excised for human settlement thereby changing the land use and land cover as shown in Table 3.3. In the gazetted forest area only 53% of the area is under forest cover while 18% is under crop production and another 3% is taken up by human settlement (Table 3.3). Cultivation in the buffer


Tension in the 46,000 hectare Maasai Mau forest after hundreds of squatters from neighbouring settlement areas invaded parcels of land that were controversially allocated to individuals in 1998

Table 3.3: Land Use and Land Cover in East Mau (ha)

Land Cover Gazetted Forest Area Buffer Zone

Dense forest 10,100 (15%) 4,678 (5%)Open forest 21,547 (32%) 12,163 (13%)Plantation forest 4,040 (6%) 6,549 (7%)Shrub land 8,080 (12%) 4,678 (5%)Wooded grassland 3,367 (5%) 1,871 (2%)Open grassland 1,347 (2%) 11,227 (12%)Crop land 12,120 (18%) 46,781 (50%)Wetlands 3,367 (5%) 1,871 (2%)Built up 2,020 (3%) 2,807 (3%)Bare land 1,212 (1.8%) 561 (0.6%)Other 135 (0.2%) 374 (0.4%)Total 67,335 93,560

zone is intense with about 50% of the land under crop production and another 3% under human settlement while forest cover is 25%. There is need to reclaim the forest because if this trend is not checked, all the rivers emanating from the water tower will dry up. Land use and land cover changes over time provide a picture of how land is converted to various uses. The information is useful in determining drivers of degradation and

correctional measures to be taken in specific regions. Figure 3.6 and 3.7 shows the changes that have occurred in the gazetted forest area between 1990 - 2016.

Forest land decreased between 1990 - 2016 by 21,740 ha while crop land which was minimal in 1990 increased by about 14, 849 ha as at 2016.


Figure 3.7: Land Cover Maps for East Mau

1999 2000 2010 2016

Figure 3.6: Land Use and Land Cover for East Mau Forest Zone


I conceive that the land belongs to a vast family of which many are dead, few are living, and countless numbers are still unborn. Nigerian Chief

Forest land decreased in the buffer zone from 12,750 to 10,498 between 1990 - 2000 but increased to 13,771 by 2016 indicating increased conservation activities (Figure 3.8).

Crop land increased from 28,207 ha to 41,160 ha by 2016 as the area under grass land reduced from 33,836 ha to 18,030 ha.

Land cover conversionThe thematic land use and land cover conversions for the gazetted forests and buffer zone are shown in Figure 3.9 and 3.10. The highest conversion was from forest to open grassland which was about 9,000 ha followed by forests to cropland at about 4,600 ha.

Figure 3.8: Land Use and Land Cover for East Mau Buffer Zone


Figure 3.10: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Buffer Zone

Figure 3.9: Thematic Land Use and Land Cover Conversions in the Gazetted Forest


This points to ocurrence of forest encroachment as trees are cut down to open land for cultivation and settlement. However, there was forest recovery through conversion of about 2,000 ha of open grassland and cropland into forest.

Overall, about 7,000 ha of forest land was converted to cropland and 10,000 ha to wooded grassland. Inspite of this, there was forest recovery by conversion of about 5,000 ha of crop and open grassland to forest land.

3.4 Socio Economics and Livelihoods of Adjacent Communities The East Mau water tower supports a large population of communities that live adjacent to the forest. The climatic condition is conducive for the cultivation of crops and livestock keeping making it a major source of livelihoods to the communities.

Mau forest is the traditional home of the Ogiek forest dwelling communities but a large group of emigrants from other communities have moved into the forest.

3.4.1 Population

The average household size is 4-9 members and majority have lived adjacent to the water tower for more than 15 years (Figure 3.11). The population density within the 5 km buffer zone is 220 persons per km squared and 79% of the households have land ownership documents.The Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2004) reported that the towns of Kericho, Nakuru and Narok grew by 5.1 %, 3.6 % and 4.4 % respectively, between 1989 - 1999. The population census of 2009, showed that Molo and Elburgon sub locations in the buffer zone had a high population density of between 600 to 1,500 persons per km squared. Njoro, Mukungungu, Migaa, Kihingo and Kiptulel had slightly lower densities of 350-600 persons per km squared (Figure 3.12). These high population densities exert a lot demand for forest resources.

The high population densities coupled with improved infrastructure between urban centres that include Molo, Keringet, Londiani, Tenwek, Litein and Olenguruone that surround the tower may have contributed to the increased exploitation of the forest resources. The most serious threat to the forests is the continued presence of scattered communities.


Figure 3.11: Population Density in East Mau (2009 population data)

Figure 3.12: (a) Years Lived Adjacent to the Water Tower and (b) Household Size (n=42)


Human settlements Mau East, Nessuit Trading Centre, and extraction of water from a spring

3.4.2 Livelihoods

The main source of livelihood for the communities around the water tower is agriculture. Other activities include hunting wild animals for game meat, honey collection, cultivation, grazing, pole wood, bamboo, fuel wood, charcoal production, collection of medicinal plants and collection of grasses and vines for basket making and thatching. Crops grown include beans, maize, potatoes, carrots, bananas, groundnuts, vegetables, wheat, sorghum and oats.

