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July Crisis

This is a magisterial new account of Europe’s tragic descent into a largelyinadvertent war in the summer of 1914. T. G. Otte reveals why a century-old system of Great Power politics collapsed so disastrously in the weeksfrom the ‘shot heard around the world’ on 28 June to Germany’s declar-ation of war on Russia on 1 August. He shows definitively that the key tounderstanding how and why Europe descended into world war is to befound in the near-collective failure of statecraft by the rulers of Europe andnot in abstract concepts such as the ‘balance of power’ or the ‘alliancesystem’. In this unprecedented panorama of Europe on the brink, from theministerial palaces of Berlin and Vienna to Belgrade, London, Paris and StPetersburg, T. G. Otte reveals the hawks and doves whose decision-makingled to a war that would define a century and which still reverberates today.

T. G. Otte is Professor of Diplomatic History at the University of EastAnglia.

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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-06490-4 - July Crisis: The World’s Descent into War, Summer 1914T. G. OtteFrontmatterMore information

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July CrisisThe World’s Descent into War, Summer 1914

T. G. Otte






University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit ofeducation, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

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© T.G. Otte 2014

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place without the writtenpermission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2014

Reprinted 2014

First paperback edition 2015

Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication dataOtte, Thomas G., 1967–July Crisis : the world’s descent into war, summer 1914 / T. G. Otte.

pages cmSummary: “Definitive new account of the catalytic events that led to the outbreak ofwar. Thomas Otte argues that neither martial culture nor the alliance system playeda decisive role for much of the crisis. Instead he reveals the fatal flaws, failings, andmiscalculations of those who led Europe into war” – Provided by publisher.isbn 978-1-107-06490-4 (Hardback)1. Europe–History–July Crisis, 1914. 2. World War, 1914–1918–Causes.I. Title.d511.o83 2014

940.3011–dc23 2013047702

isbn 978-1-107-06490-4 Hardbackisbn 978-1-107-69527-6 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy ofurls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,accurate or appropriate.






In memory ofAugust S., killed in action, 1 September 1916,Henry S., missing in action, presumed killed,12 April 1918,two great-grandfathers, who fought on opposite sides.






CONTENTS

List of illustrations viiiList of maps ixPreface and Acknowledgements xiList of abbreviations xivList of the principal dramatis personae xvii

Introduction 1

1 Prelude: the road to Sarajevo 9

2 Sarajevo and its echoes: 28 June to 5 July 39

3 The triumph of tactics over strategy: 6 to 21 July 102

4 Localizing the crisis: 19 to 23 July 173

5 The ultimatum: 23 to 26 July 222

6 Localizing the war: 26 to 28 July 286

7 Escalation: 29 July to 4 August 370

Conclusion 505

Index 525Plate section can be found between pages 296 and 297






ILLUSTRATIONS

1 Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie2 Arrival at Sarajevo town hall3 Return from town hall along Appel Quay4 The original memorial for Franz Ferdinand and Sophie at the

scene of the assassination at the Lateiner Bridge5 Count Albert Mensdorff6 General Oskar Potiorek7 Count Ladislaus Szögyény8 Baron Wladimir Giesl von Gieslingen9 Count Friedrich Szápáry von Szápár10 Count Leopold Berchtold von und zu Ungarschitz11 René Viviani12 Maurice Paléologue13 Paul Cambon14 Prince Karl Max Lichnowsky15 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg16 Heinrich von Tschirschky17 Arthur Zimmermann18 Gottlieb von Jagow19 Sir Edward Grey20 Sir William Tyrrell21 Herbert Henry Asquith22 Sir George Buchanan23 Aleksandar Konstantinovich von Benckendorff24 Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov25 Nikolai Nikola0evich Shebeko26 Nikolai Genrikovich Hartwig27 Sergei Nikola0evich Sverbe0ev28 General Vladimir Aleksandrovich Sukhomlinov29 Marchese Antonio Paterno-Castelli di San Giuliano30 Jovan Jovanovi�c31 Prince Aleksandr Karadjordjevi�c and Wilhelm Ritter

von Storck32 Nikola Paši�c






MAPS

1 Europe, 1914 page xxiii2 The Balkans, 1914 xxiv






PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

‘And so they’ve killed our Ferdinand’, said the charwoman toŠvejk . . . ‘Which Ferdinand, Mrs Müller?’, he asked . . . ‘Oh no,sir, it’s His Imperial Highness, the Archduke Ferdinand, fromKonopište, the fat churchy one . . . They bumped him off atSarajevo, with a revolver, you know. He drove there in a carwith his Archduchess.’

