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Volume 5, Number 4, April 2016 (Serial Number 46)

Journal of Environmental

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Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B

Volume 5, Number 4, April 2016 (Serial Number 46)

Contents Aquatic Environment

161 Experimental Model to Treat BOD5, COD in Wastewater by Eichhornia Crassipes Raft, and Propose a Plan to Restore Water Source of To Lich River, Hanoi, Vietnam

Nguyen Thuc Hien and Nguyen Minh Khuyen

Environmental Biology

167 Study of the Opuntia ficus indica and Its Radioactive Potassium Content Using the Gamma Spectrometry

Guillermo Espinosa, José-Ignacio Golzarri and Edgar Padilla-Soriano

Environmental Energy

173 Analysis of an SME using Silicon and Flexible Organic Solar Cells as Replacements for Fossil Fuel Sources of Electricity in UK and Iraq

Azad Azabany, Ari Azabanee, Khalid Khan, Mahmood Shah and Waqar Ahmed

Environmental Constrution

179 Semi-automatic Building Extraction from Quickbird Imagery

Selassie David Mayunga

189 Analytical Architectural Study on Nuclear Power Plants

Mohamed Farahat

Environmental Management

207 Coastal Community Welfare of Mining Areain Kotabaru Regency, South Kalimantan Province

Ahmad Alim Bachri, Udiansyah, Nasruddin and Deasy Arisanty

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B 5 (2016) 161-166 doi:10.17265/2162-5263/2016.04.001

Experimental Model to Treat BOD5, COD in Wastewater

by Eichhornia Crassipes Raft, and Propose a Plan to

Restore Water Source of To Lich River, Hanoi, Vietnam

Nguyen Thuc Hien1 and Nguyen Minh Khuyen2

1. Pupil of Chu Van An High School, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam

2. Department of Water Resources Management, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam

Abstract: This paper presents the results of studies on evaluating the effectiveness of wastewater treatment by Eichhornia crassipes raft, the influent is the water of To Lich river. This study was conducted 3 times with 3 different velocity (0.037 m/s, 0.0099 m/s and 0.0126m/s) in the tank of eichhornia crassipes. Each time took 04 water samples for analysis at 4 locations: the influent source and 3 points at a distance of 4.0 m, 8.0 m and 12.0 m from the influent. Based on the experimental results, it proposes the size, number and type of raft to control the growth of eichhornia crassipes and treat the sewage of To Lich river to meet the Vietnamese Water Standard QCVN 08 (column A2, B1) and combine ecological landscaping.

Key words: Wastewater treatment, eichhornia crassipes, restore water resources.

1. Introduction

To Lich river basin has a total area of 77.5 km2

including 8 sub-basins: Westlake, To Lich, Lu river

upstream, Lu downstream, Set, Kim Nguu, Hoang Liet

and Yen So, with the length of 14.6 km [1]. Currently,

there are over 200 large and small outlets to discharge

wastewater into the river causing polution, many

indicators exceeded the limitation of column A2 of the

National Technical Regulation on Surface Water

Quality QCVN 08 [2], affectting the health of people

living around [3, 4]. Therefore, research and solutions

to restore water quality of To Lich river are necessary.

In Vietnam, eichhornia crassipes is most widely

used in wastewater treatment ponds [5]. It is living in

the water with fast growth speed, unecessary to care,

easy to adapt to the environment of waste water [6].

Besides, it can limit or prevent algae growth by

shielding light from the surface [7, 8]. Thus,

eichhornia crassipes is very useful and easy to treat

polluted water [9].

Corresponding author: Nguyen Thuc Hien, pupil, research

field: biology.

2. The Approach and Methodology

2.1. Approach Method

The approach method is shown in Fig. 1.

2.2. Research Method

Method of inheritance: inheriting the results of

the previous studies on flow, the status of wastewater

discharge into water sources;

Field survey: some major methods are:

topographic, velocity and water quality measurements;

Method of modeling: used to simulate the flow

on the river;

Statistical method: to evaluate the relationship

among water quality, length of treatment tank and

flow velocity.

3. Experimental Model of Wastewater Treatment by Eichhornia Crassipes Raft and Effective Treatment

3.1 Survey Results on To Lich River

Here is the diagram of the surveyed river across

D DAVID PUBLISHING

Experimental Model to Treat BOD5, COD in Wastewater by Eichhornia Crassipes Raft, and Propose a Plan to Restore Water Source of To Lich River, Hanoi, Vietnam

162

Fig. 1 Diagram of research approach.

Fig. 2 Accross section at Cau Moi, Nga Tu So.

sections (Fig. 2) and the survey information at Cau

Moi, Nga Tu So (Table 1).

3.2 Experimental Model

Eichhornia crassipes feed, tending to adapt to

sewage environment until a stable growth will conduct

experiments. Eichhornia crassipes density is 60 single

clusters/1.72 m2 of treatment tank area corresponding

to 35 single clusters/1 m2.

Here are the images of eichhornia crassipes hyacinth

cultivation in home garden of the authors (Fig. 3).

3.3 Results of Water Quality Analysis

The purpose of water quality analysis is to evaluate

the effectiveness of the model corresponding to the

flow velocity (Table 2).

Step 1: Researching overview

Step 2: Field trip on To Lich river

Step 3: Developing simulation models

Step 4: Conducting experiments

Stage 1: The velocity is

0.037 m/s. Samples are

M1, M2, M3 and M4.

Stage 2: The velocity is 0.0099 m/s.

Samples are M1, M2, M3 and M4.

Stage 3: The velocity is 0.0126 m/s.

Samples are M1, M2, M3 and M4.

Step 5: Assessment and conclusion


163

Table 1 Survey information at Cau Moi, Nga Tu So.

No Parameters Unit Result

1 Discharge m3/s 2.96

2 Across section area m2 10.6

3 Average velocity m/s 0.28

4 Max velocity m/s 0.32

5 The width of the water m 25

6 Average depth m 0.42

7 The biggest depth m 0.5

Fig. 3 Eichhornia crassipes has developed normally.

3.4 Treatment Efficiency

The results of water quality analysis showed that:

The farther locations from the influent source is,

the lower the concentration of the indicators are;

The wastewater velocity in the experimental

tanks range from 0.0099 m/s to 0.037 m/s, through

12 m length of treating tank, processing performance

indicators from 14.3% to 96.7% and is shown in

Table 3;

Treatment efficiency of BOD5 achieved 17.3% to

44.9%;

Treatment efficiency of COD achieved 24.5% to

51.1%.

3.5 Evaluating the Length of Treatment Tank

Corresponding to Flow Velocity for Water Quality

Meet the Standard QCVN08

3.5.1 For Experiment Velocity

Based on the results of water quality analysis, it

showed that the relationship between treatment

efficiency and the distance from the influent source to

the sampling location is linear and close, the

correlation coefficient (R2) is over 0.75 and is shown

in Fig. 4.

Therefore, it can be estimated as: assuming that the

sewage concentration target is C0, through the tank

length is Ld (Ld has been identified on the model), the

water quality is Cd in the tank length Ld (C0 and Cd

were analyzed by experiments), then the calculation of

Lx (length of tank is x) to qualify standard Cq can be

interpreted according to the diagram in Fig. 5.

Then, from Fig. 5, it can calculate as:

(1)

According to Eq. (1), the length of experimental

tank (Lx) is 25.7 m for Cq to achieve regulation of

column A2 corresponding to the effluent velocity on

the experimental tanks is highest (v1); Lx = 12.5 m for

Cq to achieve regulation of column B1 corresponding

to the effluent velocity on the experimental tanks is

highest (v1). The results are shown in Table 4.

Input tank Crib containing eichhornia crassipes

Tank containing effluent to

prepare for the next experiment


164

Table 2 Results of water quality analysis.

Phase Number of sample Sampling locations on experimental tank (m)

BOD5 (mg/L) COD (mg/L)

I Phase 1, v1 = 0.037 m/s M1 influent 0 22.9 65.6

M2 4 16.9 48.3 M3 8 16.1 46 M4 12 14.7 42

II Phase 2, v2 = 0.0099m/s M1 influent 0 32.3 79.4 M2 4 26.7 46.2 M3 8 20.1 42.8 M4 12 17.8 38.8

II Phase 3, v3 = 0.0126m/s M1 influent 0 32.6 94

M2 4 24.4 71 M3 8 19.3 52 M4 12 18.9 52

IV QCVN08 [6] Standard A2 6 15 Standard B1 15 30 Standard B2 25 50

Table 3 Wastewater treatment efficiency at different positions (behind influent source) on experimental tanks.

No Indicator analysis Processor performance of indicators (%) Sampling locations (m) BOD5 COD

I Phase 1, wastewater velocity, v1 = 0.037 m/s

1 Behind the influent source 4 m 4 26.2 26.4 2 Behind the influent source 8 m 8 29.7 29.9 3 Behind the influent source 12 m 12 35.8 36

II Phase 2, wastewater velocity, v2 = 0.0099 m/s

1 Behind the influent source 4 m 4 17.3 41.8 2 Behind the influent source 8 m 8 37.8 46.1 3 Behind the influent source 12 m 12 44.9 51.1

III Phase 3, wastewater velocity, v3 = 0.0126 m/s

1 Behind the influent source 4 m 4 25.2 24.5 2 Behind the influent source 8 m 8 40.8 44.7 3 Behind the influent source 12 m 12 42 44.7

MIN 17.3 24.5 MAX 44.9 51.1 TB 33.3 38.4

Fig. 4 The relationship between treatment efficiency of BOD5, COD and the distance from the influent source to the sampling location.

y = 1.2x + 20.967R² = 0.9761

0

10

20

30

40

0 5 10 15Tre

atm

ent e

ffic

ienc

y of

B

OD

5st

age

1 (%

)

Distance (m)

y = 1.1625x + 37.033R² = 0.9981

0102030405060

0 5 10 15

Tre

atm

ent e

ffic

ienc

y of

C

OD

sta

ge 2

(%

)

Distance (m)


165

Fig. 5 Diagram method of calculating the length of experiment tank.

3.5.2 For Real Speed on the River

Base on the results in Table 4, it presents drawing

chart and relation between experimental flow velocity

and length of experiment tank. It is shown in Fig. 6

that correlation coefficient (R2) is over 0.75. So,

correlation equation can be used to calculate length of

experiment tank for real flow velocity of river.

From Fig. 6, the correlation equation between flow

velocity and length of tank is:

87.356 21.534 (2)

199.64 18.474 (3)

Where, y is length of experiment tank (m), x is

experimental flow velocity (m/s).

In fact, river flow is about 0.32 m/s when having no

rain and maximum 6.0 m/s when having heavy rain.

Thus, from Eqs. (2) and (3), it calculate the maximum

value of tank length is 1,216 m to treat river water

quality Cq towards A2 column for domestic purposes

but requiring appropriate treatment technology.

3.6 Calculating the Amount and Arrangement of Eichhornia Crassipes Raft to Treat To Lich River Water to Achieve Quality as A2 Column in Regulation QCVN08

(1) Design raft style: each raft is designed to float,

having beveled shape (front and rear) and grid to

locate and control growth of eichhornia crassipes,

ensure the density of eichhornia crassipes in each raft

is 35 single clusters/1 m2. Dimension is proposed as in

Fig. 7 (5.0 m length, 2.0 m width and 8.0 m2 area).

Table 4 The results of calculating the length of experiment tank corresponding to velocity of experiment flow.

No

Flow velocity on the tank (m/s)

C0 (mg/L) C3 (mg/L) C0-C3 (after 12 m (mg/L)

C0-Cq (A2) (mg/L)

C0-Cq (B1) (mg/L)

Lx of tank to reduce Cq to A2 (m)

Lx of tank to reduce Cq to B1 (m)

I For BOD5

1 v1 0.037 22.9 14.7 8.2 16.9 7.9 24.7 12.5

2 v2 0.0099 32.3 17.8 14.5 26.3 17.3 21.8 10.1

3 v3 0.0126 32.6 18.9 13.7 26.6 17.6 23.3 9.3

II For COD

1 v1 0.037 65.6 42 23.6 50.6 35.6 25.7 8

2 v2 0.0099 79.4 38.8 40.6 64.4 49.4 19 9.9

3 v3 0.0126 94 52 42 79 64 22.6 7.9

MAX 25.7 12.5

Fig. 6 Relation between experimental flow velocity and length of tank.

Fig. 7 Raft structure.

y = 199.64x + 18.474R² = 0.7899

15

20

25

30

0 0.02 0.04 0.06Exp

erim

ent t

ank

leng

th

(m)

Flow velocity (m/s)


166

(2) Calculating the amount and arrangement of rafts

to treat To Lich river water achieving QCVN08: in

fact, width of river is about 25 m, and raft

arrangement needs to ensure flow circulation. Thus,

author proposes raft arrangement as in Fig. 8. With

this arrangement, length of river part for rafts is

7,296 m.

4. Conclusion

(1) Studied natural conditions of To Lich river flow,

average flow velocity when having no rain is 0.28 m/s,

and velocity is 6.0 m/s when having heavy rain;

(2) Based on natural conditions of To Lich river

flow, author built experimental model to treat water of

To Lich river by eichhornia crassipes with eichhornia

crassipes density of 35 single clusters/1 m2.

When water flows through 12 m length of tank with

velocity 0.0099 m/s, concentrations of pollution

indicators decreased significantly, BOD5 ecreased

44.9% and COD decreased 51.1%. When the flow

velocity increases, the performance decreases, with

the velocity 0.0137 m/s, BOD5 decreased 35.8% and

COD decreased 36%;

(3) Based on the experimental result of the model,

the length of treatment tank is 1,296 m to treat river

water achieving A2 column of surface water

regulation for domestic use but requiring appropriate

treatment technology. And based on it, proposed raft

design to float, having grid, ensure the density of

eichhornia crassipes in each raft is 35 single clusters/1

m2 (5.0 m length, 2.0 m width and 8.0 m2 area). With

this raft style and arranged into clusters, there are 3

rafts according to river cross section and 5 rafts

according to river length. Clusters are arranged

staggered, even rows 2 clusters with distance 6 m, odd

rows 1 cluster at the center. Space between odd and

even clusters is 10 m, then minimum raft amount is

13,683 rafts and arranged river part of 4,864 m length.

If achieving B1 column, it needs 7,212 rafts and

arranged in river part of 2,564 m length.

Reference

[1] JICA. 2007. The Comprehensive Urban Development

Programme in Hanoi Capital City of the Socialist

Republic of Vietnam (HAIDEP). Hanoi: Vietnam

Development Information Center and Services.

[2] QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT. 2008. National Technical

Regulations on Surface Water Quality. Vietnam: MoNRE.

[3] Hang, K. T. 2009. Research on the Effect of Domestic

Wastewater to Water Quality of To Lich River and

Propose the Methods to Handle. Vietnam: National

University of Science.