About 67% of the households interviewed experienced wildlife conflicts and the major issues were crop destruction by moles and birds.

Wild animals mainly monkeys and leopards destroy crops in the farms and kill livestock repectively. In addition, the wild animals such as Leopards and monkeys kill livestock. The common coping strategy against wild animal conflicts is to scare these animals or report to the relevant institutions.

3.5 Total Economic ValuationEcosystem goods and services of direct value to the communities surrounding the water tower include firewood, poles, timber, grazing, thatch and water for domestic and livestock consumption (Table 3.4).

Table 3.4: Total Economic Value

Product/Service Value Fuelwood 656,756,360Poles in pieces 501,465,248Timber (m3) 7,112,982Medicine 0Water for livestock (m3) 9,562,708Water per household (m3) 34,859,679Grazing (bales) 25,151,232Thatch grass (per head lot) 1,040,178Honey (Kg) 5,736,276Charcoal (bags) 6,557,281Cultural sites 0Total Economic Value 1,248,241,944


The estimated value of the products and services extracted from the water tower by households is KES 1.7 billion (US$ 227 million) per annum with firewood accounting for up to 70% of the value. The East Mau forest, with about 3000ha under pine and cypress plantations, is the most exploited forest in terms of timber extraction, mostly by two forest based industries namely, Timsales and Comply. The forest can produce an estimated stump volume of 60,000 m3. At the current price of KES 2,800 m-3, this would generate an annual revenue of KES 168 million (US$ 2.24 million) (Kipkoech et al., 2011). Therefore, the TEV for East Mau is about KES 1.9 billion.

3.6 Community InteractionThe community interacts with the water tower mainly through the PELIS (shamba) system where KFS allows community groups to plant crops as well as tend to young trees in areas where harvesting of plantation forest has taken place (Table 3.5).

Other interactions are through charcoal burning, grazing, water for domestic and livestock, and irrigation and adaptive research.

“I’m very conscious of the fact that you can’t do it alone. It’s teamwork. When you do it alone you run the risk that when you are no longer there nobody else will do it.” Prof Wangari

Maathai. (1940-2011). Nobel laureate 2004.


No. Type of interaction Remarks

1. The PELIS system, commonly known as Shamba system is being practiced where KFS allows community groups to plant crops as well as tend to young trees in areas where harvesting of plantation forest has taken place. Once the trees are grown, the community is relocated to a different place where harvesting of trees has taken place. Through this, the community is able to increase their food production as well as promote growth of trees.

This system is beneficial when it is applied to the letter but it is oftenly abused as some groups do not plant the seedlings

2. Some of the community members burn charcoal in order to supplement their daily needs. In most cases, this is an illegal activity

There is need to implement the charcoal regulations to ensure that the practice is sustainable

3. The East Mau water tower is a dependable source of water supply for the communities both upstream and downstream for both domestic and livestock use. However illegal human activities along the river channels has led to water pollution.

Payment for ecosystem services and polluter pays principle for cleaning up the mess

4. Pastoral communities mainly those living in Mau Narok graze their animals in the water tower. The grazing can be both legal whereby livestock owners pay a monthly fee per animal to KFS and illegal where the communities informally keep their livestock inside the water tower. However, grazing has often resulted in conflicts between crop farmers and pastoralists. In addition, the large herds of livestock overgraze thereby exposing the soil to agents of erosion which often leads to siltation of rivers.

Grazing contributes to improved livestock production but should be controlled /managed so that the land carrying capacity is not exceeded to prevent degradation.

5. The water tower is endowed with a wide range of flora and fauna which promote tourism. An example of ecotourism activity is the Keringet athletic park and nature trails. This generates foreign exchange and promotes alternative livelihoods.

More ecotourism activities should be promoted

Table 3.5: Community Interaction


3.7 ThreatsThey key threat to ecosystem resilience and health in the East Mau water tower is increased human activity due to cultivation of crops and grazing of livestock (Figure 3.13). Opening of forestland for crop cultivation culminates into a reduction in forest cover, forest degradation and species loss thereby affecting critical water catchment areas and biodiversity hotspots.

These losses have not only negatively affected the ecological balance of the forests but have also immensely contributed to diminishing livelihoods of the communities around the water tower due to reduced land productivity and increased resource use conflicts.

Other threats include charcoal burning, logging and debarking (Table 3.6).

Figure 3.13: Environmental Threats Facing East Mau


Threat Effects

Settlement

and

Cultivation

Cultivation has cleared vegetation on the wider landscape.