jaroslav hasek1

The First World War has cast a long shadow over the twentiethcentury, and beyond. One hundred years on, the horror of the conflict stillcommands attention, and will probably never cease to do so. How and whythe civilized world, seemingly so secure in its material and intellectualachievements, could have descended into a global conflict has continuedto intrigue not just historians, but also the general public. It has certainlypuzzled me ever since I first developed an interest in the past. And the moreI studied the period of the long nineteenth century, the more it became clearto me that the answer, in so far as there can be one, is not to be found in lesforces profondes, the vast impersonal forces, that some think shape histor-ical processes, but, rather, that the reasons, in so far as they can ever befathomed, may be glimpsed in the doings of men (and they were all men in1914), their flaws and failings, their calculations and miscalculations. Itwould be difficult to improve on Marx’s insight that people make their ownhistory, if not under circumstances of their choosing. Politics more espe-cially are subject to the ambiguities of free will and the play of the contin-gent. In that lies hope for the future; but it is also a reminder of man’sshortcomings. What follows here is an attempt to make sense of the eventsof Europe’s last summer.

People also matter in a less abstract sense. In the course ofresearching and writing this book I have incurred debts of gratitude tovarious people, and it is a great pleasure to acknowledge this debt. Anyoneworking on the origins of the First World War will be acutely conscious ofthe immense intellectual debt that is owed to those who have laboured in

1 J. Hašek, The Good Soldier Šveijk (London, 1973 [orig. 1921]), 4–5.






this particular vineyard before. To an extent the footnotes bear testimonyto my debt to the wider scholarly community. A number of friends andcolleagues, however, need to be singled out for special thanks. KeithNeilson once more proved a trusted source of advice and help. He madetime during his own busy schedule to read the whole manuscript of thisbook, and it is immeasurably better for it. There was little that escaped hishawkeye. I am grateful to Bruce Menning, who generously shared with mehis thoughts and ideas about the late imperial Russian military, and whopatiently answered my many questions. Chai Lieven kindly sent me a copyof Basil Strandtmann’s unpublished memoirs, and was the source of invalu-able insights into the nature of the Russian state. Pursuing the Russiantheme, my colleague at UEA, Peter Waldron, offered various thoughts andsuggestions, for all of which I am grateful. I owe a special debt also to RoyBridge, who volunteered his services as my very own ‘k.u.k. Erz-privilegierter Haus-, Hof-, und Staatskopist’, and from whom I have learntso much about the Habsburg Empire over the years. I also greatly bene-fited from discussing Berchtold and Austro-Hungarian diplomacy with SamWilliamson. Lothar Höbelt, as always, came up trumps when I was stuckfor an answer. I am grateful to Alma Hannig for sharing with me herthoughts on the Archduke Franz Ferdinand. My colleague Jan Vermeirenprovided insights into Ambassador Tschirschky and his entourage.Guenther Roth very kindly provided me with a copy of one of KurtRiezler’s letters. Zara Steiner and Erik Goldstein have been constantsources of encouragement and constructive criticism, and for that I ammore grateful than they can know. Similarly, Vernon Bogdanor has keptme thinking about Asquith, Grey and the nineteen men around the Cabinettable in Downing Street. His judicious comments ensured that I was notsatisfied with the obvious answers. It is a pleasure to acknowledge mygratitude to Simon Kerry for his thoughts and material on Lord Lans-downe. Sven Bergmann, as ever, was ready to pinprick my carefully formedideas, and for that I thank him, too. Researching 1914 meant readinginnumerable numbers of old books, and pulling yet another weighty tomeoff my shelves all too often reminded me what a gap my friend and fellowbibliomaniac Hans Seelig has left. I am grateful to Arnold Rosen for lettingme talk about a subject about which I care so much. Over the years I havebenefited also from conversations with Holger Afflerbach, Chris Clark,Laurence Cole, Mark Cornwall, Günther Kronenbitter, Andrew Lambert,Margaret Macmillan, John Maurer, Annika Mombauer, William Mulliganand David Stevenson. I am grateful to all of them.