[4] Quyen, N. T. N. 2012. Research on the Current Status of

Water Environment Serving for Planning the Wastewater

Treatment System of To Lich River, Stretch from Hoang

Quoc Viet to Nga Tu So. Vietnam: Ha Noi University of

Science.

[5] Cat, L. V. 2007. Wastewater Treatment Compounds

Containing Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Hanoi: Natural

Sciences and Technology.

[6] Nguyet, V. T., Tua, T. V., Kien, N. T., and Kim, D. D.

2014. Research on Using Eichhornia Crassipes to Treat

Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Wastewater. Vietnam:

Academy of Sience and Technology.

[7] Spagni, A., and Bundy, J. 2001 “Experimental

Considerations on Monitoring ORP, pH, Conductivity

and DO in Nitrogen and Phosphorus Biological Removal

Process.” Wat. Sci. Technol. 43 (11): 197-204.

[8] Eum, Y., and Choi, E. 2002. “Optimization of Nitrogen

Removal from Piggery Waste by Nitrite Nitrification.”

Wat. Sci. Technol. 45 (12): 89-96.

[9] Hang, P. T. T., and Hue, N. T. M. 2012. Using

Eichhornia Crassipes to Clean Contaminated Waterin

Thai Nguyen. Vietnam: Thai Nguyen University.


Study of the Opuntia ficus indica and Its Radioactive

Potassium Content using the Gamma Spectrometry

Guillermo Espinosa1, José-Ignacio Golzarri1 and Edgar Padilla-Soriano2

1. Physics Institute, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), Mexico City 04520, Mexico

2. Chemistry Faculty, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), Mexico City 04510, Mexico

Abstract: Mexico is one of the largest producers of nopal (Opuntia ficus indica). This “vegetable” is consumed on a daily basis by the Mexican population, being a source of food nutrients. Among its benefits, it is considered the content of potassium, which is essential for human life and health. In this study, it analyzes the content of potassium of the Mexican cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) grown in 5 different regions in the Mexican Basin, where 67% of the nopal is produced for human consumption. The used methodology is gamma spectrometry with Hyperpure Germanium detector (HPGe) and Multichannel Analyzer (MCA) with Maestro® software. The results show interesting aspects on the concentration of potassium in the nopal. This concentration will primarily depend on: (a) the geological characteristics of the location where the nopal was grows; (b) that potassium concentrations may vary substantially from a region to another, with the same species of nopal as a reference and (c) that this concentration may also vary from one growing season to another. Key words: Potassium, nopal (Opuntia ficus indica), gamma spectrometry, K-40, HPGe.

1. Introduction

In recent years, it has attributed vital importance to

the nutrient composition of foods. According to this,

foods affect the health of living beings in different

forms. This has promoted to researchers great interest

in the study of the effects caused by the excess or

deficiency of some nutrients derived from the diet and,

on the other hand, has prompted the search for ways to

counteract the lack of avoiding excess nutrients

involved with food. Because of this, search and

optimize new analytical techniques and diversify

existing to evaluate the nutritional composition of

foods has taken great global concern.

The aim of this paper is to present the study of a

technique based on gamma spectroscopy for

quantification of elemental potassium in foods that

provide accurate and reliable results. In this study,

samples of vegetables in Mexico (nopal: Opuntia ficus

indica) were analyzed by means of the detection and

Corresponding author: Guillermo Espinosa, Ph.D., main

research field: radiation physics.

quantification of potassium-40 (40K), radioactive

isotope content of natural and innate in any food or

product with potassium [1]. The determination is

based on measuring the gamma radiation emitted

naturally by the food immersed in potassium, this

radiation is caused by the radioactive decay of

potassium nuclide (40K) (0.0118% of potassium) per

unit time. So, when considering the balance between

secular nuclides daughters and parents of this

radioisotope, the rate of emission of gamma radiation

is proportional to the amount of 40K in the study

sample. From the ratio of 40K in the sample (specific

activity of the sample) and the specific activity of

potassium theoretically established, one can determine

the total elemental concentration of potassium in the

sample.

Although it is well known that to identify and

quantify the potassium in food samples [2-6], several

methods can be used, but the nuclear ones are more

commons these days.

This study attempts to publicize and promote the

gamma spectroscopy as an alternative and modern

D DAVID PUBLISHING

Study of the Opuntia ficus indica and Its Radioactive Potassium Content using the Gamma Spectrometry

168

analysis method, offers great advantages over other

methods such as a non-destructive technique, which

does not require complex sample preparation and

allows results with high reliability and accuracy.

Potassium is an essential dietary mineral, required

to sustain biological processes. It constitutes 5% of the

total mineral content of the human body [7]. Natural

potassium comprises the isotopes 39K, 40K and 41K,

where 39K and 41K are stable elements and 40K is a

radioactive isotope (isotopic abundance 0.0118%)

with a half-life of 1.28 × 109 years, and is the most

abundant radioactive substance in the human body. 40K decays to 40Ca by decay (89%) and to 40Ar by

+ decay (11%), the latter associated with the

emission of a gamma ray of 1,462 keV which is used

for the determination of 40K concentration [8].

HPGe gamma spectrometry is a nondestructive

analytical method and used here for the analysis of 40K in nopal. The secular equilibrium between

daughter nuclides and the naturally occurring parents

implies that the gamma ray emission rate for the decay

to 40Ar is proportional to the amount of 40K in nopal

[9]. The aim of this study is to assess the potassium

concentrations in Mexican nopal.

2. Methodology

2.1 Specific Activity of Potassium

The specific activity of potassium (number of

disintegrations per second per gram) is given by Eq.

(1), where NA = Avogadro’s constant (6.02 × 1023

mol-1), a = isotopic abundance of 40K (0.0118%), MW

= molecular weight of potassium (39.1 g/mol) and T1/2

= half-life of 40K (1.27 × 109 y) [10, 11].

gKBq

TM

aNA

W

A

c 19.31100

2ln

2/1 (1)

2.2 Detection Efficiency

The detection efficiency Eff is given by the number

of counts per second per gram from the KCl standard

divided by the specific activity of potassium Ac in Eq.

(2), where Cst = total counts (1,461 keV peak) from

the standard (including background); A = percentage

gamma radiation emission from 40Ar; CB = total

counts from the background radiation, MKSt = mass of

K in the KCl standard (g) and T = analysis time (s).

120784 5832

31.19 0.11 192.27 80000

st Bff

c KSt

C CE

A A M T

0.0022 0.22% (2)

The specific activity of a particular sample AS is

given by Eq. (3), where CS = total count (1,461 keV

peak) from the sample; CB = total counts from the

background radiation; WS = mass of the sample (g); T

= analysis time (s) and Eff = detection efficiency [12].

( ) /S BS

S ff

C C TA

W E A

(3)

Finally, dividing the specific activity of a sample AS

by the specific activity of potassium Ac yields the

concentration of potassium of the sample (Eq. (4)).

Here the authors express the results as a percentage, or,

equivalently, the number of grams of potassium per

100 g (or mL) of sample.

% 100S

c

AK

A (4)

2.3 Sample Description

The nopal (Opuntia spp.) is a plant of the family

Cactaceae Opuntia, which is produced mainly in dry

tempered, semi-arid and tropical zones. Being the

cactus species, Opuntia ficus indica is commonly

known as “nopal”. The first indication in the

history of mankind on the use of nopal attributed to

the Mesoamerican man, dating from 7,000 BC to

9,000 BC according to archaeological discoveries

conducted by Mac Neish, R. S. [13] in semiarid

regions of Tamaulipas and the Valley of Tehuacan,

Puebla.

2.4 Sample Selection

In the selection of the samples analyzed, the

metropolitan area of Mexico valley was chosen


169

because it contributes 52.7% of total production in

Mexico and is further characterized by production of

nopal Opuntia ficus indica. All samples were

collected in 2012. Samples of the nopal plants are

shown in Fig. 1.

The location where the nopal are produced are

shown in Fig. 2, and the location names, political

demarcations, metropolitan area of Mexico, elevation

above sea level and geographic coordinates are shown

in Table 1.

3. Instrumentation

3.1 Sample Preparation

The nopal samples did not have a special preparation,

only each fresh nopal was cut in small pieces. This

aimed to fill the Marinelli container with the same

weight of material of each sample, and keep the same

detection geometry in all the samples.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1 Samples of nopal plants: (a) nopal plant; (b) nopal leaves and (c) nopal plantations.

Fig. 2 Map of the studied region, with the locations of the nopal production: Milpa Alta (1-3), Xochimilco (4), Atlacomulco (5), Tizayuca (6), Zumpango (7-8) and Texcoco (9).

Fig. 3 Picture of the HPGe and MCA used system.

The equipment used included an EG & G Ortec®

Hyper Pure Germanium (HPGe) detector, an Ortec

439® bias supply, an Ortec 570® amplifier, an Ortec

ACE 4K® multichannel card and a PC. The gamma ray

spectra were obtained using the Maestro 2® program

and analyzed using the Gamma Vision program. A 36.4

× 33.6 × 35 cm old lead box of wall thickness 7.5 cm

was used to reduce background radiation [7]. Old lead

was used to ensure better and low background. In Fig. 3,

it showed the picture of the HPGe and multichannel

analysis system used PAD-IFUNAM.

3.2 Determination of the Background

In order to determine the analysis system

background, five spectra of 24 h were taken with an

empty Marinelli. The environmental 40K photopeak of

the background spectrum appears as usual.


170

Table 1 Location names, political demarcations (locality and municipality), state of the republic state, elevation above sea level and geographic coordinates.

Sample ID Location name Origin of the samples Elevation above sea

level (m) Geographic coordinates lon./lat.Locality Municipality State

1 Milpa Alta 1 San Lorenzo Tlacoyucan

Milpa Alta Mexico city 2,600 19°60’ N 99°00’ W

2 Milpa Alta 2 Villa Milpa Alta

3 Milpa Alta 3 Villa Milpa Alta

4 Xochimilco Santa Cruz Acalpixcan Xochimilco Mexico city 2,240 19°27’ N 99°12’ W

5 Atlacomulco Atlacomulco AtlacomulcoEstado de México

2,578 19°48’ N 99°51’ W

6 Nopal Tizayuca (Silvestre)

Emiliano Zapata Tizayuca Hidalgo, México.

2,240 19°20’ N 99°11’ W

7 Otumba Otumba Zumpango Estado de México

2,760 19°37’ N 98°40’ W

8 San Martin San Martin de las Pirámides Zumpango Estado de México

2,300 19°37’ N 98°45’ W

9 Texcoco Texcoco Texcoco Estado de México

2,250 19°25’ N 98°55’ W

3.3 Energy Calibration

The HPGe analysis system was calibrated in energy

using the Gamma Vision program with the radioactive

sources of 241Am (60 keV), 137Cs (662 keV) and 60Co

(1,173 keV and 1,332 keV) and natural potassium 40K

(1,460 keV).

3.4 KCl Standard Calibration

The potassium standard used was 366.6 g of

potassium chloride crystal assayed by the supplier

Backer, J. T.TM. The KCl was placed inside the

500 mL Marinelli beaker and analyzed with the

spectrometer system over 24 h. The energy of the

photopeak was 1,460 keV and the energy resolution

(FWHM) was 2.5 keV.

3.5 Measurement Conditions

The measurements of the different samples were

carried out under identical conditions. The nopal was

distributed homogenously inside the Marinelli beaker

and covered the top of the detector. The relevant

detection efficiency of 0.22% was calculated above.

The different samples of nopal were also analyzed to

determine their potassium concentrations.

4. Results and Discussion

In Fig. 4, it showed the gamma spectra of potassium

(40K) of the nopal samples (1 to 9), and can observe

each one in different potassium concentrations. The

photopeak analysis was done using

ORTEC-MAESTRO® software, and the proposed

methodology and calculation on the previous section.

Table 2 shows the numerical results of the gamma

spectrometry analysis content: sample code, sample

weight, net area, potassium contents in the sample

(Bq/m3) and normalized content of potassium (mg of

potassium per 100 g of sample). This last column

content information is presented in Fig. 5. As can be

observed in the Fig. 5, the concentration of potassium

is different in each one of the samples studied, from

330.6 mg/100 g of potassium (the highest) to 37.9

mg/100 g (the lowest). The potassium content in the

nopal is independent to the kind of plant. The

potassium concentration will depend on the ground

location and its natural compounds in the soil.

For example, the nopal samples from the Milpa Alta

(1-3) location have variation of potassium contents, the

zone to zone of production, and shown a big

differences with other locations as it is between nopal

from Texcoco (9) and nopal from Xochimilco (4).

This work also shows that consuming of nopal as

ingest of potassium will be very dependent of the

content of potassium in the nopal, in turn, this will

depend on the region or area where it grew.


171

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

Fig. 4 Gamma spectra of each one of nopal samples in the 40K region (1,460 keV).

Table 2 Results of the spectra analysis and the calculus of potassium content in the samples.

Sample ID Amount (g) Net area (counts)

As nopal (Bq/g nopal) mg K/100 g nopal

1 350 ± 0.1 380 ± 5 0.0571 183.2 ± 2.4

2 350 ± 0.1 337 ± 5 0.0507 162.5 ± 2.3

3 350 ± 0.1 441 ± 8 0.0664 212.8 ± 3.8

4 350 ± 0.1 685 ± 10 0.1031 330.6 ± 5.0

5 350 ± 0.1 187 ± 4 0.0280 89.9 ± 1.6

6 350 ± 0.1 272 ± 4 0.0408 131.0 ± 2.5

7 350 ± 0.1 190 ± 3 0.0285 91.5 ± 1.4

8 350 ± 0.1 405 ± 7 0.0609 195.2 ± 3.3

9 350 ± 0.1 79 ± 4 0.0118 37.9 ± 0.5

Fig. 5 Potassium content in the different varieties species of Mexican nopal samples.


172

5. Conclusions

The analysis of potassium concentrations of foods

and beverages is becoming more important in terms of

both public health guidelines and policies, also the

treatment or management of specific diseases. The

gamma spectrometric analysis of the 40K and the total

potassium in the samples is facilitated by the use of

HPGe detectors and the automatic analysis software.

The method is excellent, precise, highly reliable,

non-destructive and requires less time and effort than

conventional chemical analysis. It is a suitable

analysis method for determining the potassium

concentrations of a wide variety of beverages, seeds,

grains, vegetables and other foods.

The potassium content variability found among the

samples analyzed in this study can be attributed to

different types of soils, and chemical compounds and

amounts of potassium fertilizers are added in different

nopal producing lands, but not by the species of plants

by self.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank to García, A., Gonzalez,

N., Martinez, J., Novoa, L., Veytia, M., Huerta, A.,

and Chavarría, A. for their technical helps. This work

was partially supported by PAPIIT-DGAPA-UNAM

grants 1N103013 and IN103316.

References

[1] Brodsky, A. 1990. Handbook of Radiation Measurement and Protection, 3rd Edition. USA: CRC Press.