This has destroyed habitats for wild fauna and restricted

their movement across the landscape. Also, it has affected

the potential for the indigenous tree species to regenerate

forest canopy which has a biological effect on moisture

retention is lost leading to desert like atmosphere

Logging A large portion of trees have been felled through logging. In

most cases, the activity is illegal and result in non-selective

cutting of indigenous tree species. Forest structures and

canopy gaps are affected by logging of trees. It affects the

forest tree population recovery and faunal structures and

distribution within the forest

Forest and

Bush Fire

Burning is a practice by some communities to regenerate

and improve the quality of grass for their livestock. This is

normally done when the rainy seasons are just about to set

in. Destruction of grasslands adversely affects the habitats

for some birds species. It also reduces the capacity of the

land to retain and delay the runoff flows.

Table 3.6: Threats

77Coordinated Environmental Protection 77

Threat Effects

Grazing Grazing in open forest areas has the potential to cause

degradation of grasses. Movement of livestock into the

dense forest areas can create paths that open access into

the forest. Regeneration of tree seedling is often difficult to

observe in areas often used for grazing. There is also high

potential for opportunistic and invasive species to encroach

such areas. Erosion Erosions are caused by interacting agents mainly

deforestation when forestland is opened for cultivation

coupled with overgrazing and trampling, which destroys

vegetation cover. The bare soil, especially on steep slopes

is vulnerable to agents of erosion such as water and wind.

Eroded soils/sediments are deposited in streams and springs

causing water pollution and can also block spring “eyes”

potentially reducing water discharge rate.Plantation

tree

farming

Expansion of plantations creates exotic species of trees that

do not provide diverse habitat characteristics of the fauna

species. Both distribution and diversity of populations of

species are adversely affected by plantation forests. Sand

harvesting

Mining activities, especially quarrying of building stones

affect the land by leaving derelictions that cannot be filled or

reclaimed easily. It destroys the standing forest trees as the

activity expand on the landscape. Such areas are affected in

a long term.


Threat Effects

Debarking Debarking destroys the bark of a tree that assists the plant

in transportation of water and nutrients, and protects the

plant against infections. Most of the trees that are debarked

end up dying from the effect.

Charcoal

Burning

Charcoal burning is carried out inside the water tower

mainly for sale and some for household use.

Water

quality/

pollution

from

factory.

Some of the factory loggers release a sludge during post

treatment of timber and agro-chemicals farms mainly from

flower farms in Naivasha and upstream farming whereby a

lot of chemicals are used in controlling pests and diseases.

This has affected both the quantity and quality of the water.

Land

ownership

issues

In Mau, there are people who have title deeds which are

being contested and the issue has not been fully resolved.

Human

wildlife

conflict

Human wildlife conflict occur resulting to destruction of

habitat/ changes in breeding/ mating habits.

Duplication

of duties

There is duplication of duties between County governments,

national government and NGOs including private investors in

the water tower.

79Coordinated Environmental Protection 79Coordinated Environmental Protection

3.8 Priority Areas for InterventionThese are areas that require actions to be undertaken to ensure rehabilitation and protection from further deterioration for long term ecosystem health and resilience. Conservation of the priority areas would potentially guarantee preservation of the upstream and downstream biodiversity and improvement of ground water recharge and discharge in the East Mau water tower.

Priority areas of intervention consist of hotspots based on critical water catchment areas, critical biodiversity areas, critical steep areas, high elevation areas, areas with high population density, riparian areas (200m buffer) and deforested areas.

Integration of the different hotspots through modelling leads to intersection of conservation issues which gives three priority areas for conservation on an ascending scale.

Drying up of rivers in Mt. Kenya and Aberdares has caused a drop in the water levels. A recent case is drying up of most tributaries feeding River Sagana.

In the North Rift, wild fires has consumed more than 500 acres of forests in Trans Nzoia and Elgeyo Marakwet counties.

The rivers are drying up as a result of destruction of the Water tower


Figure 3.14: Priority Areas for Intervention in East Mau

Priority 1 conservation areas require immediate attention, Priority 2 require attention in the mid-term while Priority 3 would require attention in the long term (Figure 3.14).


Table 3.7 gives the priority areas that require immediate action by KWTA and other stakeholders. These areas are mainly found in the upper part of Njoro Sub Catchment in Njoro

Town, Mauche, Teret and Nessuit areas. The priority areas for mid term and long term action are given in Annex III.

Table 3.7: Conservation Priority Issues and Proposed interventions


Suggested interventions Sub-locations

Biodiversity Hotspot[Species richness,Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)

Slope • Restriction of settlements in those areas• Prevention of cultivation• Reservation of forest/bush isolation on steep slope areas• Avoid cultivation on steep slopes in critical water areas• Reforestation programs

Nyota, Marioshoni, Kihingo, Entiyani, Kapkembu and Kiambogo

Endemic Species

• Specific species-conservation effort directed on species in areas of concern

• Encouraging generation of the endemic plants

• Encouraging natural adoption of endemic species on farms by local residents

Elevation • Restoration of deforested areas• Encouraging reforestation and/or afforestation of

indigenous trees• Restriction of settlements in those areas• Prevention of cultivation• Encouraging zero-grazing only