I am immensely grateful to Michael Watson, prince of editors. Heand his team at Cambridge University Press have helped me to see thisproject through to fruition with their customary courtesy, efficiency and

xii / Preface and Acknowledgements






patience. I must also acknowledge my gratitude to Stuart Proffitt, who tookan early interest in this work and who has greatly helped me to refine mythinking, as did Bill Hamilton.

Whatever may be worthwhile in this book has enormously profitedfrom the assistance of my friends and colleagues. Whatever its failings,omissions and shortcomings, they are mine alone.

My greatest debt, as always, is to Joanna and Gwendolen. Betweenthem, they somehow managed to keep me sane and made sure that therewas no July crisis in the summer of 2013.

T. G. O.North Norfolk, September 2013

xiii / Preface and Acknowledgements






ABBREVIATIONS

AHR American Historical ReviewBayD Bayerische Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch, ed. P. Dirr

(Munich, 1922)BBBP Bescheiden Betreffende de Buitenlandse Politiek van Nederland

3rd ser., 1899–1919, ed. C. Smit (8 vols., The Hague, 1957–74)BD British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914, ed.

G. P. Gooch and H. W. V. Temperley (11 vols., London,1928–38)

BDS Graf Benckendorffs Diplomatischer Schriftwechsel, ed. B. vonSiebert (3 vols., new edn Berlin and Leipzig, 1928)

BelD Belgische Dokumente zur Vorgeschichte des Weltkrieges,1885–1914 (5 vols., Berlin, 1919)

BIHR Bulletin of the Institute of Historical ResearchBJIS British Journal of International StudiesBL British Library, LondonBMH Berliner Monatshefte zur KriegsschuldfrageBN Bibliothèque Nationale, ParisBodl. Bodleian Library, OxfordCEH Central European HistoryCJH Canadian Journal of HistoryCSH Cultural and Social HistoryCUBA Columbia University, Bakhmetiev Archive, New YorkCUL Cambridge University Library, CambridgeDA Diplomatische Aktenstücke zur Vorgeschichte des Krieges

1914: Ergänzungen und Nachträge zum Österreichisch-Ungarischen Rotbuch, 28 Juni bis 27 August 1914, ed.Republik Österreich, Staatsamt für Äusseres (3 vols.,Vienna, 1919)

DD Die Deutschen Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch, ed.K. Kautsky, M. Montgelas and W. Schücking (4 vols.,Berlin, 1919)

DDF Documents Diplomatiques Française, 3rd ser., 1911–1914, ed.Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (11 vols., Paris, 1929–36)






DDI Documenti Diplomatici Italiana, 4th ser., 1908–1914, ed.Ministero degli Affari esteri (12 vols., Rome, 1964)

DDS Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, v, 1904–1914, ed. H. Lüthyand G. Kreis (Berne, 1983)

DGB Deutsche Gesandtschaftsberichte zum Kriegsausbruch, ed.A. Bach (Berlin, 1937)

DSI Der Diplomatische Schriftwechsel Iswolskys, ed. F. Stieve(4 vols., Berlin, 1924)

DSP Dokumenti o Spolojnoj Politici Kraljevine Srbije, ed. V. Dedijerand Ž. Ani�c (7 vols., Belgrade, 1980)

ECE/ECE

Eastern and Central Europe/Europe Central et de l’Est

EEQ East European QuarterlyEHR English Historical ReviewESR European Studies ReviewFA Foreign AffairsFH French HistoryGP Die Grosse Politik der Europäischen Kabinette, 1871–1914, ed.

J. Lepsius, A. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and F. Thimme (40 vols.,Berlin, 1922–7)

GR Germanic ReviewGWU Geschichte in Wissenschaft und UnterrichtHHStA Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, ViennaHJ Historical JournalHZ Historische ZeitschriftIBZI Internationale Beziehungen im Zeitalter des Imperialismus, 1st

ser., 1911–14, ed. O. Hoetzsch (5 vols., Berlin, 1931–6)IHR International History ReviewIWM Imperial War Museum, LondonJBS Journal of British StudiesJCEH Journal of Central European HistoryJCH Journal of Contemporary HistoryJK Julikrise und Kriegsausbruch 1914, ed. I. Geiss (2 vols.,

Hanover, 1963–4)JMH Journal of Modern HistoryJMilH Journal of Military HistoryKA Krasny ArkhivLN Un Livre Noir. Diplomatie d’avant-guerre d’après les

documents des archives russes, novembre 1910 – juillet 1914(2 vols., Paris, s.a.), ed. R. Marchand

LSE London School of EconomicsLUR Laurentian University Review

xv / Abbreviations






MAE Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, ParisMGM Militärgeschichtliche MitteilungenMÖStA Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staats-ArchivsNLS National Library of Scotland, EdinburghNRO Northamptonshire Record Office, NorthamptonOGD Official German Documents Relating to the World War, ed.

