Kava-Polynesian Beverage Shrub

The potent alkaloidal content of this plan.t has longmade it an important intoxicating ceremomal plant ofthe Pacific islands and accounts for the minor commer-cial significance attached to it today.

RONALD GATTYDCf!arlll/£lt! uf Agricultural Economics, C01"1U'il University, !thaca, N. Y.

IntroductionPiper methysticulII i:, definitely one of

the more important economic plants ofPolynesia. Under the names "kava ","ava ", " awa "," yanggona "and" hoi "this shrub finds wide use because of itsmild narcotic properties. Primarily itserves as a ceremonial and social drinkbut is also widely recognized by nativesfor its application in medicine as a diu-retic and soporific. and, especially informer times, as an aid for relaxing intohypnosis.This article tries to draw together

some of the rather diffuse literature onthe plant. In some ways this is not aneasy task. It has been anthropologists,not botanists, who have written most onthis subject, primarily because it occu-pies quite an important place in Polyne-sian culture. As can be seen from thebibliography, historians travelling in thePacific in the last century have contrib-uted much to our kno\dedge of early cul-tivation and uses of Piper methysticum,but their mention of it is often brief andin many cases publi:,hed in old periodicalsor books which are not readily uyailable.Although thi:" article does not take up

ethnological comiderations, it should berealized that such matters are importantin studying the me of any plant in., primitive" society. This article dwellsspecifically on planting anti cultivation,on varieties as di:,tinguished by thePolynesians, and on what information it

241

has been possible to gather regardingthe marketing of kava as a commercialproduct.

Varieties and Distribution of Kava

First, it might be well t~ have a de-scription of Piper methystlcUIIi .. F.romBrown (1935) we read that till:" IS a.. Shrub 2 ± meters in height. the culti-vated varieties 4 +meters high: leavesorbicular-ovate, abruptly acuminate,deeply cordate at the base, from 13 cm inlength, 11 cm wide, up to 20 cm long ~nd18 cm wide in the Marquesan speCies,glabrous on both faces with t!le exc:p-tion of minutely puberulent Yems; vems11-]3 the three central ones reac hing theapex; 'the petiole glabrous, 2.5 ± cm inlength; spike opposite the lean':,: flowersmonosporangiate, dioecious. the malespikes much shorter than the lea\'('s, thefloral bracts rounded, subcrenate, pel-tately attached at the center. with apuberulent pedicel; stamens t\\"o, theanthers subglobose, shorter than the fila-ments ".This species is apparently indigenous

further west than Fiji, undoubtedly car-ried east by early migrants in the Pa-cific. The wild source is not knO\\"l1, butthe plant is now in N e\\" Guinea andlIlanv islands of Polynesia and ~Iicro-nesi~~. Forster mentioned no type speci-men but wrote of localities in Tahiti, andthe Tongan and Ha\vaiian Groups. Theplant is in Fiji only as a result of culti-yation (Smith, A. C., 19431.

It IS cultivated in the :\larquesas(kava or 'ava), in Tahiti (kava or hoil,Rarotonga (kava) (Brown, 1935), inHawaii (Handy, 1940) and in the Fijian,Samoan and Tongan Groups. Kava usedto be grmm in Tubuai, but the mission-aries came in 1882 and forbade the drink.~ow only a few plants are left there(Aitken, 1930). The Easter islanders donot cultivate ka\'a, even though it is usedin Mangare\'a and in the l\Iarquesas.\vhic!J comj1o"e the rirobable originalhOll1e of thc:,e people, Perhaps the cli-mate of Ea:,ter Island is not fa \'ourable.Tbi" ]'('a"on. however, cannot explain\vby kava is not cultivated on Rapa\vhere the climate is favourable (Me-traux, 19401.Safford 11905) wrote that the plant

was not culti\'ated in Guam, and Guppy11881) said that he saw no kava-drink-ing in the :3olomon Islands. Guppy men-tions Rev. La,,'es' statemeI.t that theplant gro\vs wild on the south coast ofNew Guinea, but with no reference as towhether it was used.Loeb (19261 mentions that not much

is known of kava-drinking in Niue. Ithas evidently not become a common cus-tom. Family records describe its use bychiefs in faikava-atua (offering to gods),but only one legend has kava playing aprominent part. Before kava was intro-duced, coconut "'ater was drunk cere-nlOnially \vith a libation poured out forthe gods, as is done with kava in Samoa.There arc at least three references on

the varieties of kava distinguished bythe Polynesians in Hawaii and :\1ar-quesas and by the Poly-melanesians ofFij i. Thcn' ~ll"eno doubt more descrip-tion:, of v~lr:(-tic:, in literature I han notvet found. Brmnl (19351 lists 21 vari-~ties from the :\Iarquesas, and includesshort dc:,eriptions of some of them. It"'ill perhap, :,uffice here to gin a fewnotes on "on,\: of these:Kava pupupapa: regarded as one ofthe best bewrage varieties: about

two meters in height; internally theroot is yellowish, outside it is rathergreen; the internodes are short, theleaf blades thin and large; the spikesquite long.