The following overall actions should be undertaken to address concerns in the priority hotspots:

i. Restoration of Upper Njoro sub catchment which has been identified as critical through forest regeneration and agroforestry development by enforcement of progressive on- farm minimum tree cover of 10%.

ii. Protection of water recharge and discharge areas which include springs such as Maji Moto springs in Nessuit, Kaplekwa in Teret; swamps and rivers such Njoro, Makalia, Elderit and Naishi.

iii. Enforcement of relevant legislation that restricts cultivation in steep slopes unless the soil is protected against soil erosion for areas identified as hotspots based on slope (above 33%) which include Kiptunga, Teret, Siapei, Topoti, Kiambogo and Ndabibi areas.

iv. Recovery of areas above 2800 metres (above sea level) identified in the elevation hotspot in order to preserve the catchment areas of the top of the Mau Escarpment. They include Kiptunga, Milimet, Elburgon, Teret, Siapei and Topoti.



Biodiversity Hotspot[Species richness,Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)

Population Density

• Creating buffers to prevent destructions by trampling on areas with water resources such as springs, swamps

• Protection of species of conservation importance

• Planting indigenous trees species (or bamboo) within the forest buffers

• Creating conservation awareness

• Adopting energy conservation strategies and encouraging alternative means of energy utilization


Forest Loss • Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration, enforce the 10% on-farm tree cover


v. Improve habitat conditions in areas identified as biodiversity hotspots in areas such as West of Sigotik, North of Lusiru, West of Lelechwet; West and north east of Teret Sub-locations.

vi. Involve local communities in a participatory approach to conservation of the species that are of conservation concern. An example is the preservation of the African elephant by maintaining the migration corridor.

3.9 Interventions and achievementsThe following interventions were carried out targeting the communities around the water tower:

1. Diversification of livelihoods through promotion of alternative income generating activities such as tree planting, beekeeping, fish farming and planting of fruit trees

2. Promotion of alternative sources of energy such as energy saving jikos to reduce demand for fuel wood and charcoal used by the community

3. Building a forest guard outpost for better monitoring and control of illegal activities.

4. Community capacity building is being carried out for optimum conservation and management of the forest in the longterm

5. Leasing out land for the planting of indigenous seedlings in some parts of Molo block and in other areas like Sururu and Koibatek, seedlings were planted to rehabilitate the lost forest while some blocks such as Eburu were fenced to avoid human encroachment for charcoal and poles

6. Land recovery efforts has seen forty four (44) titles totaling 1,250 ha being surrendered voluntarily as of 2015

7. The boundary survey for the Eburu Forest Reserve has been completed and Title Deeds issued

8. Bamboo has been identified as a strategic resource that could substitute wood and reduce pressure on forest wood products by communities. A national bamboo stakeholders’ workshop was organized which identified the key pillars in developing bamboo industry. KWTA has prepared a concept note on bamboo industry development and sought funding from the Chinese government.


The following achievements have been realized with regard to resource mobilization:

a. A comprehensive programme document for the rehabilitation of the Mau forest ecosystem has been prepared in collaboration with United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)

b. USAID funded the survey and demarcation of the forest boundaries in Transmara and South Western Mau to the tune of Kshs 18 million

c. A project in Northern Mau with the European Union (EU) for Euro 2.3 million has been signed and is being implemented

d. The Water Towers Conservation Fund has been established and a total of 50 million deposited as seed money. The Fund Committee already established and is operational

e. The Government of Kenya allocated one (1) billion Kenya Shillings for the resettlement of the squatters relocated from South West Mau

f. Rhino Ark in collaboration with government and other development

partners have started fencing of Eburu forest in March 2013 and completed the fence in November 2014 with the aim of securing it and minimizing human wildlife conflicts. The completed fence, built along the gazetted Eburu Forest Reserve boundary, is 43km long and completely encircles the 8,715ha indigenous forest. Associated fence infrastructure, comprising three fence energizer houses and 10 lockable metallic fence gates are also fully completed

3.9.1 Establishment of the Joint Enforcement Unit (JEU) The JEU is comprised of Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), Narok County Government (NCG), Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and Administration Police (AP). The overall responsibility of the unit is to enforce existing laws and regulations to protect the gazetted forest from further destruction.

The specific objectives of the JEU are to:

i. Discontinue any further forest destruction through illegal logging and transportation of forest products such as logged timber, charcoal and other forest produce for commercial purpose


ii. Stop any further forest encroachment through cultivation and illegal settlements

iii. Assess the extent of forest damage and identify hot spots

iv. Perform routine forest management operations such as controlling poaching and human/wildlife conflicts, and monitor flora and fauna for biodiversity conservation

v. Rehabilitate degraded areas of the water tower through promotion of sustainable land management

The activities of JEU include ground monitoring, law enforcement, aerial surveillance and rehabilitation of degraded areas (Table 3.8).

The annual achievements of the JEU towards restoration of the water tower include arresting of 212 people who were carrying out illegal activities within the water tower and confiscation of various proscribed forest products such as charcoal, timber and posts as shown in Table 3.9.