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (2 vols., NewYork, 1923)

ÖUA Österreich-Ungarns Aussenpolitik von der Bosnischen Krise1908 bis zum Kriegsausbruch 1914, ed. L. Bittner, A. F.Pribram, H. Srbik and H. Uebersberger (9 vols., Vienna andLeipzig, 1930)

PA Politisches Archiv, Haus-, Hof- und StaatsarchivPAAA Politisches Archiv, Auswärtiges Amt, BerlinPAL Parliamentary Archive, House of Lords, LondonPCC Paul Cambon: Correspondance, 1870–1924, ed. H. Cambon

(3 vols., Paris, 1940–5)P&P Past & PresentP&S Politics & SocietyRGVIA Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Voenno-istoricheskii Arkhiv,

MoscowRH Revue HistoriqueRHD Revue d’Histoire DiplomatiqueRIS Review of International StudiesSEER Slavonic and East European ReviewSocR Sociological ReviewSR Slavonic ReviewSSEES School of Slavonic and East European Studies, LondonTNA(PRO)

The National Archive (Public Record Office), Kew, London

WiH War-in-History

xvi / Abbreviations






PRINCIPAL DRAMATIS PERSONAE

The Sarajevo assassins

Nedeljko Čabrinovi�c, Vaso Čubrilovi�c, Trifko Grabež, Danilo Ili�c,Mehmed Mehmedbaši�c, Cvijetko Popovi�c, Gavrilo Prinčip.

Austria-Hungary

Kaiser Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria, King ofHungary

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Este Heir to the Habsburg throneSophie, Duchess of Hohenberg Wife of Franz FerdinandLudwig, Freiherr Ambrózy von Séden Embassy Counsellor, RomeLeopold, Graf Berchtold von und zuUngarschitz

Common Foreign Minister

Leon, Ritter von Biliński Common Finance MinisterIstván, Freiherr Burián von Rajecz Hungarian Minister at the

imperial courtFranz, Freiherr Conrad von Hötzendorf Chief of the General StaffOtto, Graf Czernin von und zu Chudenitz Embassy Counsellor, St

PetersburgOttokar, Graf Czernin von und zu Chudenitz Minister, BucharestJohann, Graf Forgách von Ghymes und Gács First Section Chief, Foreign

MinistryGeorg, Freiherr von Franckenstein Embassy Counsellor, LondonMajor-General Wladimir, Freiherr Giesl vonGieslingen

Minister, Belgrade

Franz, Freiherr von Haymerle Embassy Counsellor, BerlinAlexander, Graf Hoyos Section Chief, Foreign MinistryAdmiral Carl Kailer von Kaltenfels Deputy Chief, Naval StaffGeneral Alexander Ritter von Krobatin Common War MinisterKarl, Freiherr von Macchio Section Chief, Foreign MinistryAlbert, Graf von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein

Ambassador, London

Kajetan Mérey von Kapos-Mére Ambassador, RomeFranz, Freiherr von Matscheko Counsellor, Foreign MinistryBerthold Molden Viennese journalistAlexander, Freiherr Musulin von Gomirje Section Chief, Foreign MinistryJohann, Markgraf von Pallavicini Ambassador, ConstantinopleGeneral Oskar Potiorek Governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina






(cont.)