[2] Eisenbud, M., and Gesell, T. 1997. Environmental Radioactivity from Natural, Industrial and Military Sources. San Diego: Academic Press.

[3] Thulasi Brindha, J., Rajaram, S., and Kankan, V. 2007. “A Comparative Study of Body Potassium Contents in Males and Females at Kalpakkam (India).” Radiat. Prot.

Dosim. 123: 36-40. [4] Argonne National Laboratory. 2005. “Human Health Fact

Sheet.” EVS. Accessed February 4, 2016. http//www.remm.nlm.gov/ANL_ContaminantFactSheets_All_070418.pdf.

[5] Navarrete, M., Campos, J., Martínez, T., and Cabrera, L. 2005. “Determination of Potassium Traces in Foodstuffs by Natural 40K Radiation.” J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 265: 133-135.

[6] Espinosa, G., Hernandez-Ibinarriaga, I., and Golzarri, J. I. 2009. “An Analysis of the Potassium Concentrations of Soft Drinks by HPGe Gamma Spectrometry.” J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 282: 401-405.

[7] Espinosa, G., Golzarri, J. I., and Navarrete, M. 2016.

“Determination of the Natural and Artificial

Radioactivity of a Selection of Traditional Mexican

Medicinal Herbs by Gamma Spectrometry.” J. Radioanal.

Nucl. Chem. 307: 1717-1721.

[8] Mheemeed, A. K., Najam, L. A., and Hussein, A. K. 2014.

“Transfer Factors of 40K, 226Ra, 232Th from Soil to

Different Types of Local Vegetables, Radiation Hazard

Indices and Their Anual Doses.” J. Radioanal. Nucl.

Chem. 302: 87-96.

[9] Navarrete, J. M., Espinosa, G., Golzarri, J. I., Muller, G.,

Zuñiga, M. A., and Camacho, M. 2014. “Marine

Sediments as a Radioactive Pollution Repository in the

World.” J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 299: 843-847.

[10] Navarrete, M., Zuñiga, M. A., Espinosa, G., and Golzarri,

J. I. 2014. “Radioactive Contamination Factor (RCF)

Obtained by Comparing Contaminant Radioactivity

(137Cs) with Natural Radioactivity (40K) in Marine

Sediments Taken up from Mexican Sea Waters.”

World Journal of Natural Sciences and Technology 4:

158-162.

[11] Padilla-Soriano, E. 2013. “Study of the Potassium

Content in Mexican Nopal (opuntia ficus indica) through

Nuclear Techniques.” Ph.D. thesis, University of Mexico.

[12] Yoram, N. E. 1997. “Traceability in the Amount-of-Substance Analysis of Natural Potassium, Thorium and Uranium by the Method of Passive Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy.” Accred. Qual. Assur. 2: 193-198.

[13] Mac Neish, R. S., Nelken-Terner, A., and Weitlaner, I. 1969. “The Non-Ceramic Artifacts.” American Journal of Archaeology 73 (1): 101-104.

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B5 (2016) 173-178 doi:10.17265/2162-5263/2016.04.003

Analysis of an SME using Silicon and Flexible Organic

Solar Cells as Replacements for Fossil Fuel Sources of

Electricity in UK and Iraq

Azad Azabany1, Ari Azabanee1, Khalid Khan2, Mahmood Shah1 and Waqar Ahmed3

1. Lancashire Business School, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom

2. School of Engineering, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom

3. School of Medicine, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom

Abstract: Currently, 86% of the energy originates from fossil fuelsforelectricity. These are expected to run out, causing severe environmental damage threatening future generations. The total impact of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) on the economy is significant. Solar cells harness the sun’s energy to generate electricity in an environmentally friendly manner. This study compares silicon solar cells to flexible Organic Photovoltaic solar cells (OPV) for electricity energy for a micro-business in the UK and Iraq. It shows that it is feasible to replace existing fossil fuel sources with solar cells in Iraq due to a greater amount of solar radiation striking the earth’s surface. Flexible solar cells can replace a proportion of the energy requirements in the UK and a larger proportion in Iraq. Using existing 20% efficient solar cells, 28% and 83% of the energy requirements of the microbusiness can be replaced in UK and Iraq respectively. Assuming 20% efficiency for solar cells placed on windows, 74% and 220% of the energy requirements of UK and Kurdistan can be replaced respectively and the surplus stored.

Key words: Energy management, silicon solar cells, flexible organic solar cells, CO2 emissions, Iraq, United Kingdom.

1. Introduction

Fossil fuels are finite and with increasing demand

will run out with dire consequences on the economy,

lifestyle and transportation [1]. The crisis needs to be

overcome urgently and new sources of energy

developed to replace existing sources. The Middle East

represents 5% of the world’s population but has about

66% of world’s oil reserves and 43% of world gas

reserves [2]. Some Middle Eastern countries are rich,

however, the wealth is unevenly distributed and does

not always lead to a widespread economic

development [3]. Currently, the majority of businesses

deriveenergy from non-renewable fossil fuel sources.

A major problem with this resource is major

environmental problems associated with climate

change arising due to rapidly increasing demand from

Corresponding author: Waqar Ahmed, Ph.D., research

field: nanotechnology.

population growth, increased lifespan, global warming

causing ice caps to melt, rising sea levels, flooding and

depletion of the ozone layer. Numerous studies have

focused on large distributors, manufacturing

companies and domestic users. However, very studies

have focused on SMEs particularly in the service sector.

There are a large number of SMEs in UK and Iraq and

their combined impactsare massive.

Previously, an analysis of a number of small service

businesses in terms of its energy utilization and CO2

generation has been presented [4]. The feasibility of

replacing fossil fuels sources of electricity with flexible

organic solar energy from the sun has been investigated

and a comparison was made between UK and Iraq

assuming an efficiency of 20%.

Research and development shows promise in

developing new generation of solar cells such as

flexible organic solar cells [5]. Latest nanotechnologies

will improve the efficiency, reliability and application

D DAVID PUBLISHING

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174

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Comparitive Analysis of an SME using Silicon and Flexible Organic Solar Cells as Replacements for Fossil Fuel Sources of Electricity in UK and Kurdistan, Iraq

175

Fig. 2 Comparison between average daily sunshine in Northern Iraq with UK in 2012.

Table 1 Dayscentre was open in 2012 and electricity used.

Month Days open Units consumed (kWh)

Jan. 26 355

Feb. 25 367

Mar. 27 532

April 25 574

May 27 461

June 26 426

July 26 427

Aug. 27 404

Sept. 25 460

Oct. 27 543

Nov. 26 416

Dec. 20 372

Total 307 5,337

space and hours of sunlight. Standard production

silicon solar panels generate 1,000 W/m2 with an

efficiency of about 15%-20%. Hence, a 1 m2 panel

produces about 150-200 W in good sunlight and less in

cloudy and dull conditions. The efficiencies of

commercial solar are expected to rise because

research has already produced higher efficiency solar

cells, however, this still needs to be translated to

production.

To consider how much CO2 can be prevented from

getting into the atmosphere and how it will impact the

environment, calculations relating electricity generated

to the equivalent CO2 producedwere examined. In the

UK, 1 kWh electricity generates an equivalent of 0.43

kg of CO2. Hence, the amount of CO2 that can be

prevented from entering the atmosphere can be

calculated (1 kWh electricity = 0.43 kg of CO2). Therefore, the amount of CO2 for the micro-business

released onto the atmosphere per year can be calculated

as: 0.43 × 5,337 kg of CO2 = 2,295 kg.

Solar cells rely on sunlight for their operation.

Hence, the average number of sunlight hours in the UK

and Northern Iraq are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 shows that the number of sunlight hours

fluctuates during the whole year in UK and Iraq. The

average sunlight hours per day in the UK is around 4

hours, but in Iraq, it is about 10 hours. This indicates

that Iraq is more conducive to the use of solar cell

technology than the UK.

The expected electricity generated in kWh per day

using solar panels using the Eq. (1) is:

1,000 (1)

A is the area of solar panels, is the efficiency and t

is the hours of sunlight.

Considering a micro-business such as Blue Apple

Printing, the amount of electricity that can be generated

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176

daily in UK and Iraq can be calculated [4]. The

physical dimensions of the roof are 6 × 2 = 12 m2 and

about 50% of it is available for installation of silicon

solar cells. Hence, an area of 6 m2 is available for solar

cell installation. The amount of electricity generated in

a typical day UK is: Electricity (UK) = 6 × 1,000 × 0.2

× 4 = 4,800 Wh/day = 4.8 kWh/day.

For Kurdistan, the calculation involves longer hours

of daily sunlight and the intensity of sun is much higher,

hence repeating the calculation gives: Electricity

(Northern Iraq) = 6 × 1,000 × 0.2 × 12 = 14,400

Wh/day = 14.4 kWh/day.

The trend in solar cell technology is towards

increased efficiency and versatile organic solar cells

and mounted onto windows readily in the form of

transparent thin films. Using solar cells on the

windows of Blue Apple Printing, and assuming a

projected efficiency of 20% from the current value of

5%, the solar cells as a viable alternative to fossil fuels

is highly attractive. Application of flexible solar cells

to windows can provide additional electricity.

The windows on the Blue Apple Printing measure

2.1 × 3.8 = 7.98 m2, which is approximately 8 m2 and

therefore, two windows give an area of 16 m2.

Therefore, the amount of electricity that generated with

5% efficient organic solar cells can be calculated:

electricity (UK) = 16 × 1,000 × 0.05 × 4 = 3,200

Wh/day = 3.2 kWh/day and electricity (Northern Iraq)

= 16 × 1,000 × 0.05 × 12 = 9,600 Wh/day = 9.6

kWh/day.

If the organic solar efficiencies were increased to 20%

comparable to silicon solar cells, then these numbers

increase to 12.8 kWh and 38.4 kWh for UK and Iraq,

respectively. Hence, northern Iraq, produces 3 times

more electricity per day using flexible organic solar

cells. Based on UK calculations (0.43 kg/kWh), if a

switch was made from non-renewable fossil fuels to

flexible organic solar cells,the amount of CO2

reduction can be calculated. For Kurdistan-Iraq, the

Mexico data (0.52 kg/kWh) is suitable because the

weather conditions are similar in the two countries.

A comparison can be made of the use of silicon solar

cells to organic solar cells with 5% and 20%

efficiencies. The corresponding reductions in harmful

carbon dioxide emissions can be calculated (Table 2).

Clearly, calculations for the replacement of fossil

fuels with solar cells show that the carbon emission

willdecrease and reduce damage to the atmosphere.

The benefits in Iraq would be much greater due to more

sunlight and about 5 times the reduction in CO2

emissions compared to UK. This is also applicable to

other countries in the Middle East. Hence, the use of

solar cells in the Middle Eastern countries is

particularly advantageous.

For the UK, the percentage of electricity generated

from 20% efficient solar cells compared to fossil fuels

as in Eq. (2):

% 100

,

,100 28% (2)

However, for the same business in Iraq with 20%

efficient silicon solar cells and longer day light hours,

the percentage of electricity needs replaced with solar

cells may be calculated.

Calculations show that using the solar panel with

efficiency of 20% can replace only 28% of the total

electricity required to run Blue Apple Printing in the

UK. The replacement of fossil fuels with solar cells

will reduce the carbon emission into the atmosphere

and reduce damage to the environment. However, in

Iraq due to longer daily and annual daylight hours, 83%

of the energy needs with silicon solar cellscan be

replaced (Table 3).

Existing flexible organic solar cells can replace 18%

and 55% in the UK and Iraq respectively. With

accelerating developments in nanotechnologies

particularly use of the 2D material graphene and new

materials, the efficiency is expected to increase rapidly

to 20% and beyond in the next few years. When the

efficiency reaches 20%, then, 74% and 220%

replacement in the UK and Iraq would be possible.


177

Table 2 Comparison of UK and Northern Iraq for silicon solar cells, 5% and 20% efficient organic solar cells and amount of CO2 reduction.

Silicon solar cell efficiency (%) Organic solar cell efficiency (%) UK (kWh) Northern Iraq (kWh)

5 3.2 9.6

20 12.8 38.4

20 4.8 14.4

Annual (307 days)

5 982 2947

20 3,930 11,789

20 1,474 4,421

Annual CO2 reduction (kg)

5 422 1,533

20 1,690 6,130

20 634 2,299

Table 3 Comparison of the percentage of current electricity requirements that can be replaced with solar with silicon solar cells and flexible organic solar cells.

Solar cell type Energy requirements replaced with solar (UK) (%)

Energy requirements replaced with solar (Northern Iraq) (%)

Silicon solar cells (20%) 28 83

Flexible organic solar cells

5% 18 55

20% (theoretical) 74 220

In the summer in Iraq, it has a requirement for cooling.

The electricity for the cooling systems may come from

the surplus solar energy. Hence, there will be no

detriment to the environment and no need to use fossil

fuel sources of electricity to run this small business. In

addition, these results in 1,690 kg and 6,130 kg

decrease in the CO2 emissions from this small business

alone. The approach and methodology employed in this

analysis is applicable to other microbusinesses and

with millions of microbusinesses operating. There will

be a major reduction in carbon emission if all the

businesses could employ solar energy for their daily

energy needs.

4. Conclusions

Micro-businesses in the UK and Iraq have been

analysed and compared for energy utilization. A large

proportion of fossil fuel sources can be replaced with

flexible organic solar cells. Existing silicon solar cells

can replace 28% and 83% of the energy requirements

of the microbusiness in the UK and Northern Iraq,

respectively. However, with flexible organic solar cells

placed on windows with a projected 20% efficient

solar cells will be able to replace 74% and 220% of the

energy requirements in the UK and Iraq due to their

flexibility and larger areas where they can be utilized.

Using flexible organic solar cells will lower costs, and

with larger areas possible, this technology can be

usedwidely in Iraq. They can also be applied to other

countries with similar climate.This study shows that

with increasingly advanced new technology becoming

available and greater efficiencies being made with

solar cells, the opportunities to utilize these will

provide benefit both to society and the environment.

References

[1] Griffin, P. W., Hammond, G. P., Ng, K. R., and Norman, J. B. 2012. “Impact Review of Past UK Public Industrial Energy Efficiency RD & Amp; Dprogrammes.” Energy Conversion and Management 60: 243-250.

[2] Tsui, K. K. 2011. “More Oil, Less Democracy: Evidence from Worldwide Crude Oil Discoveries.” The Economic Journal 121: 89-115.

[3] Ross, M. L. 2001. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics 53: 325-361.

[4] Azabany, A., Khan, K., and Ahmed, W. 2014. “Energy


178

Analysis for Replacing Fossil Fuel Energy Source of Electricity with Solar Cells in the UK and Kurdistan.” Asian Journal of Science and Technology 5 (9): 557-560.