Activity Description Ground monitoring • Undertake day and night patrols of the forest grounds

• Dedicated frequency for operations

Law enforcement • Destruction of impounded forest products• Destruction of makeshift shelters and newly cultivated forest land• Arrest offenders

Aerial surveillance-KWS aircraft is provided for monitoring

• Detection of illegal extraction of forest product and encroachment into the forest

• Monitoring of wildlife movements and fire occurrence • Intelligence gathering and detection of anomalies by interpreting early warning

signs and providing timely advice to operation commander for actionCommunity outreach • Outreach meetings for awareness creation

• Soliciting support for conservation of Mau Forest Conservator• Media relations and publicity

Rehabilitation of the Mau forest

The Unit participates in rehabilitation activities with stakeholders

Table 3.8: Activities of the Joint Enforcement Unit


Month

Recovery efforts in Mau Forest Complex in the year 2017

No. of suspects arrested

Bags of Charcoal Destroyed

Bags of Charcoal Recovered

Pieces of Timber Destroyed

Pieces of Timber Recovered

Pieces of Posts/beams Recovered

Pieces of Posts/Beams Destroyed

No. of Charcoal Kilns Destroyed

January 19 2 11 200 0 636 20 10

February 14 5 4 50 96 341 860 15

March 14 0 31 0 10 202 977 19

April 21 0 18 0 0 60 282 17

May 16 13 9 0 0 344 290 17

June 5 0 6 0 0 5 185

July 19 0 58 0 0 371 70 14

August 26 0 6 42 0 26 684 31

September 21 8 6 23 46 110 100 20

October 26 75 12 54 52 756 904 81

November 13 0 16 70 0 2057 929 17

Dec 18 26 18 0 0 282 54 32

Total 212 129 195 439 204 5,190 5,355 273

Table 3.9: Achievements of the Joint Enforcement Unit

New motorbikes, tanks, solar panels, tents, TV and cold weather gear issued by KWTA to Joint Enforcement Team

87Coordinated Environmental ProtectionCedar posts Charcoal burning

3.10 Stakeholder analysisVarious state and non-state stakeholders are involved in protection, management and exploitation of East Mau water tower (Table 3.10).

The key state actors are KFS and KWS involved in conservation and management of public forests and wildlife respectively; NEMA that

ensures environmental resilience and; WRA for sustainable management of water resources.

Non-state actors are local/international development agencies that provide funding for various conservation activities, community based organizations that carry out conservation activities and private sector organizations that undertake various activities as part of their corporate social responsibility.


Table 3.10: Stakeholders and their Roles

Institution Roles/functions

a. State Actors

Kenya Forest Services (KFS), Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), Ministry of Agriculture,Livestock and Fisheries (MOALF), County Governments of Narok and Nakuru

Conserve and manage all public forests; development of Participatory Forest Management Plans, support creation of CFAs; promote sustainable agroforestry practice and management; ensure environmental resilience

Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI), Egerton University

Undertake research, training and education in forestry and allied natural resources

Ministry of internal security and national coordination Coordinate and handle security issues

Ministry of lands and housing, County Governments Coordinate issues relating to land, issuing of titles, and ensuring land use plans are adhered to

Water Resource Authority (WRA) Facilitate the establishment and operation of WRUAs and WRMAs for conflict resolution and sustainable management of water resources

Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KENGEN), Ministry of Agriculture,Livestock and Fisheries (MOALF), County Governments of Narok and Nakuru

Training the community on alternative energy saving sources

Ministry of foreign affairs, Nyayo Tea Zone, Kenya Defense Forces (Gilgil)

Engaged in tree planting activities as part of corporate social responsibility


Institution Roles/functions

b. Non-State Actors

East Africa Community, Lake Victoria Basin Commission, Lake Victoria Environmental Management Program (LVEMP)

Formulating laws and regulations which cover transboundary conservation and environmental issues; handling transboundary issues

Timsales, Comply, Timber Merchants Association, Kenya Commercial Bank (KCB), Safaricom LTD, Crown Foods (Keringet), Kenya association of manufacturers (private sector alliance)

Training, provision of bursary to needy students, building schools, provision of seedlings and other community support activities and conservation in pursuit of corporate social responsibility

Ogiek community, Ogiek Peoples Development Programme, Kazi kwa Vijana Community Forest Associations (CFAs), Community Based Associations such as ENSDA FESPAK, FOMAWA, ISLA,IDS,Emburu Rafiki,Sence Bary (KEW), ACC, FTMA,RAFIKI, Resource user associations such as WRUAs

Engage in conservation, management and utilization of natural resources through programs such as PELIS

International/local donors development partners (Finland (MMMB), AFDB (GZDSP), EU (CDTF & IARM), World Bank (NRM), MSTCDC Arusha (Regional), FAO, World Wide Fund (WWF), Rhino Ark, Green Belt Movement, IUCN

Funding or sourcing for funding for conservation activities such as fencing, organizing sports competitions aimed at sensitization