Austria-Hungary

Josef Redlich Professor of Law and ReichsratDeputy

Ivan Skerlecz von Lomnicza Ban (Viceroy) of CroatiaWilhelm, Ritter von Storck Legation Counsellor, BelgradeMajor-General Karl Graf Stürgkh Austrian Prime MinisterFriedrich, Graf Szápáry von Szápár Ambassador, St PetersburgNikolaus, Graf Szécsen von Temerin Ambassador, ParisLadislaus, Graf Szögyény-Marich Ambassador, BerlinIstván, Graf Tisza de Borosjenő et Szeged Hungarian Prime Minister

France

Raymond Poincaré President of the RepublicCamille Barrère Ambassador, RomePhilippe Berthelot Political Director, Foreign MinistryJean-Baptiste Bienvenu-Martin Minister of Justice (acting Foreign

Minister)Jules Cambon Ambassador, BerlinPaul Cambon Ambassador, LondonCharles Pineton de Chambrun Embassy Counsellor, ParisPierre Descos Minister, BelgradeAlfred Dumaine Ambassador, ViennaAbel Ferry Under-secretary, Foreign MinistryMarshal Joseph Joffre Chief of the General StaffGustave Henri Benoît, Comte deManneville

Embassy Counsellor, Berlin

Pierre de Margerie Director of Political Affairs, ForeignMinistry

Adolphe Messimy War MinisterMaurice Paléologue Ambassador, St PetersburgRené Viviani Prime Minister and Foreign Minister

Germany

Kaiser Wilhelm II German Emperor, King of PrussiaPrince Heinrich of Prussia Kaiser’s brotherAlbert Ballin German shipping magnateClaus von Below-Saleske Minister, BrusselsDietrich von Bethmann Hollweg Embassy Secretary at ViennaTheobald von Bethmann Hollweg ChancellorLieutenant-General Oskar von Chelius Military Plenipotentiary, St PetersburgClemens Ernst Gottlieb von Delbrück State Secretary of the Interior and Vice-

chancellor

xviii / Principal dramatis personae






(cont.)

Germany

General Erich von Falkenhayn Prussian War MinisterHans von Flotow Ambassador, RomeHugo Ganz Vienna correspondent, Frankfurter

ZeitungJulius Adolf, Freiherr von Griesinger Minister, BelgradeGottlieb von Jagow State Secretary, Foreign MinistryKarl Max, Fürst von Lichnowsky Ambassador, LondonGeneral Moriz, Freiherr von Lyncker Chief of Kaiser’s Military CabinetGeneral Helmuth von Moltke, theYounger

Chief of the General Staff

Victor Naumann JournalistGeneral Hans von Plessen Kaiser’s Adjutant-GeneralFriedrich, Graf Pourtalès von Cronstern Ambassador, St PetersburgKurt Riezler Aide to the ChancellorWilhelm Eduard, Freiherr von Schoen Ambassador, ParisWilhelm von Stumm Political Director, Foreign MinistryGrand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz Navy MinisterHeinrich, Freiherr von Tschirschky undBögendorff

Ambassador, Vienna

Hans Wilhelm, Freiherr vonWangenheim

Ambassador, Constantinople

Theodor Wolff Editor, Berliner TageblattArthur Zimmermann Under-State Secretary, ForeignMinistry

Great Britain

King George V King of Great Britain and Ireland,Emperor of India

Herbert Henry Asquith Prime MinisterSir Henry George Outram Bax-Ironside

Minister, Sofia

Sir Francis Leveson Bertie Ambassador, ParisSir George William Buchanan Ambassador, St PetersburgSir Maurice de Bunsen Ambassador, ViennaJohn Elliot Burns President of the Board of TradeHon. Winston Spencer Churchill First Lord of the AdmiraltyDayrell Montague Crackanthorpe Chargé d’Affaires, BelgradeCharles Louis Des Graz Minister, BelgradeSir Eyre Alexander Crowe Assistant Under-secretary, Foreign OfficeSir (William) Edward Goschen Ambassador, BerlinSir Edward Grey Foreign SecretaryRichard Burdon Haldane, ViscountHaldane of Cloan

Lord Chancellor

Lewis Harcourt Colonial Secretary

xix / Principal dramatis personae






(cont.)

Great Britain

David Lloyd George Chancellor of the ExchequerWilliam Lygon, 7th Earl ofBeauchamp

First Commissioner of Works, Leader ofthe House of Lords

Edwin Samuel Montagu Financial Secretary to the TreasuryJohn, Viscount Morley of Blackburn Lord President of the CouncilSir Arthur Nicolson Permanent Under-secretary, Foreign

OfficeJohn Albert Pease President of the Board of EducationHon. Arthur Ponsonby Liberal MPSir James Rennell Rodd Ambassador, RomeSir Horace George MontagueRumbold

Embassy Counsellor, Berlin

Walter Runciman President of the Board of AgricultureHon. (Odo William) TheophilusVilliers Russell