Kava puou: used for kava; internodescomparatively long and tend to red-dish-brown.

Kava veaoha: considered an excellentvariety for making kava.

, Ava puou: an excellent variety formaking kava; the root is quitetender, facilitating chewing; largevariety, growing up to four meters:reddish-brown long internodes.

'Ava putea: used for kava; internodes-,'ary in length and arc of a lightcolour,

Kava putoake: informants state thatt his is the only variety which is us('()for medicine and for drink; it has avery powerful effect.

Parham (1935) lists and describes fiveFijian varieties, three white types andtwo black types:White varieties-Kasa Leka, KasaBalavu and Qolobi.

Black varieties-Kasa Leka and KasaBalavu.

The main distinguishing features arehabit, length of internode and size ofleaf scar.

Kava in Myth and LegendKava enters into many Polynesian

myths and legends, a few relating to theplant's origin. In Tonga there is a spe-cific story about the first apearance ofkava:There lived a chief by the name of

Loau, from Haamea, Tongatapu, andonc day Loau sailed to the small islandEuaiki to visit his attendant Fevanga.But this was a time of famine, and Fe-\'anga was at a loss as to what to feedthe visiting chief. There was a kapeplant (Anon costahon) but it would notprovide sufficient food. Finally Favangaand his wife Fefafa killed and cooked

their leprous daughter to be served withthe kape-this was the only food theyhad for their chief. Loau recognized thehuman flesh at the meal and told thepeople not to eat it-it should be plantedin the ground and brought to him when

{\OW \yhen Fevanga took the kanl to·Loau it became custom to take a relish,sugar cane, with thc kava drink lGif-ford, 1924).Tradition has it in Hawaii that kava

was first brought in by Oilikukaheana

FIG. 1. A kava-(lrinking ceremony on the island of l\lunia, Fiji. The dried root is groUlHlup. mixed with water. ~trained and then served from thp large central bowl. \Yith onc cup of a('O('onut half-shell, ea('h guest i~ ",en'cd in turn, in ordn of Ho('ial ~tancling an,l with a fl()\lri~hof IlI'e~entation that in('!udes ('hanting and ~onwtilllc's danc·ing. Tradition di('tate, that ea('h gu,,~tmu~t finish hi, drink in one gull'.

it matured into a plant. Fevanga didthis and the hody grew up into kava andsugar cane, each plant ari:,ing from adifferent part of the hody. And when itmatured he noticed that a rat cl1e\yed onthe kava and became paraly:,ed, andthen ate some sugar cane and revived.

\yho ::,ailed up from Tahiti IE.ahikil. It\yas said to be first planted on the i::,landof Kauai. Oilikukaheana hrou[!:ht it tothe Hl\\yaiian Islands for a fi:,hing plant.\Yhen he landed at Kaui he met andmarried the beautiful Kamaile ,yha fromthat time onwards looked after the

plants. After a while, however, shethrew out the plants, and at a later datethey were found by Moikeha who askedOilikukaheana about the name of theplant, and he was told that the name wasPahoei. When the plants were largeMoikeha gave some to Ewa, and she de-termined to find out whether the plantwas useful. When Ewa tried the plantand became intoxicated. it received thename" m,-a ", and from then on it wascalled the" awa of Kaumakaeha " (For-nander, 1913-1920).These stories might be taken as repre-

sentative; they give us some idea thatkava is important enough to the Polyne-sians to take a place in the historicalstories, legends and myths of the people.

Planting and CultivationTraditionally, in Fiji. kava bushes are

very carefully tended in small gardensoften kept near the home. Nursery bedsare maintained to receive the kasa (sec-tions of mature stems bearing nodes)which are transplanted when they havegrown up a few inches.In commercial production, however, it

i;;:common practice to place the kasa inlittle hills, covering them with dry grassor leaves and letting them grow withouttransplanting. Transplanting from nur-sery beds is carried out by only a few ofthe Indian planters.Concerning the requirements of the