Kenya Forest Working Group (KFWG), Kenya Forest Network (KFN),

Provide forum for individuals, organizations and institutions (government and non-government, local and international) and community organizations concerned with forests

NACOFA, NECOFA To collectively support CFAs in addressing sustainable management and utilization of forest resources in East Mau

Africa Wildlife Fund, MAMASE Funding research and conservation activities

Religious organizations/ schools Tree planting, sensitization on need for conservation


Water towers provide important ecosystem goods and services such as biodiversity conservation, water purification and storage, scenic beauty and carbon sequestration to the society. In spite of these benefits, the towers are prone to degradation caused by inefficient, un-sustainable, and inequitable land use by surrounding communities who are not direct beneficiaries of the ecosystem goods and services. Conventional measures have failed to motivate these communities to avoid the disruptive and unsustainable land use practices.

This situation has given rise to the alternative concept of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) whereby the supply of ecosystem goods and services to the society is maintained through incentives that encourage the communities to forego disruptive and unsustainable land use practices. PES provides partial monetary compensation to the communities for the intangible costs incurred during generation of ecosystem services and goods. The emergence and growth of PES mechanisms such as those in carbon markets and now the opportunity for reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) make more appealing cases for the communities surrounding water towers to exploit this potential.

The Chyulu Hills water tower is critical for the provision of ecosystem goods and services, including water and carbon sequestration. In an effort to enhance the conservation and protection of the tower, various

stakeholders came together in 2011 to augment conservation activities and to establish the Chyulu Hills Conservation Trust (CHCT) multi-stakeholder forum. The CHCT was formalized in 2015 and encompasses two government agencies, three local NGOs and four Maasai Group Ranches. The CHCT has successfully implemented the Chyulu Hills REDD+ Project covering 410,000 ha, which has reduced emission of 600,000 tons of CO2 annually from deforestation and forest degradation.

In addition, the CHCT is also scoping the feasibility of a PES scheme between the local community and Mombasa City who obtain 30% of their water requirement from the Mzima Springs. Kariaria (2009) observed that future efforts on promotion PES in water towers should focus on creating awareness and build capacity of surrounding communities to supply ecosystem goods services, and piloting PES schemes in selected water towers and scaling up the lessons learnt.

Payment for Ecosystem Services

Upstream conservation of a watershed in the Aberdares water tower (right) which ensures provision of clean water in the downstream (left). Source (Kariaria, 2009).


Conclusion

Chyulu and East Mau water towers are important to the national and regional economies due to the provision of multiple ecological, economic, social and cultural goods and services; directly to adjacent communities in the form of water for domestic use and livestock production, pasture, firewood and timber. To the wider regions in which they occur, they provide indirect goods and services such as modification of macro-climate; water storage, purification and supply; and sequestration of greenhouse gases that cause climate change.

The combined estimated Total Economic Value of the goods and services from the two towers is about 42 billion and can potentially increase if they are better conserved and protected against various threats that affect their sensitive and fragile ecosystems. The threats are mainly caused by rapid population growth which intensifies the pressure on the limited water tower natural resources thereby accelerating their eventual degradation. In addition, there is change in land use and land cover due to cutting of trees for firewood, charcoal, opening land for cultivation, occurrence of forest and bush fires and excision of gazetted forest to create human settlement. Reduction in forest cover degrades critical water catchments leading to decline in water flows from springs and rivers, especially during the dry season and flooding in rainy conditions. Further, encroachment into areas that are rich in diverse flora and fauna compromises their biodiversity status and some of the species which are already either threatened or endangered according to CITES and IUCN.

4. Conclusion and Recommendations


General recommendations for sustainable management of water towers

The 2015 Status Report made recommendations that are vital for the health of Kenya water towers and wellbeing of surrounding communities. Below are the ones that are yet to be implemented, primarily due to financial constraints:

1. Audit and implement previous recommendations. There is need to audit all previous recommendations towards conservation and rehabilitation of water towers and formulate a participatory implementation framework apportioning responsibility to relevant institutions coupled with a robust monitoring and evaluation system to track the implementation.

2. Map and value water towers. Mapping and valuation of Kenya’s water towers is necessary to establish their total economic value to the immediate communities and the wider region in which they occur. The value will inform and assist in soliciting support from stakeholders for the sustainable management of the water towers as national assets.

3. Develop national water towers conservation strategy. A national conservation strategy incorporating water tower-specific management plans developed in consultation with stakeholders including county governments is required. The strategy would be integrated into County Integrated Development Plans (CIDP) to attract interest, funding and stimulate interest in conservation and preservation of water towers.

4. Enhance the Capacity to Oversee and Manage Water Towers. KWTA should establish a collaborative framework to enhance protection of water towers ecosystems by relevant organizations (KFS, KWS, KWTA, WRA, County Governments) and local communities). Further, the capacity needs of various institutions, including KWTA and KFS for long-term, effective and sustainable management of the water towers should be established and addressed. For KFS, there is need to recruit more forest rangers to attain the internationally accepted ratio of 1 ranger for 400 ha of forest for effective patrolling and protection of gazetted forests. Currently, an area of 300280 ha in Mt. Kenya water tower is managed by only 450 forest rangers translating into one ranger covering 670 ha.