[5] Hoppe, H., and Sariciftci, N. S. 2004. “Organic Solar Cells: An Overview.” Journal of Materials Research 19: 1924-1945.

[6] Pagliaro, M., Ciriminna, R., and Palmisano, G. 2008. “Flexible Solar Cells.” Chem. Sus. Chem. 1: 880-891.

[7] Brabec, C., Scherf, U., and Dyakonov, V. 2014. Organic

Photovoltaics: Materials, Device Physics, and Manufacturing Technologies. Weinheim: John Wiley & Sons.

[8] Chopra, K. L., Paulson, P. D., and Dutta, V. 2004. “Thin Film Solar Cells: An Overview.” Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 12: 69-92.

[9] Al-Mohamad, A. 2004. “Solar Cells Based on Two Organic Layers.” Energy Conversion and Management 45: 2661-2665.


Semi-automatic Building Extraction from Quickbird

Imagery

Selassie David Mayunga

School of Geospatial Sciences and Technology, Ardhi University, Dar Es Salaam 35176, Tanzania

Abstract: Automatic extraction features and buildings in particular from digital images is one of the most complex and challenging task faced by computer vision and photogrammetric communities. Extracted buildings are required for varieties of applications including urban planning, creation of GIS databases and development of urban city models for taxation. For decades, extraction of features has been done by photogrammetric methods using stereo plotters and digital work stations. Photogrammetric methods are tedious, manually operated and require well-trained personnel. In recent years, there has been emergence of high-resolution space borne images, which have disclosed a large number of new opportunities for medium and large-scale topographic mapping. In this paper, a semi-automatic method is introduced to extract buildings in planned and informal settlements in urban areas from high resolution imagery. The proposed method uses modified snakes model and radial casting algorithm to initialize snakes contours and refinement of building outlines. The extraction rate is 91 percent as demonstrated by examples over selected test areas. The potential, limitations and future work is discussed.

Key words: High-resolution imagery, building extraction, informal settlements, snakes models.

1. Introduction

Automatic extraction of features from digital

images is one of the most complex and challenging

task faced by computer vision and photogrammetric

communities. Feature extraction and buildings in

particular are required for varieties of applications

such as urban planning, creation and updating of

Geographic Information Systems databases and

creation of urban city models for taxation. In practice,

the extraction of buildings from digital images is

complex because buildings particularly in dense urban

areas, which have complex forms and roofs of various

compositional materials. For decade’s extraction of

features in the developing world, it has been manually

used stereo plotters or occasionally digital

workstations. Manual based building extraction is

slow, expensive and requires well-trained operators.

However, for rapid urbanizing and high-densely urban

areas, it becomes even more difficult [1].

Numerous efforts have been made in the past two

Corresponding author: Selassie David Mayunga, Ph.D.,

research fields: geodesy and geomatics engineering.

decades to automate building extraction from digital

images [2-4]. Fully automatic feature extraction

systems are limited to specific applications and not yet

operational [5]. In the absence of fully automatic

systems, semi-automatic systems seem to be an

alternative solution [6] for feature extraction. In recent

years, there has been emergence of high-resolution

space borne images, which have shown potential for

medium and large-scale mapping in urban areas [7]. In

order to effectively utilize the availability of high

resolution satellite images, new techniques and tools

are urgently required.

In this paper, an effective semi-automatic method is

introduced to extracts buildings in planned and

informal settlements in urban areas by measuring a

single point on the approximate centre of the building.

Then, after a radial casting, algorithm is invoked to

initialize the snakes contour and refinement of the

building outlines.

1.1 Related Works/Previous Work

In an effort to make building extraction processes

efficient, various attempts to automate building

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Semi-automatic Building Extraction from Quickbird Imagery

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extraction processes have been reported in the past

two decades. However, existing automated building

extraction techniques are still operating at a very

rudimentary level [8]. One first difficulty for

automated building extraction is caused by image

variation in terms of type, scale and required level of

detail [9]. Secondly, automatic recognition of semantic

information of an object using computers is very

difficult as existing automatic algorithms tend to fail

whenever a new situation on the image is encountered.

A well-extracted building requires well interpretation

of the image to recognize its location and extent, and

then automated processes are employed.

Sohn, G. and Dowman, I. [10] proposed an

automatic method of extracting buildings in densely

urban areas from IKONOS images. In their study,

large detached buildings were used but there was no

analysis on the accuracy and modeling of the

structures. Fraser, C. S. et al. [11] compared buildings

extracted from IKONOS imagery with those obtained

using black and white aerial photographs to evaluate

the potential of high-resolution images. Toutin, T.,

and Cheng, P. [12] investigated the potential of

quickbird image for spatial data acquisition and

showed that quickbird sensors of 0.6 m have narrowed

the gap between satellite images and aerial

photographs for large scale mapping. In the same

perspective, Thomas, N., Hendrix, C., and Goglton, R.

[13] assessed three different classification methods for

extracting land cover information from

high-resolution images. In their investigations, it was

concluded that high-resolution satellite imagery is a

valuable tool for large scale mapping urban areas. In

the absence of automatic building extraction systems,

semi-automatic systems seem to be an alternative

solution for feature extraction [14].

Semi-automatic building extraction methods have

been investigated by photogrammetry communities

and computer vision experts for more than two

decades, although most of the existing methods are

limited to specific applications. Brunn, A., and

Weidner, U. [15] used building detection and building

reconstruction techniques to extract buildings,

however, these tasks are tedious as cannot be

combined. The application of geometrical

representation with rectangular models developed by

Weidner, U., and Ballard, C. et al. [16, 17] used

multiple images and polyhedral shapes to describe

building outlines. Generally, most of the existing

semi-automatic methods referred above work well

where buildings are assumed to follow a certain

pattern or code. Therefore, using such methods in

areas where buildings does not follow any particular

pattern or code especially in informal settlements

areas cannot provide realistic results [18]. Buildings in

informal settlements areas are made of diverse

materials, very close to each other, have complex

structures and have no proper orientation which makes

the extraction process very difficult. Informal

settlements are commonly found in the developing

world and accounts from 60 percent to 70 percent of

buildings in urban areas. In Tanzania, for example,

about 70 percent of buildings in urban areas are in

informal settlements.

There have been very limited attempts to develop

tools and methods to extract buildings in informal

settlements areas as compared to the research efforts

made to extract buildings in planned settlements.

Recent efforts include collection of social and spatial

information, used fused shadow data with 2D building

blobs derived from normalized Digital Surface Model

(DSM) and the use of still video camera (DCS460c) to

extract shacks in South Africa [19]. A method

developed by Li, J., and Ruther, S. H. [20] used DSM,

shadow and linear feature data derived from low-cost

small-format digital imagery to extract buildings in

informal settlements.

A common feature for building extraction methods

referred above, achieves their extraction process

utilizes a DSM or DEM. The main disadvantages of

using DSM and DEM generated by image matching

technique includes insufficient ground sampling data


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and matching errors caused by poor image quality,

occlusion and shadows which leads to poor definition

of buildings outlines [21]. For the technology to be

effective, it must be able to extract buildings both in

planned and informal settlements. Active contour

models or commonly known as “snake’s models” at

present seem to be an alternative and useful model to

extract buildings in informal settlements.

1.2 Existing Snake’s Models

Active contour models also known as “snake’s

model” was first introduced by Kaas, M., Witkin, A.,

and Terzopoulos, D. [22]. In the theory of snakes, the

control points on the closed curve are guided by active

contour models, which minimized a weighted

combination of internal, image and external energy

forces. The internal energy force describes the shape

of the snake. The image force attracts the snakes to the

boundaries of the object, while the external energy

force comes from the image itself or a higher level of

image processing. The solution of the snake’s models

are activated by its intrinsic trend of minimizing its

energies. The function is defined in such a way that its

energy reaches minimum when the snakes control

points locks the boundaries of an object.

Kaas, M., Witkin, A., and Terzopoulos, D. [22]

represented a contour by a vector, v(s) = [x(s), y(s)],

having the arc length s as a parameter, where x and y

are the coordinates of a snakes contour point. The

snake model is represented in Eq. (1):

(1)

Where: E is the total energy of the snake, is

internal energy formed by the snake configuration.

(2)

is the sum of the contour geometric constraints,

defined in Eq. (2), where is the continuity

energy. Minimizing over all the snake control

points causes the snake control points become more

equidistant. is the contour curvature energy.

The smoother the contour is, the less is the curvature

energy.

From Eq. (1), is the external energy and can

be defined as Eq. (3):

(3)

Where, is the image energy, which can be

the image intensity or intensity gradient, and is

external constraint, variable constraints which can be

introduced into snake’s model. For each control point

on snake contour, its total energy can be represented

as described in Eq. (4).

(4)

Where, , , µ are the weights of every

kind of energy.

1.3 Limitation of Existing Snake’s Models

There are limitations on the use of snake’s model

for building extraction which have not yet completely

solved. For example, it is difficult to determine the

appropriate weighted coefficients of the energy

functions which cause bunching up of snake’s points

on an image. Also, there is no simple way of

initializing snakes contours. Several approaches have

been proposed to remedy the above-mentioned

limitations. For example, Trinder, J., and Li, H. [23]

used snake’s model and least squares to extract

buildings in 2D and 3D using aerial photography and

satellite images. Cohen, L. D. [24] used pressure force

to control the movement of snake’s contour. Although

these modified methods works well in many cases, but

the parameters that controls the inflating force of the

contour is not easy to set especially for high level of

noise in the image.

Tabb, K. [25] combined snakes and neural networks

to a different position of control point on the contours

detect and categorize objects in images. In this

approach, a snake’s contour is stored as a vector of (x,

y) coordinates and each (x, y) coordinate reflecting

spline. Then the coordinates are used as input into the

neural network.

Kreschner, M. [26] used homologous twin snakes

and integrated in a bundle adjustment to extract

buildings. This technique often fails when a wrong


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snake’s contour is selected. Ruther, H., Hagai, M., and

Mtalo, E. G. [27] used snakes and dynamic

programming optimization technique to model

buildings in informal settlement areas. However, the

dynamic programming is computational expensive

and occasionally fails to determine the exact shape of

the buildings. Guo, T., and Yasuoka, Y. [28] adopted

“balloon snake’s model” with Multiple Height Bin

(MHB) technique to obtain the approximate snakes

contour. However, the MHB technique could not

provide correct representation of the extracted

building contour.

1.4 Improved Snake’s Model for Energy Minimization

Function

In attempt to solve the limitations of snake’s model

as described above, an improved snake’s model is

introduced whereby a snakes external energy term that

is disregarded, which creates boundary effects for

buildings. Instead, the weighted coefficients

, , and are fixed to allow a uniform strength

of the snakes energy terms. The improved snake’s

algorithm for building extraction in planned and

informal settlements is represented in Eq. (4):

(5)

Where, and are energy terms as

expressed in Eq. (1). The first and second internal

energy terms are briefly described in discrete form:

(1) Continuity term

Let be a snake’s control point on an

image space, from Eq. (4), continuity term is

expressed as in Eq. (5):

| | (5)

Where, is the mean distance between two snake’s

control points and it is expressed as in Eq. (6):

∑ (6)

Where, is the number of control points. This

term constrained the snake’s control points to have

equally spaced avoiding points to be grouped in one

point and at the same time, minimizing the distance

among these points.

(2) Curvature term

This term expresses the curvature of the snake’s

control points and smoothness of the snake’s contour

and mathematically is defined as in Eq. (7):

| 2 | (7)

(3) Image term

The image term describes the radiometric content of

the image and it restricts the snake’s control points to

move towards the points of highest gradient. The

gradient of image at each control point is normalized

to show small differences in values at the

neighborhood of that control point. In this case, the

gradient magnitude is negative to enable control

points with large gradient to have small values. An

expression of the image term is defined as in Eq. (8):

(8)

Where, is the image energy term, is the

minimum gradient magnitude in the neighborhood

is the gradient magnitude at each control point,

and is the maximum gradient magnitude in the

neighborhood. The image energy terms described

above attract the snakes to the image points with

minimum gradient magnitude.

1.5 Radial Casting Algorithm

In order to overcome the limitations of snake’s

model, a radial casting algorithm is developed to

initialize the snake’s control points. A single seed

point called Centre (C) is measured at approximate

centre of each building. The radial lines from this

point grow radically to lock the building outlines. The

radial casting lines are shown in Fig. 1.

For each seed point (C):

(1) The contour’s centre point C is measured and

from this point, radial lines are projected outwards at

definable angular intervals. The angular interval

consists of four, eight or sixteen radial lines ranging

from 0°-360°. The number of radial lines depends on

the complexity of the building;


183

Fig. 1 The radial line representation.

(2) The distances of radial lines joining the central

point C in the snake’s contour is computed. The radial

line is termed as the l’s line;

(3) The centre point C of the building polygon is

always fixed and the radial distances to the snake’s

control points which is variable depending on the size

of the building object. Several different radial lines

were tested to identify an optimal number of lines

suitable for building extraction in informal settlement

areas. Following this experiment and based on the

dynamics of buildings in informal settlements, 8 and

13 radial lines for simple and complex buildings

respectively were adopted as an optimal number of

lines for this application;

(4) Each snake’s control point in image space,

advance to a new position where the gradient energy

in a search window is maximum.

During radiation process of the snake’s control

points from point C, it is possible that the snake’s

curve becomes smaller than desired. If this happens,

the generated snake’s control points can be deleted

and a new centre point C can be established.

2. Materials

In this method, there are two main processes: image

pre-processing and building extraction.

2.1 Image Pre-processing

To process high-resolution satellite images for

subsequent building extraction, the operation aspects

of the image acquisition have to be taken into

consideration [29]. These aspects have effects on the

homogeneity or non-homogeneity of image quality

particularly in high-densely built-up areas. The image

quality is mostly affected by variations in sensor view

angle, sun angle, shadowing and atmospheric conditions

[30]. These effects become worse in areas, where

buildings roofs have various composition materials.

For example, high-resolution images with 8 bits have

a loss of information in shadow or in bright areas [31].

Ross, L. [32] discussed difficulties commonly observed

when dealing with urban shadowed areas. In his study,

he recommended the use of 11-bits image in order to

improve visual interpretation of objects.

l

β

β

β

β

β

C


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The variation in illumination conditions of the

image, shadows and building density in urban areas

makes it very difficult to distinguish individual

buildings from its surrounding particularly in informal

settlements. In order to solve this problem, a

non-linear anisotropic diffusion model was adopted

and implemented to normalize the noise effects

around the buildings [33]. The diffusion process

establishes a scale-space which normalizes image

noise concentration. The aim of image normalization

is to bring the variation of pixels around the buildings

at the same level. The diffused image is then used as

an input into the modified snake’s algorithm for

subsequent extraction of the building outlines.

2.2 Building Extraction

To effectively extract buildings using snake’s models

and radial casting algorithm, an operator measures a

single point at the approximate at the centre of the

building in the image space and then the snake’s

points along the contour are automatically generated.