crop, it is important to note that rich soiland good drainage are rather necessary.The planting site might best be on newland, and a weH drained hillside is oftenchosen. In Fiji the dark heayily vege-tated soil;;:arc usually excellent for bear-ing a good crop; the common red latiriticsoils proyc quite unsatisfactory. Land,,,hich has born a preyious crop is notlikely to bring high yields. In manycases kaya has been planted on land"'hich was previously set in bananas or afirst crop of kava, but for satisfactoryyields this should not be done without

leaving the land fallow for three yearsor more.After clearing of cover it is customary

to plough or dig with forks and lay twoor three sets of kava in each of the hillswhich are built up at six foot intervals.Persistent cultivation is needed until theplants are about three and a half yearsold; from that time they are left aloneuntil harvested. Taro may be inter-planted the first year of kava growth forfull utilization of the land and quickcash return (Parham. 1935).E. S. Craighill Handy (1940) giyes us

rather a good account * of the plantingand cultiyation of awa in Hawaii: " A,,,ashould be planted on large tracts of landin wann localities, beside streams, at theedge of woods, on slopes where kukaepuaa grass flourishes or where the ama'ufern grows, or in rainy localities. A,,,a ,wauke. and upland taro grow well in thesame localities and under the same con-ditions "." Awa is planted much like sugar cane,

by means of sections of the stalk, fromwhose joints grow the sprouts of ' eyes'(makaL The planter carries to the placeselected the stalks of the variety desired,and there cuts them into short sections,being careful not to break off the' eyes '.The sections later to be planted he laysin a trench filled with mud, leaying themto sprout there, while he clears hisground and leaves the grass and weeds onthe soil to rot. When the segments in thetrench haye sprouted, he removes themand plants them in shallow trenches "." A new plantation would require from

two to three years before its pu awa werelarge enough to use; but once a planta-tion was growing, its roots would continueto gro'" and send up ne,,, stalks. In otherword;;:.the a,,,a plantation neyer requiredreplanting ... ".Emerson (1903) "Tote an interesting

* A'TOUIlt haspd on EaIllakau. S. 1\1.. Ex-tracts froIll Kuokoa. weekly newspaper inHawaiian (translated by T. G. Thrum). Ms.in the B. P. Bishop MuseuIll. Honolulu.

couple of paragraphs on awa growing inHawaii where he mentions the people inhills rather than trenches, and points outthat the roots may increase greatly insize and improve in quality over a con-siderable number of years: " ... In plant-ing it there is scant digging. Joints areset in the ground in somewhat the samemanner as natives plant their hillocks ofsugar-cane. After a time it is hilled,humus and leaves being used, and afterthis single hilling it is generally left togrow "'ithout further care. It "'ill thuscontinue to grow on for an indefinitetime, spreading its roots abroad, to bedug at the convenience of the consumer "."It is said that age does not impair

the vitality or vitiate the quality of theroot, but rather enhances its value. Rootsthus left in the ground for twenty yearsor more will reach an enormous size, oneroot is sometimes large enough to be di-vided into loads for two or three men ".A. M. Hocart (1929), in his ethnolog-

ical study of the Lau Islands (Fiji),wrote that in that area kava is propa-gated by slips (lower joints with a budon each) and that the plants are some-times grown over a fiat stone so thatmuch of the root system grows upwards,the bush holding by small roots whichgrow over the stone and into the ground.Fornander (1913-1920) also describes

the use of a stone in planting but saysthis is to hold the joints down until rootsform: ., It is said that the awa is propa-gated from the joints, that is thebranches; it is pressed down and weightedwith a stone until the roots denlope;then it is taken to where it is desired tohe planted. Again, when the a\va rootsare being dug up, that is, \vhen it is beingpulled, the branches are chopped up andthrown back into the holes from \vhichthe roots have been taken, then coveredover the soil, and when the sprouts ap-pear, called Nihopuaa, they are takenand planted. The method of planting Ihave seen is the same as that follO\vedinthe planting of cane ".

E. and P. Beaglehole (1941) considerthat it takes little trouble to plant andcultivate kava. Presumably from nativeinformants, they have found that in thisregion of their study-Pangai village,Vava'u Group, Tonga-March appearsto be the best month for planting. Thisis done by six men of the village everytwo to three years, laying out 20-50 cut-tings each time. The varieties the Ton-gans use there are ready for pulling aftertwo or three years.Planting in trenches seems to be quite

an old custom, for James Wilson (1799)wrote at an early date with mention oftrench planting in the Society Islands:" The plots of ava ground were laid outin such nice order; each bed formed reg-ular parallelograms, trenched two feetdeep, and disposed with a great degree oftaste; the whole enclosed with a feuce ofbamboo ".