5. Develop and maintain a data bank of stakeholders linked to water towers. There is need to establish an updated and comprehensive national database of stakeholders involved in the preservation and conservation of water towers. The database would indicate the investment profile of each stakeholder and help KWTA coordinate sustainable management of the water towers.

6. Secure water towers through gazettement and land registration. Non-gazetted water towers should be gazetted coupled with issuance of title deeds for long-term protection and security, particularly against encroachment and land excision. However, some water towers such as of Mt. Kenya, Shimba hills and Mt. Elgon have double gazettement between KWTA and KFS which should be harmonized to avoid institutional overlaps and conflict.

7. Fragmentation of Forest Blocks. There are deliberate moves to fragment some water towers, creating separate blocks that increase human activities, which could ultimately affect the ecological integrity of the ecosystems. The large forest blocks in the water towers should remain intact to enhance provision of ecosystem goods and services.

8. Establishment of Bamboo belts. There is need to secure the water towers against encroachment by planting Bamboo belts along the boundaries. The belts will enhance security, spur economic growth, and create employment while providing other ecological benefits to the surrounding communities.

The other recommendations that should be undertaken are:

1. Develop national water tower policy and legislation. Formulate a national water tower policy and legislation to provide strategic policy direction on the conservation and preservation of water towers in consultation with stakeholders. Also, there is need for a clear regulatory framework that will guide the sharing of water tower revenue generated by institutions such as KFS and WRA.


2. Develop a Water Towers Monitoring Framework and Programme. In order to design appropriate long-term policies and strategies to manage the water towers, timely and reliable data on drivers and changes of ecosystem health and resilience is required. There is need for KWTA to develop a comprehensive water tower monitoring framework and programme with an embedded platform to share information generated amongst stakeholders.

3. Establish a Real Time Water Tower Monitoring Plan. For sustainable management of water tower ecosystems, there should be authorization and deployment of effective modern technologies such as drones and GPS to ensure real-time monitoring, surveillance and tracking of all activities and interventions taking place in the ecosystems.

4. Review of the Sustainable Forest Management Rules. There should be a review of the process for developing the Community Forest Management Plans, agreements, allocations, permits, licenses, and any other authorizations outlined in the Forests (Participation in Sustainable Forest Management) Rules of 2009. The review should ensure that any conflict of interest in the award of allocations, permits and licenses for the utilization of forest resources is avoided by establishing or strengthening an independent organization to oversee the process.

5. Vetting of tree logging licenses and audit of CFAs: Establishment of a multi-agency committee to oversee audit of all tree logging licenses and the activities of existing CFAs. Further, the moratorium on tree logging should be deepened by suspension (for a specified time) and recalling for review and audit of all permits, licenses, contracts, agreements or any other authorizations issued with respect to logging, allocation of felling rights, sawmilling, timber and charcoal business under the Forest Conservation and Management Act, 2009. In the interim however, zero rate taxation on imports of timber and related wood products to avoid collapse of the sub-sector.


6. Rolling out of a National Soil and Water Conservation Programme. KWTA should roll out a National Soil and Water Conservation Programme for all the water towers in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders for the restoration and sustained protection of water catchment areas, watersheds, springs, riparian areas, water bodies and wetlands.

7. Annual green investment conference. There is need for annual green investment conference to spur investment initiatives as well as to enable communities to attract potential foreign investments.

8. Production of green handbook. A green investment handbook highlighting investment opportunities within the water towers should be produced annually and shared with government institutions, private sector institutions such as KEINVEST, KEPSA, KAM, foreign investors and to all the embassies both locally and abroad through Ministry of Foreign affairs.

9. Promote Payment for Ecosystem Services. There is need to generate awareness and interest in provision of both ecosystem services (sellers) and their market (buyers) to the local communities surrounding the water towers. Additionally, efforts should also be directed towards initiating pilot PES schemes in selected water towers and the lessons learnt scaled up to ensure successful implementation of this approach across all the water towers.

10. Establishment of forums, working groups and networks. Establish national and international forums to support the conservation and further improvement of Kenya’s water towers through continuous dialogue, debate and exploration of the various issues. The compositions of such forums would include public (national and County Governments), the private sector, civil society organizations, CBOs, development partners and all other interested stakeholders.


11. Promote investment in alternative energy sources. Land degradation caused by the demand of wood biomass energy has a direct negative impact on water towers, due to the disruption of hydrological profile and local microclimate.

12. Promote green investments and enterprises. There is a need to promote and establish ecological friendly enterprises and businesses that would contribute to the preservation and conservation of water towers. Further, appropriate success stories on green investments at the local, regional and international levels should be domesticated and up-scaled e.g. bamboo farming, sport fishing, eco-tourism, herbal medicines and products.