Embassy Counsellor, Vienna

Herbert Louis Samuel President of the Local Government BoardSir John Allsebrook Simon Attorney-GeneralJohn Alfred Spender Editor, The Westminster GazetteSir William George Tyrrell Private Secretary to Sir Edward Grey

Italy

Giuseppe, Duca di Avarna di Gualtieri Ambassador, ViennaRicardo Bollati Ambassador, BerlinAndrea, Marchese Carlotti di Riparbello Ambassador, St PetersburgGuglielmo, Marchese Imperiali di Francavilla Ambassador, LondonAntonio Paterno-Castelli, Marchese di San Giuliano Foreign MinisterAntonio Salandra Prime MinisterNicola, Barone Squitti di Palermiti e Guarna Minister, Belgrade

Russia

Tsar Nicholas II Tsar of All the Russias, King of Poland,Grand Duke of Finland

Pyotr Lvovich Bark Finance MinisterNikolai Aleksandrovich Basili Deputy chef de cabinet, Foreign MinistryAleksandr Konstantinovich, Countvon Benckendorff

Ambassador, London

Arkadi Nikola0evich Bronevski Embassy Counsellor, BerlinKonstantin Yevgeni0evich vonBützow

Head of Second Department, ForeignMinistry

General Yuri Nikoforovich Danilov Quartermaster-General

xx / Principal dramatis personae






(cont.)

Russia

General Sergei KonstantinovichDobrorolski

Director, Mobilization Section, GeneralStaff

Baron Vladimir BorisovichFredericksz

Minister of the imperial household

Mikhail Nikola0evich de Giers Ambassador, ConstantinopleIvan Loginovich Goremykin President, Council of MinistersRear-Admiral Ivan KonstantinovichGrigorovich

Navy Minister

Nikolai Genrikovich de Hartwig Minister, BelgradeAleksandr Petrovich Izvolsky Ambassador, ParisAlexander Vasilevich Krivoshein Agriculture MinisterAnatoli Nikola0evich Krupenski Ambassador, RomeNikolai Aleksandrovich, PrinceKudashev

Embassy Counsellor, Vienna

Vasili0i Alekse0evich Maklakov Minister of the InteriorGeneral Nikolai AvgustovichMonkewitz

Staff Officer

Anatol Anatolevich Neratov Assistant Foreign MinisterSergei Dmitrievich Sazonov Foreign MinisterMoritz Fabianovich, Baron vonSchilling

Head of Department I (Western Europe),Foreign Ministry

Nikolai Nikola0evich Shebeko Ambassador, ViennaVasili0i Nikola0evich vonStrandtmann

Legation Counsellor, Belgrade

General Vladimir AleksandrovichSukhomlinov

Chief of General Staff

Sergei Nikola0evich Sverbe0ev Ambassador, BerlinPrince Grigori0i Nikola0evichTrubetskoy

Head of Near Eastern Department, ForeignMinistry

General Nikolai Nikola0evichYanushkevich

Chief of Staff

Serbia

King Petar Karadjordjevi�c King of SerbiaPrince Aleksandr Karadjordjevi�c Crown Prince and RegentMateja Boškovi�c Minister, LondonMilan Ciganovi�c Railway clerk and intelligence agentColonel Dragutin T. Dimitrijevi�c (‘Apis’) Head of Military Intelligence SectionSlavko Grui�c Secretary-General, Foreign MinistryVelizar Jankovi�c Trade MinisterJovan Jovanovi�c Minister, ViennaLjuba Jovanovi�c Minister of EducationMilutin Jovanovi�c Legation Secretary, Vienna

xxi / Principal dramatis personae






Note to Readers: To retain some of the period flavour I have followed thecustom of the time and used the following shorthands for the foreignministries of the Powers: Ballhausplatz (Austria-Hungary); Choristers’Bridge (Russia); Downing Street (Great Britain); Quai d’Orsay (France);Quirinale (Italy); and Wilhelmstrasse (Germany).

(cont.)

Serbia

Lazar Paču Finance MinisterNikola Paši�c Prime MinisterStojan Proti�c Minister of the InteriorField Marshal Radomir Putnik Chief of StaffMiroslav Spalajkovi�c Minister, St PetersburgDušan Stefanovi�c War MinisterCaptain Voja Tankoši�c Military intelligence officerMilenko Vesni�c Minister, Paris

xxii / Principal dramatis personae






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