Effect of the NarcoticThe effect of kava as a narcotic drink

is often exaggerated by some authors.Statements such as "Delightful dreamscharm this torpor" or statements em-phasizing addiction to this drug arehighly inaccurate. For one of the bestdescriptions of the effect of the drink, wemight turn to A. M. Hocart (1929):" The intoxication dulls the countenance.As I experienced it, it gives a pleasant,warm. and cheerful, but lazy feeling, so-ciable though not hilarious or loqua-cious; the reason is not obscured. Intime a certain dullness settles on thecompany in which the kava and the latehour probably both have a part. Onceafter drinking I felt miserable and foundit difficult to walk straight; on turninginto bed. I felt sick and could not get tosleep. Such intoxication is rare becausein Lau the kava is so diluted and servedin such small cups that many rounds canbe drunk with impunity. Habitualdrinkers are said to become intoxicatedmore quickly than occasi'Jnal ones. Kavahas no unpleasant reaction next morning,

other than indolence and lack of appe-tite. Habitual drinkers can be noted bytheir \yatery and bleary eyes, their dullskins, which in bad cases become scaly".Tongans of Pangai village regard the

beverage as beneficial for healthy peoplebut detrimental to those who are sick.They are generally moderate in theirdrinking, saying that an addict becomes\\'eak and lazy and has domestic troubledue to negligence of responsibilitiesIBeaglehole, 1941).There i,,: no doubt that green kaya

Ithat \\'hich is not completely dried) i,,:much ~tronger than well dried kaya.The colour of a kaya drink may be any-thing from white to beige, sometimes\yith a greenish tinge, and the taste mayhe neutral, insipid or rather bitter.Gc-ergo F or,,:ter (17771 \\Tote about thedrink .. \yhich is then whitish, insipid, orpartaking somewhat of the taste of a\yeak infusion of pepper". I personally\\'ould not compare the taste to that of apeppery infusion, but this is not an im-pm'tant point.Even though ceremonial and social

drinking is by far the greate~t use ofkaYa, it found its \yay into many otherphases of Polynesian life. It was muchu,,:ed in medicine, as a diuretic and forrheumati:'1ll and a:,thma, and as a poul-tice for headaches; and was even be-lieyed to cau:,e perspiration-to break acold or feyer-when placed under a per-son lying down (Handy, 1940).The Ha\yaiians were very much aware

of ka ya's somnifacient qualities. It hasbeen used hy all classes of them for thispurpo~e - inducing relaxation. Handyhas it from :lVIrs.Pukui that, contrary to:,ome opinions, kava \yas not tabu to the100H'r c las:"es. The difference seems tolie in the fact that the alii (noble classldrank socially and for pleasure, the ka-lmna (prie:"t class) ceremoniously, the\yorking people for relaxation. Kaya\yas not in :"hort supply. Some particu-lar yarieties were retained for specialuses. as ~ome of the darker yarieties for

ceremonial use. Oftentimes when usedin medicine, certain varieties were speci-fied as most effective.As a ceremonial gift, kava was offered

to ancestral spirits on the domestic altarand offered to such supernaturals as theshark patron. It was at times offered toa spirit through a medium who drank itfor the spirit, and it was often served toseers who gazed into it and drank it to.. induce the desired passiyity or trance ".1n thi" \yay. k<1\'a may he con"idered,,:omething of an hypnotic (Handy, 1940).Kaya was also used in western Poly-

ne:sia to induce a remoyed state of mind(Frazer, 1892). In Uea Island, which isculturally similar to Samoa, kava wasdeliberately drunk to bring forth inspira-tion (Handy, 1927), as was done on NiueIThom"olJ, 19021. In Hawaii, also, psy-chic diagnosticians used kava "to,,:trengthen the spirits" (Fornander, 1913-1920, vo!. 6), and there is record of thispractice in the ::\Iarquesas (Handy, 1927).

Commercial ConsiderationsLack of data permit only brief and

yery inadequate comments on the com-mercial significance of kava. B. E. V.Parham, Senior Agricultural Officer andbotanist in the Fiji Islands, is possiblythe only author \yho has written on theeconomic aspects of the crop. Writingfrom Suva (Fiji I. in 1935, he state,,: thatcommercial production in that area isu:,ually handled by Indians on familyplantation". Their initial outlay on aten-acre holding was approximatelv asfollows: "

l'a~'Ill"lIt to Fijian o\\"lIer~D('p()~i1 (~III'\""~' f,'(,~.,'1<-.)('l('arill~ at £3 pl'r a('reR"lIt at .10~.pl'r al'!"l'

£10-£20£10£30£5 pl'r annulll.