As soon as the snake’s points are generated, the

operator has an option to accept or reject the snake’s

contour. In the event of rejecting a snake’s contour, a

single snake’s contour or all generated snake’s

contours can be deleted. Conversely, if the snake

contour is accepted, then a minimization function is

invoked, and for each snakes, control point at 3 × 3

search window whereby the minimum and maximum

energy values in the neighborhood are computed. This

process is iterative and at the end, the point with a

minimum energy is selected as a new position in the

image space and a final solution is reached when

snakes contour locks the building outline.


3.1 Data Used and Studied Area

The method developed in this study was applied to

extract buildings from informal settlements in Dar Es

Salaam city, Tanzania and on planned area of

Oromocto, Township in New Brunswick to compare

the effectiveness of this method.

3.2 Building Extraction Results

The snake’s model and radial casting algorithm

have been implemented whereby Fig. 2a shows

extracted buildings in informal settlement and Fig. 2b

shows the result of building extraction in vector layer.

Fig. 3 shows extracted buildings in planned area.

It is worth to mention that most of the buildings

outline from informal settlements (Fig. 2) and planned

settlements (Fig. 3) areas were well extracted.

3.3 Analysis of the Results

In this study, the qualitative and quantitative

analysis was performed to compare the extracted

buildings using snakes and radial casting algorithm

with the results obtained by manual plotted using

photogrammetric analytical plotter.

3.3.1 Qualitative Analysis

In the qualitative analysis, the objective was to

determine the practicability of the proposed approach

whereby a building extracted percentage rate which is

calculated. For this metric, a modified form of

approach used by Avrahami, Y. [34] has been applied.

In the model, a weighted parameter k = 0.5 for

buildings partially mapped was used to compute the

extraction percentage rate. Since the extraction

process was carried out in the same environment, each

parameter in the model has equal contribution to the

final computation of the building extraction rate. In

the modified form, the building extraction rate is

expressed as in Eq. (9):

(9)

Where, BER is the Building Extraction Rate, BCE

is the Building Correctly Extracted, BPE is the

number of Buildings Partially Extracted and BNE is

number of Buildings not extracted. Table 1 presents

the extraction rate in each test area. These results

show that from three test areas, buildings were

extracted at 93.6 percentage rates.


185

3.3.2 Quantitative Analysis

In quantitative analysis, building corner points from

2D vector layer were randomly selected and measured.

The measured points were compared with their

corresponding points measured from photogrammetric

method. A total of 20 points were measured from test

area 1 as shown in Table 2.

From 20 randomly measured points, the mean Root

Mean Square Error (RMSE) was computed to

determine the internal accuracy of the measurement.

The standard deviations in x and y were also computed

as summarized in Table 2. The results showed that the

standard deviations are 0.80 m and 0.98 m in x and y

respectively. However, it is important to mention that

the proposed method has not been able to clearly

define building corners for some buildings in the same

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2 (a) Extracted buildings from informal settlements and (b) Extracted buildings polygons (from vector layer).


186

Fig. 3 Extracted buildings from planned settlements (Oromoncto area).

Table 1 Building extraction percentage rate from three test areas.

Test area 1 Test area 2

BCE 74 36

BPE 4 1

BNE 2 1

Extraction rate 92.5 94.7

Table 2 The RMSE and deviations of randomly measured building corner points.

Test areas No. of points RMSE (m) Std. Dev. in (x) Std. Dev. in (y)

Dar es salaam test area 20 1.22 0.8 0.98

Table 3 Time used to extract a single building in the test areas.

Time used to extract a single building Time used for each building (in seconds)

Semi-automatic Manually plotted using photogrammetric technique

Scene navigation 34 37

Building extraction 10 20

Total time used 44 57

manner as appeared from ground truth data. The

possible reason could be the closeness of buildings in

informal settlements as well as the resolution of the

image. The higher random noise effects in

high-resolution imagery causes edges of the building

along the corner of buildings to wobble from their

correct positions.

3.3.3 Comparison on Time Used to Extract Building

The time used to extract a single building consists

of the parameters:

(1) Scene navigation;

(2) Building extraction.

The aim of this test was to provide an indication of

the efficiency of extracting a single building between

modified snake’s model and manual system. Scene

navigation time is recorded when the human operator

is interacting with the image before building extraction

process and building extraction time which is the actual

time used to extract a single building. The recorded

time during experiment is illustrated in Table 3.


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Based on the same level of details extracted

between manual and semi-automated processes, it was

revealed that the semi-automated process developed in

this study reduced the time to extract a single building

by about 23%.

4. Conclusions

This paper demonstrates that the modified snake’s

models and radial casting algorithm improved the

extraction rate by 23%, and delivered a significant

result of building extraction from high-resolution

satellite imagery. This method shows that, for all tests,

areas buildings with different shapes and orientation

were extracted with reliable accuracy.

In addition, the minimum time used to extract a

single building using conventional photogrammetric

method is 57 seconds as reported by Ruzgienė, B. [35].

However, by using snake’s models and radial casting

algorithm, a single building can be extracted for 44

seconds only. This extraction time is significantly

smaller as compared to conventional photogrammetric

technique. Therefore, it can be reported here that

building extraction using modified snake’s model and

radial casting algorithm can be practically used in

planned as well as in informal settlements areas.

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Analytical Architectural Study on Nuclear Power Plants

Mohamed Farahat

Department of Siting and Environment, Egyptian Nuclear and Radiological Regulatory Authority, Cairo 11787, Egypt

Abstract: This paper aims to study the architectural design and components of Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs). It is also focusing on the simulation system. Its main objective is to set general guidelines for architects. They should be aware of the basics of nuclear facilities designs and components. A traditional nuclear power plant consists of a nuclear reactor, a control building, a turbines building, cooling towers, service buildings (an office building & a medical research center) and a nuclear & radiation waste storage building. Bushehr nuclear power plant in Iran and Angra nuclear power plant in Brazil have been chosen as examples. Furthermore, this paper presents design analyses for Bushehr nuclear power plant and Angra nuclear power plant that include design theory (linear design and radial design) and positive & negative aspects of these designs. At the end of this paper, results and recommendations on the architectural and urban aspects of nuclear power plants are revealed. Key words: Analytical study, architectural study, nuclear power plants, nuclear power reactors.

1. Introduction

The nuclear history started in 1934, when the Italian

scientist Erinco Fermi discovered the uranium. The

German scientist Ida Noddack and Erinco Fermi put a

definition of the nuclear energy “the fission of a heavy

nucleus into two middle weight nuclei that produces a

huge amount of energy as a result of a nuclear reaction”

[1].

Nuclear energy is one of the most important factors

for the human development. Energy is the key element

for the flourishing of all civilizations throughout the

human history. Developing countries need to ensure

energy sources in their development plans to use them

properly. The international reserve of oil is 46 years.

The oil reserve in the Middle East is more than 90 years

and it could be less than 10 years in Asia, Europe and

America. So, the imports of oil for these countries will

rise remarkably in the coming decade as a result of

having an oil reserve shortage. It is noticed that the CO2

emissions have been increased due to the human

activities, especially energy generated from coal and

natural gas, and the use of oil products in transportation

and aviation [2].

Corresponding author: Mohamed Farahat, Ph.D., research

field: architecture.

The acid rain is a type of rain that contains various

acids. It has a destructive effect on plants and marine

life. It is mostly formed from nitrogen compounds and

sulfur emanating from human activities. Those

compounds will form acids due to interacting with the

air. In the last decade, many governments work hard on

establishing laws to prevent the emulation of these

acidic components. The main sources of them are the

huge power plants which emulate 70% of sulfur

dioxide and 30% of nitrogen dioxide, transportations

and petroleum industries [3].

Therefore, governments should depend on renewed

sources of energy in building sustainable societies. A

nuclear power plant that generates 1,000 megawatts

needs 26 tons of uranium annually. This amount of

energy needs 1.5 million tons of oil, 2.2 million tons of

coal and 1.1 million tons of natural gas. There is a big

difference between nuclear energy and other sources of

energy [4].

Only three developed countries owned 49% of the

nuclear power plants all over the world: USA, France

and Japan. While, Spain has six nuclear power plants

and nine nuclear reactors which generate 26% of its

electricity. Canada has five nuclear power plants and

nine nuclear reactors which generate 15% of its

electricity. South Korea has four nuclear power plants

D DAVID PUBLISHING


190

and twenty one nuclear reactors which generate 29% of

its electricity. Sweden has five nuclear power plants

and ten nuclear reactors which generate 45% of its

electricity. As for India, it has seven nuclear power

plants and twenty nuclear reactors (two of them are

under construction) generate 3% of its electricity [4].

The amount of nuclear fuel needed for generating a

big quantity of electric energy is much less than that of

coal or oil. For example, a ton of uranium generates

electric energy much more than millions of barrels of

oil, or millions of tons of coal. In addition, using solar

energy is more expensive than the nuclear energy [4].

For this reason, this paper is important as it reveals the

need to study nuclear installations and give

recommendations to the architects on how to deal with

these vital facilities that have an increasing demand on

the international, regional and national levels. Due to

the situation of the international reserve of non

renewable energy sources and the great potential of the

nuclear energy, the nations should rely on the nuclear

energy on the national and international levels for

sustainable development. This paper presents NPPs

components in details to dissolve the mystery of NPPs.

Also, the paper presents design analyses for Bushehr

nuclear power plant in Iran and Angra nuclear power

plant in Brazil. These analyses include the design

theory (linear design and radial design) and positive &

negative aspects of these designs. Bushehr NPP in Iran

and Angra NPP in Brazil have been established to

contribute in the development of developing countries.

2. Design and Components of a Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear reactors are huge installations that control

the nuclear fission process and provide suitable

conditions for its continuation without causing

explosions during serial fission. The nuclear reactors

are used for the purposes of power generation and

removal of salts and other minerals from the water.

They are also used in conversion of certain chemical

elements into other elements and create isotopes with

the effectiveness of radiation used in various purposes.

The nuclear reactor could also be defined as an

integrated system where investment serial fission

reaction in production of slow or fast neutrons and

emission of fission heat transmitted by the radiator to

the cooling towers for reuse again, or to the steam

generators (in power reactors) for the production of

steam to rotate the turbines to generate electricity [5].

Nuclear reactors are divided into three main

types [6]:

(1) Educational research reactors;

(2) Commercial research reactors;

(3) Advanced application reactors (high tech).

Research reactors are used to conduct scientific

research and the production of isotopes for medical and

industrial purposes. They are not used for power

generation. At the moment, there are 284 nuclear

research reactors work worldwide in 52 countries.

Research reactors are ranging in capacity between

2 megawatts to 30 megawatts [7]. The power reactors

are used to generate electric power. At the moment,

there are more than 55 nuclear power plants work to

generate nuclear energy which convert into electrical

energy, and the number can be increased as a result of

the expansion in the construction of the reactors due to

the need for power generation. Power reactors are

ranging in capacity between 55 megawatts to 1,200

megawatts [8].

Nuclear reactor has been evolved throughout history

from just a hall to conduct research tests inside a small

research reactor that produces 2 megawatts of power.

To a huge building contains (the entrances, exits,

management and control offices, locked out corridors

and escaping avenues, piping system to control the

reduction or increase of the interaction, treated airtight

concrete core includes the reactor and bars of

interaction, control and safety equipment, electronic

control systems, monitors to follow the interaction,

heavy water stores, pipes of chilled water, steam

outlets, ...... etc.), the architectural design of the reactor

develops with the development of each generation of


191

reactors. Therefore, the pressurized water reactor needs

a building which has a different design than gas-cooled

reactor [9].

The nuclear fission generates heat. The nuclear

power plants use this generated heat in the reactor

(such as pressurized water reactors, boiling water

reactors, gas-cooled reactors .... etc.), which transfer by

the cooling water of the reactor to the steam generator

in the process of generating steam. The generated

steam passes through turbines to convert the steam

energy into revolving mechanical energy which

operate power generators. Steam comes out of the

turbine to the condenser. The maintenance of the

nuclear reactors is very complex because of their

radioactivities. The determinants of quality are very

strict over the purity of the water to ensure the

maintenance of the boiler from rust and oxidation to

less degree. The nuclear reactor uses enriched uranium

in the form of “pellets” of the fuel. The size of each one

of them is about the size of the currency and its length

is about an inch. The pellets are formed as long bars

known as packets and kept inside the highly insulation

compressed chamber. In many nuclear power plants,

there are immersions for the packages in the water to

keep them cool. Other plants use carbon dioxide or

dissolved metal to cool the reactor core [10].

Linking of the project elements with each other is the

main challenge facing the architect. First, he is required

to determine the main spaces and how to allocate them.

He should provide a link between the services spaces

and the main spaces without affecting their function.

The design of a nuclear power plant should provide a

maximum safety for workers in the reactor, and to

ensure that, they will not have any injuries or problems,

whether in normal operating or in cases of accidents.

This requires the provision of exits for safety and

escape stairs in order to provide instant means of quick

and safe departure. The nature of the existing

equipments inside the plant spaces (such as the main

reactor space) is different. The architect deals with

spaces that have specific heights depending on the

measures designed for reactor installations. Pressure

Water Reactor (PWR) (Fig. 1), for example, differs

from Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) (Fig. 2), which

would require an architect in collaboration with the

main manufacturers of the reactor so that he can master

the design. This is evident in the designs big companies

such as Toshiba, Westinghouse, General, Electric, etc..

These companies provide an architectural design that

accompanies the project.

The design of the nuclear power plant has four

types [11]:

(1) Architectural design: includes architectural

design, landscaping and supervision of the construction

of buildings and finishing works;

(2) Civil design: includes the site implementation

works, concrete and reinforcement works and

supervision of the construction of buildings;

(3) Mechanical design: includes the installation of

pipes and welds works, and installation of the devices,

especially in the reactor;

(4) Electrical design: includes sensors and wiring,

the installation of measuring equipment and

communication equipment with control rooms.

The nuclear power plant consists of:

2.1 Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear reactor includes main spaces such as reactor

space, diesel generators, refueling, the required power

space for the performance of the interaction, the

withdrawal space of this energy, cooling interaction

operations and emergency systems.

Nuclear reactor building is the most important

building of the plant. It is the building in which the

required interaction had been performed. The rest of

buildings are considered to be facilities for it.

Therefore, the designer must provide protection and

safety for the building in the first place, as well as,

working on reducing costs as much as possible. The

Japanese architect who design (Valley Tenssee) reactor

was careful for seismic risk of the region and the

process of securing the building in the first place.


192

Fig. 1 Pressurized water reactor [12].

Fig. 2 Boiling water reactor [13].

Despite the choice of location in a mountainous area,

the designer was careful not to display any of the

project elements for any surprises.

