John VolpeBiological Sciences

University of Albertajvolpe@ualberta.ca

http://www.biology.ualberta.ca

Science Friction: The incredible story of Atlantic salmon in British Columbia

46,738 tonnes dressed (capture fishery all spp. 30,200 t)

$347M farm gate (capture fishery$53M)

81% Atlantic salmon

Largest agricultural export product (77%) in BC - 4th largest salmon producer in the world

1999 Production

Atlantic salmon in BC. Why?

• Faster growth and feed conversion• Docility • Larger market• Better price• Knowledge base

2002

1984 Import of AS eggs for aquaculture

1905

1934

5.5 - 13.2 M eggs + alevins released in B.C. Interspecific agonism (ST) 10 resistance factor

1987 First capture of AS in B.C. waters

1991 First reported escape of AS

1997First Atlantic salmon research on Pacific coast initiated

?????

1995 SAR initiated

SAR released

Revenueloss

resulting from

escapedfish

Retention of salmonin net pens

Cost of building / maintaining net pens

0%

100%

According to DFO’s ASWP 396,552 Atlantic salmon have been reported as escaped 1991-2001

Escapes

• 0.5 – 1% of cage population lost via “leakage” (not reported) Therefore in 1999

55,400 – 110,800 Atlantic salmon + (~443,200)12,650 – 25,300 Chinook + (~101,200) 2,900 – 5,900 Coho + (~23,600)

sub-adults escaped in addition to the 35,730 reported Atlantic salmon escapes.

• Only rough estimates of fish on on hand• Holes in nets a constant problem• Reporting of escapes is voluntary

Actual number of escapees per year = UNKNOWN

Recoveries

7833 Atlantic salmon reported captured in BC marine waters and

145 Atlantic salmon reported in BC fresh waters in 2000

Like escapes, recovery reports are voluntary. No work has ever been conducted to evaluate the precision or accuracy of these data – however it is widely accepted these numbers do not represent reality.

Continued use of these “estimates” sets a dangerous precedent for reliance on fictitious data.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

8/1/

00

8/3/

00

8/5/

00

8/7/

00

8/9/

00

8/11

/00

8/13

/00

8/15

/00

8/17

/00

8/19

/00

8/21

/00

8/23

/00

8/25

/00

8/27

/00

Date

Nu

mb

er o

f A

tlan

tic

salm

on

re

po

rted

cap

ture

d 4500 Atlantic salmon escape inJohnstone Straight

Commercial fishing season opens in Area 12

32,000 Atlantic salmon escape in Sargeaunt's Pass

Two major farm escapes in summer 2000

DFO’s passive ASWP = 7833 AS; All BC marine waters, whole year

15 day active survey in only Area 12 = 10,826 AS (+41%)

How many captures if there were noopenings?

•58 m channel

•Variable habitat

•30 females; 20 males transplanted without acclimatization

Spawning Chronology

Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

Pink

Sockeye

Chinook

Chum

Coho

Steelhead

Little Qualicum Atlantic Salmon

Wild Atlantic salmon in native range

Tsitika River August 18 1998

• Natural reproduction• Two year classes present (0+ & 1+)• ~50 juveniles identified to date• Sympatric with strong steelhead population • 0+ AS > ST (50%) 1+ AS >> ST (125%)

0+ 1+

Port Hardy

Campbell R.

Nanaimo

Victoria

Tofino

Port Alberni

Feral Atlantic Salmon populations in Vancouver Island Rivers

Eve R.N

100 km

Amor de Cosmos Cr.Tsitika R.

<< 0.01% suitable habitat surveyed

Atlantic salmon have been reported in 79 BC streams and rivers

Atlantic salmon are now part of the terrestrial food webvia predation

What we know so far...

• 10’s - 100’s K escaping annually

• Significant marine survival - commercial fisheries, Alaska fresh water captures

• Adults ascending all major drainages on Vancouver Island

• Production fish will spawn to produce viable offspring and may do so during low native spawner density

• Feral progeny are capable of persisting with steelhead

But,

Why did historical AS introductions fail?

Wetted area:2.2m x 0.6m x 0.9 m

Coarse river cobble (19.4 5.6cm)

~ 10% replacement perhour

Flow 0.85 ms-s (4542.5 L min-1)

10 hp centrifugal pump

Water temp maintained by a 240V, 60amp chiller

Clear Lexan viewing windows

Natural prey provided by a unique “upweller”feeding system

4 AS 4 AS

4 AS

4 AS

4 ST4 ST

4 ST4 ST4 ST

4 AS

High Forage

AA assembly

4 AS 4 AS

4 AS

4 AS

4 ST4 ST

4 ST4 ST4 ST

4 AS

Low Forage

Treatments• High / low forage• Density• Intra- / interspecies comp.• Assembly of “community”

Response Variables• Growth• Foraging• Agonism (action + result) • Territory size

comp. coefficient (Δ g)A = Atlantic salmonS = Native Steelhead

SA

SS AS

ST engage in agonism 5:1 over AS ST show intraspecific bias 2 : 1AS show interspecific bias 2.2 : 1

Residents with 3 days prior residency performed better than challengers under all conditions