1n four years the total co,,:t of produc-tion would han heen £100 with the initialoutlay at £50-£60. rent coming to £20and labour co":t,, amounting to £30. Thisarea should haw grossed about £500-£600. with a profit of £400-£500 in fouryear~ on a ten-acre plantation.

FIG. 2. Foliagp and infloresrclwe of kaya (Piper rnelhy.~licllrn). (From Dpgener, Flor:!Hawaiiensis) .

j

KA\' . .\. 247

F1G. 2. F oliag<' and inflorescc1we of k:n-a ( Pi per rncthy.,ticurn). ( From D<'gener, Flor:1 Hawaiiensis).

Punjabis, who do not often take uppermanent residence (they usually try toreturn to India after the harvest), maketheir way with minor crops until thekava is ready for sale. Often the buyerof a plantation will af:sist the planterwith harvesting, and the vendor recipro-cates by helping to plant the new crop.From Kandavu (one of the large is-

lands in the Fiji Group) the followingfigures have been recorded. Productioncost per acre came to £30-£35 for a cropfour years in the growing. Fair yields\"en; estimated at 20-25 sacks per acre,the return at £93 per acre (140 # at 8d.per #, or £4: 13: 4d. per sack).Often, when working with good soil,

the total four-years production costcould be covered with a one-year crop ofillterplanted taro.Parham has it on good authority that

kava" in the field" was worth £60 peracre at the time (1935\. Chinese plant-ers have approximated that clearing oneacre and planting it cost £15-£20.Preparation for market is easy of de-

scription for it consists only of scrapingand peeling the lower parts of the plantand placing them in the sun to dry.The market, and it is only a local onc,

afforded a price of 6d.-9d./#. The fi-brous roots bring a much lower price,quoted at 3d./ #, and each plant bearsup to 7 # of this inferior product. Afairly high yielding plant may provide10 # of "Le\"ena" which is the bestgrade of kava generally recognized inFij i. From 1933 to 1935 there was agreat drop in price of "\Vakana", thesecond grade roots. In 1933 20 #brought as much as 18/- but in 193.1could bring only 1/8d. Bark and scrap-ings could be marketed for a low price,and "Kasa", the peeled nodes of thestem, have been used in a mixture withground-up pieces of the root.Parham is of the belief that onc reason

for the 10''' kava prices is that the pur-chasers will not pay high prices whenthey realize that many planters adulter-

ate their product with portions of di;;;-eased root (Parham, 1935).It is commonly acknowledged, at least

in Fiji and Samoa, that the white gradesof kava are of definitely superior qualityand are much preferred to the blacktypes. Unfortunately, producers oftenwould rather grow the black varietiesbecause they mature earlier than thewhite, in two and one-half to three year;;;a;;; compared to three to four years,Then, too, it llIay be that the black vari-eties are more resistant to disease andthus find more favour \"ith the plantersof Fiji where the wilt disease has beenquite a problem. The green roots, im-properly dried, are not preferred forquality, for they may be quite nauseat-ing, but they are considerably strongerand can have quite an effect on thedrinker (Parham, 1935, and my own ob-servations) .Ernest and Pearl Beaglehole (194]).

in their 'anthropological study of a Ton-gan village, mention that natives therefind that the usable portion of a kantplant amounts to 40 or 50 #. They, too.agree that green kava i;;; quite strong.causing headaches and a "general ma-laise". Concerning local consumption.they state that each household uscsabout ten large roots a year, while anaddict to the drink might struggle alon!!(m 30 to 40 large roots.Missionaries have, of course, killcd the

potential kava market in many of thePacific islands (Aitken, 1930; Handy.1930; Degener, 1946), and in the mid-1800's the Ha\\"aiian GO"ernment for-bade this drink without a doctor\ 1)]'('-

scriptiol1; this la\\', ho\\"e\'er, "'a" 110teffecti\'ely cnfore·cd. EYCI1 today it issometimes po""ible to buy the kava rootin the Hawaiian markets.From 188Ej to the beginning of \,"orld

\,"ar I kava found its way into the ex-port markets of Hawaii. This product.for medicinal use, \"as taken up pri-marily by Germany, but thc valuc did

not exceed $4000 and substitutes weresoon found for this species of Piper(Degener, 1946).

ReferencesApproximately half of the following refer-

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Bpaglphole. E., and P. Beaglehole. 1941. Pan-gai: :1 ,-iIlage in Tonga. Mem. PolynesianSO(".18.

Bpnnplt. G. 1832. Account of the kava shrub(Pip,,. I/Ict.!,y.,t.icIIIII), gambir (Nauclea Gam-/,i,.) and the Ignat.ia amara, or St. Ignatius'Bp:lll. London Med. Phys. Jour. 67: 110-118.

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