Design of the reactor building needs to study many

of the views. Reactor building follows functional

buildings used by many users. There is a power

engineer, workers, technicians, scientists and control

building engineers. Many of the staff of these buildings

work for long hours, which makes the designer is

always trying to eliminate negative effect of the

building on the psychology of workers that makes them

feel bored or depressed. So, surrounding the building

with a distinctive landscaping system may be canceling

this sense from the workers in these buildings. The

study of the standards for the reactor building and its

compatibility with the machinery are the most

important factors that should be included in any logical

design [14].

Ideal standards for reactor building spaces [15]:

(1) Reactor pressure vessel

Internal height 21 meters;

Internal diameter 7.10 meters;

Wall thickness 174 mm.

(2) Containment


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Height 36.10 meters;

Internal diameter (maximum) 29 meters.

(3) Reacrtor core

Maximum height 3.71 meters;

Internal diameter 5.16 meters.

2.2 Control Building

It has a control room, an automated computer

network associated with the reactor and a reactor

cooling system. The area of the main control room

should not be less than 15 × 15 meters, up to 15 × 30

meters (Fig. 3). This room is often designed in the form

of horseshoe shape.

Control room (Fig. 4) includes three systems:

(1) Follow-up system for the reactor cooling pumps,

the secondary cooling systems and the main system for

the cooling water;

(2) Control system for the level of pressure inside

the reactor, the reactor cooling system and the

emergency operations;

(3) Operating system for the emergency case. In case

of an accident or an emergency, this system should

alert on all workers by using the light clarifying plates

or the audio stimulation [16].

2.3 Turbines Building

It is a building which contains the turbines that

generate the electricity which move directly to the

power network (Fig. 5). It is often placed away from

the reactor. The link between the reactor and the

turbine building is the steam path resulting from the

water boiling by the reaction temperature or energy

path resulting from water boiling. The spaces of the

turbines building are often huge. Turbines are large

equipments to generate electricity. So, the use of Steel

Truss System in construction of the turbines building is

the best.

Turbines building is a building which converts the

generated energy by the interaction into useful energy

for mankind. Turbines building is often designed on

the hangar shape. It also includes control rooms,

Fig. 3 American design of the control room [17].

Fig. 4 Japanese design of the control room [18].

Fig. 5 Turbines for generating electricity [19].

administration rooms, operators’ rooms, maintenance

rooms and storages. Turbines space commensurates

with the size of the turbines. Turbines should be

connected with the electricity distribution centers by

electricity transmission wires [16].

2.4 Cooling Towers

They are special towers to permit the resulting steam


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Fig. 6 Cooling towers of nuclear power plants [20].

from the cooling operations to come out. Condensed

water is discharged into the river water or sea water

according to the plant site, but the power of evaporation

that accompanies the condensation process is high. So

that, cooling towers are used for the disposal of this

steam (also used to cool the water after the third

radioactive cooling cycle), that has been heated in the

condenser. The water temperatures may reach up to 90

Fahrenheit degrees. The height of the cooling tower

may rise up to 40 meters (Fig. 6) [16].

2.5 Services Buildings

They include an administrative building

(administrative offices, security & surveillance offices

and health safety measurement stations) and medical

research and follow-up centers [16].

2.5.1 Office Building

Administrative building dimensions are normal

administrative dimensions, taking into account

being appropriate for the activities occurring within

the space, and the psychological and visual dimensions

of the users of the space, especially after modern

medical research has shown that the nature of

desktop activity psychologically affect the workers.

Therefore, the designer should allocate suitable

entrances for these spaces. The use of administrative

spaces are: management and supervision of operations,

maintenance, radiation protection, chemistry, security,

insurance and control, nuclear performance monitor,

nuclear engineering, electrical and mechanical systems,

programs and tests, design and modification, support

and maintenance operations, procurement,

documentation, microfilming, printing, licensing

support, electrical maintenance offices and mechanical

rooms of computers that control all other buildings.

2.5.2 Medical Research Center

Developing countries that have nuclear reactors

added buildings for Medical Research to take

advantage of the ability of radioactive isotopes to treat

many serious diseases, especially cancer. The

experiments have proven the success of the radioactive

isotopes in the elimination of cancerous growth. These

facts represent a great hope for the victims of this

disease, so the presence of a medical center for

treatment radioisotope as one of the main buildings

surrounding the nuclear reactor is an important factor.

Also, it expresses another portion of population that

may exist in urban area around the plant, which

confirms the success of the thought that the plant is a

nucleus of an integrated urban society for doctors and

patients. The main departments of the medical center

are: department of medical biology, department of

cyclotron, department of medical isotopes and

department of radiation pharmacy.

The scientific activities focus on the benefits of the

peaceful applications of atomic energy in the health

field, with an emphasis on [21]:

(1) Use of nuclear technology in the field of early

detection of cancer and diagnosis using pictorial

techniques;

(2) Early detection of cancer and follow up to

determine the severity of the disease and warnings;

(3) Conducting of various researches and studies to

screen the cancer in terms of incidence, diagnosis and

treatment and to identify warning using nuclear

techniques;

(4) Conducting of various researches and studies to

screen the heart disease using nuclear photographic

techniques;


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(5) Input of modern nuclear technologies in the field

of nuclear medicine;

(6) Use of radioactive pharmaceuticals in order to

diagnose and treating the various medical conditions;

(7) Production and quality control of isotopes for

positrons and gamma emitters;

(8) Operating and maintenance of cyclotron (a

device for developing the medical isotopes);

(9) Production of new isotopes using Cyclotron and

follow up its various medical applications.

2.6 Nuclear and Radiological Waste Storage Building

It is one of the most important buildings of the

nuclear power plant. It contains solid and liquid waste.

The waste should be reserved in this building for period

up to twenty years before being transported off-site for

the burial in places far away. The waste storage

building should be designed in order to contain all

storage types of waste, whether horizontal or vertical

storage. The waste is a product of nuclear fuel after a

continuous consumption process. Also, there is a liquid

fuel which is placed in containers. There is a vital need

to protect these facilities from terrorist attacks or

natural factors such as earthquakes, hurricanes and

volcanoes [16].

Dimensions of horizontal storage spaces:

Height is 6 meters. Dimensions are not less than 15

meters × 15 meters.

Dimensions of vertical storage spaces:

Height is 10 meters. Dimensions are not less than 25

meters × 25 meters.

Dimensions of storage spaces for containers that

contain radioactive fluids:

Height is not less than 4 meters. Dimensions are not

less than 6 meters × 6 meters.

3. Simulation System (Simulator)

It is one of the most important systems that operate

nuclear reactor system, especially before the full

operation of the reactor operations, or before any

modifications on the operating system of the reactor.

Simulation system is the full operation of the devices of

the reactor (Fig. 7). It is an imaginative process. The

reactor appears in the control room as it is already

working. It can represent an emergency case, and how

to deal with it, such as cases of power outage, stop of

cooling water pumps, a malfunction in the control arms,

etc.. So, the simulation system is the most important

Fig. 7 Simulator within the main control room [23].

(Closed circuit TV)

(Alarm indicators)

(Wide display panels)

(Fixed mimic display)

(Variable display)

(Main control console)

(Flat display)

(Supervisory console)

(Hard switch) panels

(Flat display


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program that should be included in the reactor. The

control room workers should be trained to follow up

these experiments to measure the speed of the reaction

in emergency situations and provide external support

via the internet or networks [22].

4. Analytical Architectural Study on Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in Iran

Bushehr is a city in Iran (Fig. 8). The research

studies Bushehr nuclear power plant. It has been

established for the purpose of energy production,

nuclear researches, medical researches and

desalination of sea water.

4.1 History of Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant

In 1953, Iran’s nuclear program started. Suitable

sites were selected for the establishment of the reactor

(Fig. 9). Tehran Nuclear Research Center (TNRC) was

founded. It contained the first research reactor. Its

capacity was 5 megawatts. In 1967, the center was

inaugurated. The enriched uranium was used in the

reactor. In 1974, Iran decided to begin the construction

of the first nuclear power plant in the city of Bushehr

on the Arab Gulf coast with the capacity of 23

megawatts. It was intended to reach 1,196 megawatts

by the year 1981. In 2007, it started with the capacity of

1,000 megawatts. In 2007, its capacity was reached

1,000 megawatts [24].

Historical overview of Bushehr city [24]:

(1) The nuclear power plant is located on the

Arabian Gulf in south of Bushehr city. It is an industrial

city with a variety of investments;

(2) Bushehr city is located about 1,200 km

southwest of the capital Tehran;

(3) Bushehr province is a densely populated

province (8 million people) and it faces the

Arabian Gulf (Fig. 8). It is one of the most important

provinces;

(4) Bushehr nuclear power plant is designed to

provide Bushehr city with high electric energy and for

the development of industrial projects in the city. It was

Fig. 8 Bushehr province in Iran [25].

Fig. 9 Sites of Iranian nuclear reactors [26].

opened in April 2007 in cooperation with Russia and it

produces 1,000 megawatts.

4.3 Analysis of Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant, Iran

4.3.1 Site selection

(1) Topography and levels

Unpaved flat land and does not have a large

difference in contour and levels (Figs. 10 and 11).

(2) Climatic factors

Deal with climatic element in a traditional way.

(3) Water sources


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The nuclear power plant depends on the Arabian

Gulf waters.

4.3.2 Main Function of the Nuclear Power Plant

This nuclear power plant is used for energy

production, nuclear researches, medical researches

and desalination of sea water.

4.3.3 Planning and Design Theories

(1) Layout

Linear design (Fig. 12).

(2) Visual concept

Distinctive visual experience. Its distinction is

partly due to media focus on the design and

uniqueness of performance (Fig. 11).

4.3.4 Analysis of the Urban

(1) Positive impact effects

Site viewing the Arabian Gulf (provides a water

source for cooling operations);

Site is an extension of several urban industrial and

governmental projects;

The project is a nucleus for many industrial and

urban projects;

There is a station in the plant for desalination of

sea water and to provide safe drinking water for the

province.

(2) Negative impact effects

The location is close to the residential area, which

may psychologically affect the residents of the region;

Lack of awareness among the population with

protection plans in case of emergency.

4.3.5 Design Standards (Fig. 13)

(1) Natural environmental systems and preservation

of the environment

Ignore the environmental aspects, and not to exploit

the well featured site of the reactor, with the greatest

emphasis on the functional aspects.

(2) Flexibility and ease of movement in accordance

with the requirements of IAEA

Obtain the flexibility factor and the ease of

movement, according to the reports of International

Atomic Energy Agency.

(3) Radiation protection

Fig. 10 Perspective snapshot of the plant [27].

Fig. 11 Perspective snapshot of the plant [27].

Achieve the protection factor from radiation,

according to the reports of the International Atomic

Energy Agency.

4.3.6 Design Criteria (Fig. 14)

(1) Dominant thought

Economic-functional thought.

(2) Reactor space site

It is situated as a major center for all nuclear power

plant items.

(3) Idea of design

It (linear design) is based on a main axis linking the

two main domes of the two buildings which contain the

two reactors. From the middle of this axis a main axis

has been designed to connect all auxiliary buildings of

the two reactors. The services and activities have been

distributed by this axis on both sides.


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Fig. 12 Linear design of Bushehr nuclear power plant, linking the centers of two domes to link the design of two reactors [28].

1. The main road leading to the plant. 2. The plant’s main entrance. 3. The main road leading to the two reactors in the middle of the plant. 4. The first reactor and its attachments. 5. The second reactor and its attachments. 6. The main axis which links between the two centers of the two domes of the nuclear power plant. 7. The alternative road behind the two reactors. 8. The control building. 9. The waste storage building. 10. The Arabian Gulf direction.

Fig. 13 Analysis of layout of Bushehr nuclear power plant [28].


199

1. The first reactor. 2. The second reactor. 3. The cooling towers leaking the steam resulting from the interaction process. 4. The waste buildings and the main laboratories. 5. The use of planting and good landscaping of the site to give a distinctive character for the plant.

Fig. 14 Analysis of perspective of Bushehr nuclear power plant [29].

(4) Analysis of design concept

Clarity and simplicity-Ease of perception;

Spreading-Pheasant-Ease of distribution;

Relay.

(5) Positive aspects of the design

Good employment of the elements and

components in an integrated framework;

Interest with the insurance operations of the

reactor by changing the tracks. Confirmation of the

overall shape of the design by using a distinctive

dome.

(6) Negative aspects of the design

The extreme adjacency between the two reactors.

(7) Dominant character

The typical design of this type of reactors. The

distinctive dome contributed to the uniqueness of the

design.

5. Analytical Architectural Study on Angra Nuclear Power Plant in Brazil

Angra is a city in Brazil. This research studies Angra

nuclear power plant. It has been established for the

purpose of energy production, nuclear researches,

medical researches and desalination of sea water.

5.1 History of Angra Nuclear Power Plant

In 1970, Brazil decided to build two reactors (Angra

1 and 2) to provide it with its needs of electricity and

the development of researchs in the nuclear field.

Brazil began to develop an advanced nuclear program

and launched an international tender. In 1971, the

company (Westinghouse) had got a license to build the

first reactor (Angra 1). The region had been selected

between Rio de Janeiro city and Sao Paulo city. In 1975,

Brazil decided to become self-sufficient in the field of

nuclear technology. There was a cooperation protocol

between Brazil and West Germany to supply Brazil

with three units of energy production. Their capacity

was 1,300 megawatts. In 1982, the first reactor had

been opened. It produced 626 megawatts. In 2000, the

second reactor (Angra 2) had been opened. It produced

1,270 megawatts (Fig. 15) [30].


200

Fig. 15 Layout of Angra nuclear power plant, Brazil [28].

5.2 Historical Overview of Angra City

(1) The nuclear power plant is located in Angra city.

It faces the Atlantic Ocean. It was located between the

two largest cities in Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and Sao

Paulo. Rio de Janeiro is the ancient capital of the

country (Fig. 16). It is the economic capital and the

second most important city after Brasilia;

(2) The type of the reactor is pressurized heavy

water reactor;

(3) The nuclear power plant serves 13 millions;

(4) The nuclear power plant had been designed to

supply the main cities with the electrical needs, as

well as, the development of the country’s nuclear

ability in research, medical and technical fields;

(5) In 1975 the nuclear power plant was started. In

1982 it was inaugurated;

(6) The first unit produces 626 megawatts [30].

5.3 Analysis of Angra Nuclear Power Plant, Brazil

5.3.1 Site Selection

(1) Topography and levels

Highly efficient in dealing with the natural contours

of the site and good exploitation of the green

mountains.

(2) Climatic factors

Deal with climatic element in a good way.

(3) Water sources

The reactor depends on the Atlantic Ocean waters.

5.3.2 Main Function of the Nuclear Power Plant

This nuclear power plant is used for energy

production, nuclear researches, medical researches

and desalination of sea water.

5.3.3 Planning and Design Theories

(1) Layout

Radial design

(2) Visual concept

Rich and distinctive visual experience characterized

by the richness of elements and vocabularies (Figs. 17

and 18).