13. Communication and information strategy. Develop and roll out a multi-level communication and information strategy on the issues affecting water towers for awareness creation and spurring action amongst local and international stakeholders. This would include the showcasing emerging initiatives such as payment for ecosystem services, recognition and rewarding of institutions that have made either unique or largest contribution towards preservation and conservation of water towers. Additionally, the judicial officers should be sensitized on potential environmental and land use crimes and their long-term impact on sustainable, equitable and productive use of natural resources by the society.

14.Resource Mobilization and investment. KWTA’s current 5-year strategic plan requires about KES 5 Billion for its successful roll out and implementation. Public, private and other stakeholders need to support the Agency to ensure stimulation of multifaceted and enhanced national development in key sectors of the economy such as energy, tourism and agriculture.

15. Control of forest fires: Employ a community-based approach in dealing with forest fire disasters. CBOs should provide a platform for consensus building, culminating in the formation of Community-Based Forest Fire Management (CBFFM) units that should take lead in fire control by spearheading activities such as establishment of fire-lines and firebreaks. Adequate policy and legislative interventions for successful establishment of CBFFM, coupled with institutional and financial support are also necessary.


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Annexes

Annex I: Conservation Priority Issues and Proposed interventions for Priority 2 Areas



Biodiversity Hotspot

[Species richness,

Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)

Endemic Species

- Detailed study on endemic species and their specific distribution



Mang’elete and Eastern Olorika

Pop Density ⁻ Restriction of settlements in the high elevation areas

Slope - Stabilization of soils on the slopes

Planting indigenous trees (bamboo) on the slopes

- Avoid cultivation on steep slopes in critical water areasForest Loss - Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration

- Enforce the 10% on-farm tree cover


Annex II: Conservation Priority Issues and Proposed interventions for Priority 3 Areas



Elevation Endemic Species




Olorika

Oltiasika

Tsavo West Game Reserve

Pop Density

⁻ Restriction of settlements in the high elevation areas

Slope - Stabilization of soils on the slopes


- Avoid cultivation on steep slopes in critical water areasForest Loss - Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration


Slope Forest Loss - Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration

- Enforce the 10% on-farm tree cover Endemic Species







Pop Density

- Creating buffers to prevent destructions by trampling on areas with water resources such as springs, swamps

- Planting indigenous trees species (or bamboo) within the buffers Population Density

Endemic Species




- Create conservation awareness on the endemic plant speciesForest Loss - Planting indigenous trees species (or bamboo) within the buffers

- Encourage conservation of forest/bamboo isolation in cropland areas

Endemic Species

Forest Loss - Planting indigenous trees species (or bamboo) within the buffers



Annex II: Conservation Priority 2 Issues and Proposed interventions in East Mau

Conservation priorities

Intersecting conservation matrix

(priority issues)

Interventions Sublocations

Priority areas of conservation 2


[Species richness,

Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)]

Slope

⁻ Restriction of settlements in those areas

⁻ Prevention of cultivation

⁻ Reservation of forest/bush isolation on steep slope areas

⁻ Avoid cultivation on steep slopes in critical water areas


Endemic Species

⁻ Specific species-conservation effort directed on species in areas of concern

⁻ Encouraging generation of the endemic plants

⁻ Encouraging natural adoption of endemic on farms by local residents




(priority issues)




[Species richness,


Elevation⁻ Restoration of deforested areas

⁻ Encouraging reforestation and/or afforestation of indigenous trees

⁻ Restriction of settlements in those areas

⁻ Prevention of cultivation

⁻ Encouraging zero-grazing only




[Species richness,


Pop Density- Creating buffers to prevent

destructions by trampling on areas with water resources such as springs, swamps

- Protection of species of conservation importance

- Planting indigenous trees species (or bamboo) within the forest buffers

- Creating conservation awareness

- Adopting energy conservation strategies and encouraging alternative means of energy utilization


Forest Loss

- Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration, enforce the 10% on-farm tree cover




(priority issues)


Priority Areas of Conservation 3


[Species richness,


Endemic Species




Elburgon, Sururu, Likia,

Mau Narok, Olorropi,

Ndabibi,

Njoro and Molo

Pop Density⁻ Restriction of settlements in the high elevation areas

Endemic Species




Annex III: Conservation Priority 3 Issues and Proposed interventions in East Mau




(priority issues)




[Species richness,


Slope

- Stabilization of soils on the slopes


- Avoid cultivation on steep slopes in critical water areas

Forest Loss

- Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration


Forest Loss

- Replanting, buffering to allow for forest regeneration


- Encourage Endemic Species



- - Encouraging natural adoption of endemic on farms by local residents




(priority issues)




[Species richness,


Pop Density

- Creating buffers to prevent destructions by trampling on areas with water resources such as springs, swamps




Ndabibi,

Njoro and Molo

Endemic Species




- Create conservation awareness on the endemic plant species

Forest Loss






(priority issues)




[Species richness,

Species of conservation importance, and Conservation threats (observations)] Forest Loss





Ndabibi,

Njoro and Molo

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