Fig. 16 Rio de Janeiro province in Brazil [31].

Fig. 17 The external formation of Angra nuclear power plant [31].


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Fig. 18 Special dome of (Angra 2) reactor and the control building [31].

5.3.4 Analysis of the Urban

(1) Positive impact effects (Fig. 19)

Site viewing the Atlantic Ocean. It is located in an

isolated area from residential areas;

The region is characterized by distinctive

landscapes;

The site is surrounded by a mountainous region

which contributes in securing the site;

The site is surrounded by an agricultural area. The

site is equipped for the establishment of several

industrial areas;

Good planning of the site, in terms of movement

corridors and the coordination of the site;

The site is located in a peninsula. It is filled with a

natural landscape. This gives the site distinctive views.

(2) Negative impact effects

Site is isolated. It is surrounded by mountains

from all sides. It may leave a negative impact among

the workers of the nuclear power plant;

Lack of clarity of the main corridors in the nuclear

power plant planning. It may be due to the desire to

secure the nuclear power plant.

5.3.5 Design standards (Fig. 20)

(1) Natural environmental systems and preservation

of the environment

Good exploitation of environmental aspects, as well

as the permanent periodic detection on the surrounding

environmental vocabularies. Lasting contribution from

the reactor in the development of the surrounding

environmental protection operations.

Fig. 19 Brazilian Angra nuclear power plant. Two snapshots from the ocean illustrate the excellent exploitation of the surrounding natural elements [31].

(2) Flexibility and ease of movement in accordance

with the requirements of IAEA

Obtain the flexibility factor and the ease of

movement, according to the reports of International

Atomic Energy Agency.

(3) Radiation protection

Achieve the protection factor from radiation,

according to the reports of the International Atomic

Energy Agency.

5.3.6 Design Criteria (Fig. 21)

(1) Dominant thought

Philosophical-creative-functional thought

(2) Reactor space site

Unique appearance of the reactor space, the reactor

space is located below its distinctive dome (Fig. 18).

(3) Idea of design

It (radial design) is based on an imaginary main

center which is considered a radial center for the plant.

The centers of the project spaces came from this center.


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1. The main road leading to the plant. 2. The plant’s main entrance. 3. The main entrance building, the nuclear exhibition and the parking garages. 4. The old reactor (Angra 1) as cylindrical shape. 5. The new reactor (Angra 2) is surrounded by its own services. 6. The station that supply the two reactors with sea water. 7. The turbine building. 8. The conversion of the electrical output to high power. 9. The nuclear research building. 10. The Atlantic Ocean direction.

Fig. 20 Analysis of layout of Angra nuclear power plant, Brazil [28].

Fig. 21 Analysis of perspective of Angra plant, it is completely surrounded by mountains except for the direction of the sea [31].


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Table 1 Evaluation of site selection, main function, planning theory, urban factors, design standards and design criteria for Nuclear Power Plants which have different design concept.

Angra NPP Radial C. Grade

Bushehr NPP Linear C. Grade

Proposed Rate (%) Grade

Site selection, main function, planning theory, urban factors, design standards and design criteria

No.

4 3 5 Topography and levels 1

4 3 5 Climatic factors 2

4 4 5 Water sources 3

4 4 5 Main function of the nuclear power plant 4

4 3 5 Visual concept 5

4 3 5 Positive impact effects 6

3 2 5 Negative impact effects 7

8 4 10 Natural environmental systems and preservation of the environment 8

4 3 5 Flexibility and ease of movement in accordance with the requirements of IAEA9

8 8 10 Radiation protection 10

4 3 5 Dominant thought 11

4 3 5 Reactor space site 12

4 2 5 Idea of design 13

9 7 10 Design concept 14

4 3 5 Positive aspects of the design 15

4 3 5 Negative aspects of the design 16

4 3 5 Dominant character 17

80 61 100 Total

There is proximity between the service buildings and

the reactor core. The use is more suitable shape for the

design of the reactor. In spite of the implementation of

the reactor (Angra 2) after many years of the reactor

(Angra 1), the centrality of the design has made the

design balance is linked to the center of the larger

reactor (Angra 2). The design of reactor (Angra 2) is

different from the design of reactor (Angra 1). The

dome was used to cover the reactor (Angra 2) core,

while the cylindrical shape was used to cover the

reactor (Angra 1) core.

(4) Analysis of design concept

Proliferation;

Ease of perception;

Equilibrium;

Pheasant;

The control of the main mass and an easily

realization.

(5) Positive aspects of the design

Good employment of the elements and

components in an integrated framework;

Interest with the insurance operations of the

reactor by changing the tracks. Confirmation of the

overall shape of the design by using a distinctive

dome that covers the reactor core to give a special

uniqueness;

Proximity of the service units from the reactor

core did not decrease the strength of the design. The

reactor building became a one unit;

Change the shape of the second reactor from the

first reactor, characterized the second reactor and

make it visible and unique;

Accuracy of the design, clarity of the passages,

good employment of the services and the exploitation

of the natural landscapes have contributed in the

beauty of the design.

(6) Negative aspects of the design

Change the shape of the second reactor from the

first reactor, caused the obliteration for the design of

the first reactor. It is not appearing due to the strength

of the design of the second reactor (Angra 2);

No distribution of the services away from the

reactor core. No exploitation of the available spaces.

(7) Dominant character


204

The use of a distinctive dome is to cover the center

of the second reactor. The use of a cylindrical shape is

to cover the first reactor. The company which

implemented the first reactor is different from the

second company. The site has contributed in the

uniqueness and excellence of the design.

It could be observed in Table 1 that Angra Nuclear

Power Plant in Brazil (radial concept) is better than

Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in Iran (linear concept) in

terms of design and planning, taking into account the

radiation safety considerations. Angra NPP has big

advantages over Bushehr NPP.

6. Results

The design of Bushehr NPP and Angra NPP is

innovative. The linear design of NPPs is distinctive for

its clarity, simplicity, realization, gradualism and easy

distribution. The radial design of NPPs is distinctive

for its clarity, simplicity, realization, equilibrium and

clarity of the main space as a center for the buildings.

Bushehr NPP well utilized the surrounding area to

serve the design and the general layout of the plant.

Bushehr NPP has been established in good agreement

with the climactic aspects according to the site nature

and conditions. Functionally, the design of Bushehr

NPP focused on achieving reasonable rates of spaces

and dimensions, and on the natural aspects of the

surrounding environment (water aspects, terrain, etc.).

Angra NPP has dealt well with surrounding urban

which has been exploited to serve the design. The

impact of surrounding urban has been reflected on the

overall shape of the plant, its vocabulary and its

interaction with the surrounding area. The plant has

dealt accurately and carefully with the climatic

elements depending on the circumstances and the

nature of the site.

Angra NPP has shown keen interest with proportions

of the spaces, good distribution of the services and

good employment of the elements and components in

an integrated manner. The addition of a new reactor

which has a new shape to the plant gives a spirit of

excitement for the plant. Also, ther is clarity, ease of

movement between the activities & the buildings and

keen interest with insurance operations.

Angra NPP tried to be environmental friendly by

establishing an environmental studies and research

center inside the plant and by establishing an exhibition

which explains to the visitors how the plant works for

the development of the region. The treatments, the

materials and the colors have been selected in Angra

NPP. The compatible materials with the surrounding

area have been used which give a good impression to

the plant customers.

Radiation safety is an important aspect in the design

of NPPs. Site selection for placing a NPP is a very

important aspect. Many factors should be taken into

consideration such as topography, levels, climatic

factors, natural environmental systems, water sources,

radiation protection, etc.. NPPs sites should not be

located in or near heavily built-areas and are best

situated in rural or semi-rural districts.

7. Recommendations

The architects are recommended to identify the

suitable sites for constructing NPPs. They are

recommended to clarify the feasibility of establishing

NPPs from urban, architectural and environmental

terms. They are recommended to design the different

types of NPPs.

The architects who design NPPs should be aware of

the nuclear reactors, safety requirements and other

previous designs to produce designs with the required

quality. They should be aware of the standards

approved by the International Atomic Energy Agency.

The architects are recommended to deal with the

buildings of a NPP as one unit controlled by the control

building to serve the main building (the reactor). They

are recommended to be able to work in close

co-operation with other engineers from different

departments.

The architects are recommended to design and plan

the NPPs taking into consideration the radial planning


205

concept because it is the best with regard to radiation

safety requirements. They are recommended to follow

a scientific approach in designing NPPs and present

ideas that achieve the desired requirement of a good

design that takes all aspect into consideration.

The electricity problem in Egypt can be solved by

nuclear power generation from the plants to be

established. A plan should be set for spreading NPPs in

Egypt with focus on the international experiences in the

field of designing NPPs and establishing cooperation

with countries and companies that have experience in

this field.

The government, while taking a decision of

establishing a NPP is recommended to put

development plans in which a NPP is considered the

base of development. The design of a NPP aims at

improving the surrounding environment.

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[9] Tong, L. S. 1988. Principles of Design Improvement for Light Water Reactors. Michigan City: Hemisphere Publication Corp.

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[11] Morgan, J. W., and Exelon N. 2011. “Upgrade Your BWR Recirc Pumps with Adjustable-Speed Drives.” Power: Business and Technology for the Global Generation Industry. Accessed November 15, 2015. http://broom02.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Boiling%20water%20reactor&item_type=topic.

[12] Weston, M. S. 2001. Nuclear Reactor Physics. Georgia: Wiley-Interscience Publication.

[13] International Atomic Energy Agency. 2012. Boiling Water Reactor Simulator with Passive Safety Systems. Vienna: IAEA.

[14] US Dept. of Energy. 2015. “Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information “OSTI”.” US Dept. of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, OSTI. Accessed December 9, 2015. http://www.osti.gov/home/collections.html.

[15] Glasstone, S., and Sesonkse, A. 1994. Nuclear Reactor Engineering: Reactor Design Basics. Massachusetts, U.S.A.: Chapman and Hall.

[16] International Atomic Energy Agency. 2004. Construction and Commissioning Experience of Evolutionary Water Cooled Nuclear Power Plants. Vienna: IAEA-TECDOC-1390.

[17] Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 2015. “American Design of the Control Room.” Accessed April 25, 2015. http://web.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v38_1_05/article11.shtml.

[18] Daily Mail Online. 2015. “Japanese Design of the Control Room.” Accessed June 7, 2015. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3193355/Protests-Japan-opens-nuclear-power-plant-time-Fukushima-disaster.html.

[19] Ask Meta Filter. 2014. “Turbines for Generating Electricity.” Accessed March 19, 2015. http://ask.metafilter.com/266311/Why-do-turbine-halls-have-high-ceilings.

[20] Engineering 360 Powered by IEEE Global Spec.. 2015. “Cooling Towers of Nuclear Power Plants.” Accessed August 5, 2015. http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/ manufacturing_process_equipment/heat_transfer_equipment/cooling_towers.

[21] International Atomic Energy Agency. 2015. “Benefits of


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the Peaceful Applications of Atomic Energy in the Health Field.” Accessed February 12, 2015. https://www.iaea.org/technicalcooperation/Pub/Learn-more-TC/Article1.html.

[22] International Atomic Energy Agency. 1996. Defence in Depth in Nuclear Safety. Vienna: International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group.

[23] Hitachi-GE Nuclear Energy, Ltd.. 2015. “Nuclear Power Plant Simulator.” Accessed October 24, 2015. http://www.hitachi-hgne.co.jp/en/business/examination/simulator/index.html.

[24] WIKIPEDIA-The Free Encyclopedia. 2015. “Nuclear Program of Iran.” Accessed September 17, 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ program _of_Iran.

[25] WIKIMEDIA COMMONS-the Free Media Repository. 2010. “Locator Map Iran Bushehr Province.” Accessed June 12, 2015. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Locator_map_Iran_Bushehr_Province.png.

[26] WIKIPEDIA-The Free Encyclopedia. 2015. “Nuclear Facilities in Iran.” Accessed April 5, 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ facilities _in_Iran.

[27] THE CLARION PROJECT CHALLENGING EXTREMISM I PROMOTING DIALOGUE. 2015. “Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in Iran.” Accessed August 23, 2015. http://www.clarionproject.org/news/ earthquake-hits-iran-near-bushehr-nuclear-power-plant.

[28] Google Earth. 2015. “Maps of Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in Iran and Angra Nuclear Power Plant in Brazil.” Accessed July 8, 2015. http://www.google.com/earth/index.html.

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[31] Outlook of Brazils Nuclear Energy Industry. 2016. “Angra Nuclear Power Plant in Brazil.” Innovation Norway. Accessed January 2, 2016. https://innovationhouserio.wordpress.com/2016/01/15/outlook-of-brazils-nuclear-energy-industry/.

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B5 (2016) 207-214 doi:10.17265/2162-5263/2016.04.006

Coastal Community Welfare of Mining Areain Kotabaru

Regency, South Kalimantan Province

Ahmad Alim Bachri1, Udiansyah1, Nasruddin2 and Deasy Arisanty2

1. Faculty of Economic, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarmasin 70123, Indonesia

2. Faculty of Teaching and Education Science, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarmasin 70123, Indonesia

Abstract: Kotabaru is richregency in mining and plantations. The sector has contributed to the regional income in the regency. Coastal communities in the area can certainly get the impact which is marked by the increasing prosperity of society. This study used a survey by sampling using questionnaire. The number of samples in this study were 100 respondents who live in the Serakaman village and the Ujung village of Sebuku sub-district, Kotabaru. Companies in the Serakaman village and the Ujung village are Sebuku Iron Lateritic Ores (SILO), Bahari Cakrawala Sebuku (BCS) and Metalindo Bumi Raya (MBR). Analysis stages of welfare based on the level of welfare standards from National Population and Family Planning Board of Indonesia. The results showed the level of welfare in the Sarakaman village and the Ujung village is the welfare stage I and the welfare stage. Although at this welfare stage I and welfare families, the level of education, access to banks and income is still low. The company through its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) program is expected to improve the welfare of the community around the company area.

Key words: Welfare, coastal, community, mining.

1. Introduction

Abundant resources and strategies for resource uses

is a determinant of economic growth. The meaning is

the physical factor and a factor in the management of

resource utilization determining economic growth [1].

The resources are abundant marine and coastal region

of Indonesia. The resource has the potential to build a

strong economy for Indonesia [2]. Increased public

economy should be accompanied by increased

prosperity in coastal areas.

Poverty is a state with a lower ability to meet basic

needs such as food, shelter, health and safety [3].

Causes of poverty in coastal areas is the limited of

public revenues, lower public welfare, low investment,

limited employment opportunities and high

unemployment [4].

Number of poverty in Indonesia based on National

Population and Family Planning Board of Indonesia

data decreases every year. Poverty people of Indonesia

Corresponding author: Deasy Arisanty, Ph.D., research

field: geography.

in 2012 are about 29,132 or 11.96%. Poverty people

in year 2013 are about 28,066 or 11.37%. Percentage

of poverty people in south Kalimantan are about

4.77%.

The level of welfare in Indonesia based on National

Population and Family Planning Board of Indonesia

classification are grouped into three stages, namely

pre-welfare stages, welfare family stage I and welfare

family. Pre-welfare families are families who do not

meet their basic needs. Welfare family stages I is a

family that has been able to meet their basic needs but

can not meet the needs of social psychology. Welfare

family is a family that has been able to meet basic

needs, psychological and social development of the

family, but have not been able to contribute to society.

The level of welfare of coastal communities in

mining areas should increase along with the use of

land around their homes. The reality is that there are

still many coastal areas on the poverty line despite the

abundant natural resources [5].

Kotabaru district is a district located in the eastern

part of south Kalimantan province. This district is

D DAVID PUBLISHING

Coastal Community Welfare of Mining Areain Kotabaru Regency, South Kalimantan Province

208

known for its abundance of both marine natural

resources and mining resources. The layout of this

district was strategically located between two large

islands of Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Its strategic

geographic location makes this district become

economically strategic [6-8].

Mining in Kotabaru district are coal and iron ore

which are scattered throughout the district of Kotabaru

[6, 7]. The existence of this company should be able

to have a positive impact on the economy of the

community which in turn can improve the well-being

of coastal communities around the mining area and the

plantation.

2. Research Methods

The method used in this study is a survey method.

Survey region are coastal areas in the mining area in

Kotabaru district which is in district Sebuku. Some

companies in the district Sebuku is Sebuku Iron

Lateritic Ores (SILO), Bahari Cakrawala Sebuku

(BCS) and Metalindo Bumi Raya (MBR). The village

located around the area of this company is Serakaman

village and the Ujung village [6, 7]. The number of

Sebuku residentis 7,650 inhabitants [9]. Samples are

coastal communities in the Serakaman village and

Ujung village which lives > 500 m and < 500 m from

the location of the company. The total number of

samples were 100 respondents, with 50 respondents in

the Serakaman village and 50 respondents in the

Ujungvillage. Serakaman village directly adjacent to

the BCS and MBR companies while Ujung village

directly adjacent to SILO company. The analysis is

based on the criteria of National Population and

Family Planning Board of Indonesia. The variables

and indicators used are:

The basis for determining the level of prosperous

families is based on variable stages of a prosperous

family. If there are criteria that do not meet one

variable at this stage of welfare family, then being

classified into a welfare family stage I. If there is a

variable that does not meet the welfare stage I, then

being classified into pre-welfare stages.

Table 1 Stages of family welfare.

Indicator Sub Indicator

Pre-welfare stages The family did not met one of the indicators for clothing, food, shelter, healthand education.

Welfare family stages 1

To worship according to the religious affiliation of each;

Eat two times a day or more;

Clothes for different purposes;

The house floor is not made of soil;

the sick child is brought to the facility/health workers.

Welfare family stages

Family members regularly practice their religion according to the religious affiliation of each;

At least once a week the family was providing meat/fish/eggs as a side dish;

Obtain a new outfit in the last year;

The floor area per occupant of the house is 8 m²;

Members of a family in a healthy state in the last three months, so that it can perform the function of each;

Families who are 15 years old or older have regular income;

Can read and write for family members of adults aged 10-60 years;

All children aged 7-15 years in school at this time;

Two or more children live and today still use contraceptives;

Families have efforts to increase religious knowledge;

The family have money savings;

Families usually eat together at least once a day;

Participate in community activities;

Families hold recreation at least once in 6 months;

Families can get news from newspapers/radio/television/magazine;

Family members can use the transportation facility.


209


3.1. Characteristics of the Region

Sebuku sub-district is geographically located at

03°24’32.2” S and 116°24’25.7” E. Sebuku

sub-district has an area of 245.50 km2. The population

of the sebuku island district is 6,960 inhabitants.

Populous contained in Sekapung village with a

population of 1,506 inhabitants and an average of 41

inhabitants/km2. The population of the Serakaman

village is 819 inhabitants. The largest area of village is

located in the Kanibungan village with an area of 46

km2. Serakaman village have an area of 34 km2, and

the Ujung village have an area of 36.5 km2 [10].

Banjar Tribe is the dominant tribe settled in the

Serakaman village and the Ujung village. The Banjar

tribe has settled about 30 years in the Serakaman

village and the Ujung village. In addition to Banjar

tribe, other tribe that in this region is Bugis. Banjar

and Bugis tribes coexist peacefully and mating occurs

among the different tribes. Intermarriage has led to

acculturation, for example, on the language used in

everyday life, the term substitute name and the

marriage ceremony [10].

BCS has been operating in the District Sebuku in

1997. The mining system is an open system. Mining

area carried out by BCS in 2007 was 9,004 ha with an

area of 5,871 ha being assisted by two contractors:

MBR (2,885 ha) and KM (248 ha), with the permission

of exploitation 3 million tons/year [10, 11]. SILO

began operations in Sebuku Island in 2004 after BCS

[11]. BCS and SILO expands exploitation area to the

Serakaman village in 2010 [11]. BCR has had a

village built as a form of responsibility to the

surrounding community. The village built of BCR is

Serakaman village, Mandin village, Belambus village,

Sekapung village and Kanibungan village [10].

3.2 The Level of Public Welfare in Serakaman Village

3.2.1 Religion and Ethnicity

Religious affiliation of village communities

Serakaman around BCS and MBR companies is islam.

Tribe in the Serakaman village around BCS and MBR

companies is a banjar tribes rate of 92% and 8% of

Bugis tribes. Comunity of Serakaman village around

BCS and MBR companies are devout religious

believers to practice their religion regularly and

improve their knowledge in religion. This means that

the religious villagers in the Serakaman district

Sebuku Island has been good.

3.2.2 Education

The education level of the Serakaman village

community around BCS and MBR companies is the

majority of primary school graduates. The percentage

of primary school graduates is 54%, junior high

school graduates is 16%, high school graduates is

20%and diploma/bachelor is 6%. Serakaman village

community around BCS and MBR companies can

read and write latin despite their education majority

from primary school graduates. In addition, people of

school age in school due to the condition of school

facilities elementary and junior high schools is already

available in the region. This means that the education

community Serakaman village in Sebuku Island

around BCS and MBR companies has been good.

3.2.3 Work and Income

The job of Serakaman village community around

BCS and MBR companies is the majority of

employees. Percentage of employees in companies are

44%, fisherman is 18%, self-employed is 16%,

farmers is 14%, and civil servants is 8%. Percentage

of community income > 1,500,000 is 94%. Percentage

of income < 1,500,000 is 6%. People have a regular

income with diverse types of work and have a

sufficient income to meet their daily needs. Citizens

are able to provide side dishes for food. Citizens are

also able to buy clothes. Low earnings causing some

people can not afford to spend money on recreation.

Approximately 6% of low-income people are not

being able to recreation.

3.2.4 Residential Home

The home stay of serakaman village community


210

Fig. 1 Administration map of Sebuku Island.

around BCS and MBR companies are majority-owned

whose percentages is 88%. While broad of their

homes are more than 8 m². This means that the

residence in Serakaman village around BCS and MBR

companies is already quite good.

3.2.5 Health

Public health of Serakaman village around BCS and

MBR companies are in good condition, as access to

health services readily available. Clinics distance from

their place is 30-400 meters. Serakaman village

community around BCS and MBR companies in the

last three months is in a healthy state because of

getting the health services, so they can carry out their

respective functions. The community also have used

contraceptives and implemented immunization. This

means that the health of the Serakaman villagers


211

Fig. 2 Clinic in Serakaman village.

around BCS dan MBR companies is good. The

condition of health facilities in the Serakaman

contained in Fig. 2.

3.2.6 Savings

Majority of Serakaman village community around

BCS dan MBR companies have no savings of money

in bank, but they have the savings in the form of gold.

There are limited access to bank and cultural societies

prefer to save in the form of gold deposits compared

to the savings bank.

3.2.7 Social Capital

Majority of Serakaman village community around

BCS dan MBR companies has participation of mutual

cooperation and security of the region although it is

not scheduled. The Serakaman village communities

are always leaving an open attitude towards migrants.

3.2.8 Information

Information obtained by the public through

television, radio and newspapers. Information from

the television is easily obtained by the public because

they are readily available access to electricity in the

Serakaman village. 100% of the citizens already have

access to electricity. Therefore, people in the

Serakaman village already have a good in gaining

access to information.

3.2.9 Transportation

The road access in Serakaman village around BCS

dan MBR companies is in good condition. The type of

road is hardening. Facility of transportation is a

private motorcycle. This means that the public

transport in Serakaman village around BCS dan MBR

companies is already good.

Category of Serakaman villagers welfare around

BCS dan MBR companies are welfare families stages

I and welfare family. A total of 94% of the public

entrance on the stage of welfare families and 6%

entered the welfare stage I due to about 6% of the

people cannot recreation and have the low income.

Although most people already belong to the group of

welfare families, but need to improve on some aspects,

among others:

(1) Education, still high that society less educated;

(2) Access to bank, bank facilities also need to be in

the region to improve public access to the bank;

(3) Income, public revenue is quite high because

more than 1,500,000.00 rupiah, but the income is still

relatively low when compared with the high cost of

living in the district Sebuku [11].

Assistance by the company in the form of

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) program is in

the form of roads, educational facilities, markets,

scholarships, places of worship and health facilities.

Community knowledge of the CSR programs is still

relatively low, only about 8% were aware of CSR

programs, 20% less knowing, and 72% of people do

not know [10]. Meaning is not all people get the

information and assistance regarding CSR program.

The CSR program is not optimally improve the

welfare of the people in the Serakaman village.

3.3 Community Welfare in Ujung Village

3.3.1 Religious and Ethnic

Religious affiliation of Ujung village communities

around the SILO company is Islam. While the tribe in

the Ujung village around SILO company consist of

56% of Banjar ethnic, 42% of Bugis ethnic and 2% of

Madura ethnic. Ujung village community around

SILOcompany is devout religious believers to

practice their religion regularly. This means that

the religious in Ujung village community is already

good.


212

3.3.2 Education

The education level of the Ujung village

community around SILO company is elementary and

middle school graduates. Percentages of education

level in Ujung villages are 36% of elementary and

junior high graduates, 20% of high school graduates,

and 8% of diploma/undergraduate. Family members

of adults aged 10-60 years have the ability of reading

and writting. In addition, people of school age in

school due to the condition of school facilities

elementary and junior high schools is already

available in the region. This means that the education

of Ujung village comunity around SILO company is

already good because it is able to read and write

although many are less educated. Educational

facilities in the ujung village are contained in Fig. 3.

3.3.3 Work and Income

Jobs of Ujung village comunity around SILO

company are a majority of private sector employees.

The percentage of private sector jobs is 40%, farmers

and traders is 28%, and self-employed is 18%. Ujung

village community around SILO family aged 15 years

and above has a regular income. Most people are

employees of the company. Community income per

month is 1,000,000-2,000,000 rupiah by 72% and 28%

income of 2,000,000-3,000,000 rupiah per month. The

income that the community is only able to meet the

needs of food and clothing, but most people are not

able to recreation.

3.3.4 Residential Home

The home stay of Ujung village around SILO

company is a majority-owned himself with the usual

types of wooden houses. Spacious of house they live

more than 8m² with a toilet inside their homes. This

means that the community residences of Ujung village

district Sebuku Island around SILO company are in

good categories.

3.3.5 Health

Healtines of Ujung village around SILO company is

a majority in good condition. Ujung village comunity

in the last three months is in a healthy condition.

Fig. 3 Elementary school in Ujung village.

Health community center access is easy and

affordable cost to the health center. Community led to

the ease to obtain healthcare, treatment, obtain family

planning services and get immunization. This means

that the public health of ujung village included is in

good categories.

3.3.6 Savings

Ujung village communities in Sebuku Island around

SILO company do not save money in the bank, there

were only 5% who have savings in the bank, but they

have savings in the form of gold. This is because

access to bank distant and cultural societies prefer to

save in the form of gold deposits compared to the

savings in bank. That is the Ujung village district of

Sebuku Island around SILO company included in

good categories.

3.3.7 Social Capital

Ujung village communityin Sebuku Island around

SILO company participates in activities of mutual

cooperation although is not scheduled and always

participated in regional security. Ujung village

community kinship in Sebuku Island is strong. This

means that the social capital of Ujung village included

is in good categories.

3.3.8 Information

Information is obtained through print media and

electronic media. The print media information

obtained through newspapers and books, while the

electronic media through television and radio. The


213

easiest information obtained through the television.

People’s access to television broadcasts is very easy

for this village which also has access to electricity.

Therefore, the Ujung village community to get the

information included in good categories.

3.3.9 Transportation

The road access in Ujung village around SILO

company within easy condition to be passed with the

type of asphalt road. Ujung village community has the

own private motorcycle for transportation. This means

that the public transport in Ujung village included is in

good categories.

Based on several indicators from the National

Population and Family Planning Board of Indonesia,

welfare of the Ujung village community around SILO

community are family welfare stages I and welfare

family which means it can meet its basic needs. A

total of 72% of the society include the category of

welfare stage I and 28% include the category stages of

welfare family. Society has a job and an income. They

have a stable job, and have their own homes despite

the usual kind of wooden houses. The indicators also

strengthened in terms of savings, although the

majority of people do not have savings in the bank,

but they have savings in the form of gold deposits.

The same conditions with Sarakaman villageand the

Ujung village also have problems in education.The

villages are also low bank access and low income.

Although the community is classified in welfare

families stages I and welfare family, but their living

standards are still very low. A total of 36% of the

society is still less educated, 80% of people have little

access to banks, and 72% of people have income <

1,500,000 rupiah [7]. An improvement in the

economic life of the community is to improve the

welfare of society through CSR programs of the

company. The most important point of the CSR

program is to increase society’s ability to survive and

help people out of poverty [12]. Forms of CSR

activities that have a positive correlation with the

welfare of society are the goal of corporate social

responsibility, corporate social issues and corporate

relations program [13]. The fact that occurred in the

Ujung village is 60% of the people are not informed

about the program in the company [10, 14]. Therefore,

CSR program information needs to be disseminated

by the company so that the company’s presence could

affect the economic life of society.

4. Conclusion

The welfare level of Serakaman village around BCS

and MBR companies and Ujung village communities

around SILO company based on indicators from

National Population and Family Planning Board of

Indonesia are welfare families stages I and welfare

family. Although in terms of public education is still

low, the majority only finished elementary school,

they have jobs and incomes. Community has the

house with the usual types of wooden houses. The

majority of people do not have savings in the bank

because the access is difficult, but they have savings

in the form of gold deposits. Access to information

also can be obtained by either, as well as

transportation access.

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