A significant “residency effect” was observed in both species

Small Falls

N

50 m

Experimental Site (AS & ST)

Control Site (ST Only)

From Bear Lake (2km)

To Straight of Georgia / Inside Passage (~3km)

ST

ST

AS ST

Amor de Cosmos Cr. Study Site

86.5 hrs behaviour data

•ST - ST aggression 11.8 x > ST - AS

•ST - ST aggression > 3x AS - AS; but AS - ST aggression >2x ST - AS

•ST horizontal range on average 9 x > AS

•ST-ST aggression was significantly higher with AS

Steelhead

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Pro

port

ion

> 1

0cm

Atlantic Salmon

Vertical Partitioning

10

5

0AtlanticSalmon

SteelheadExperimental

SteelheadControl

F

ora

gin

g a

ttem

pts

per

5 m

inForaging

**

75

25

0

50

F

ora

gin

g e

ffic

ien

cy %

**

Atlantic salmon in Competition

Perform wellrelative to steelhead

Perform poorly relative to steelhead

+ residency - residency

1905-1934: Very low likelihood of establishing prior residency in Vancouver Island rivers

Today: Vancouver Island steelhead populations are at ~ 10 - 20% of historical abundance

Potential for successful colonization is likely much

higher today than during historical intentional introductions

But,

Inputs and outputs

“What are the impacts of salmon farming on the sea floor

below fish pens?

Salmon farms occupy a very small percentage of BC coastal waters, so the habitat affected is also very small. If placed side by side, all the salmon farm sea cages would occupy only about 70 hectares, less space than the new runway at Vancouver International Airport.”BC Salmon Farmers Assoc. web page

TSS allocation for 4 Salmon Farms Bremerton, WA Seattle (830k people)

Filtration & Sterilization(US$536M buildUS$80M / yr.)

No Filtration & SterilizationUS$0

Effects of effluent generated at BC’s 104 active farms is unknown

Dr. Arthur Whitely U. of Washington

5.2 M lbs. feces 4 M lbs. TSS

Outputs

Antibiotics Pass through the net cage intact or in fecesare ingested in low chronic doses by benthos6.4 tonnes used in 1998Effects: - generation of “superbugs”; transfer

across individuals possible, including to humans - significant alteration of sediment species composition affecting nutrient cycling

Pesticides Neurological disruptors used to control sea liceEffects: - Lethal to crustaceans (zooplankton,

shrimp, crab etc.) and other fauna including polychaetes and starfish Irish farm company being sued

Copper Toxic net treatments to kill fouling organismsEffects: - Undetermined

Inputs

Organic

Salmon, unlike all other cultured “farm” animals (save shrimp)are carnivorous – feed is 45% fishmeal and 25% fish oil.

2.8 kg wild fish to produce 1 kg farm fish(equivalent by-catch)

The marine area required to produce the feed consumed in a salmon farm is 40,000 to 50,000 times the production area

The European industry (production leaders) consume the equivalent of 90% of the North Sea’s 1o production

Naylor et al. 2000. Nature 405: 1017-1024

Herring; Mackerel; Anchoveta; Anchovy; Sardinella.

South American oceans being mined at tremendous rates to satisfy northern hemisphere demand for fish meal in the production of a luxury product.

Many of these fisheries are in a state of collapse forcing commercial fishers to target species even lower in the food web, further aggravating the problem.

Currently a salmon glut on world market. Commercial salmon fishers must now catch more wild salmon to maintain historical earnings

Outputs

The Product

Feed contaminated with PCBsPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) - genotoxin / mutagenPolybrominated biphenyl ethers (BPDE) - flame retardantOrganochlorine pesticides (OPs)

# of servings of BC farm salmon required to exceed WHO guidelines: 1.5 / week

Easton et al. 2002. Chemosphere 46: 1053-1074

Inputs

EnergyIndustrial Energy Inputsper round tonne (litres of

diesel equivalent)

Greenhouse Gas Emissions (tonnes of CO2 equivalent

per round tonne)1

Cultured Atlantic 2,612 6.5

Cultured Chinook 3,244 8.0

Captured Chinook 977 2.0

Captured Coho 1,144 2.9

Captured Sockeye 755 2.3

Captured Chum 665 2.0

Captured Pink 616 1.8

Tyedmers 2001. PhD Thesis, UBC

Food Production System Edible Protein EROI

Seaweed culture (West Indies) 100%

Cultured carp (Indonesia) 94%

Wheat (USA) 41%

Purse seine fishery for salmon (B.C.) 18%

Groundfish trawl fishery (Washington State) 17%

Commercially caught pink salmon (B.C.) 14%

Commercially caught chum salmon (B.C.) 13%

Commercially caught sockeye salmon (B.C.) 11%

Turkey (USA) 7.7%

Milk (USA) 7.1%

Swine (USA) 5.6%

Commercial cod fishery (USA) 5%

Chicken (USA) 3.8%

Intensively cultured Atlantic salmon (B.C.) 3.3%

Intensively cultured chinook salmon (B.C.) 2.6%

Intensively cultured shrimp (Thailand) 1.4%

Beef (USA) 0.8%Tyedmers 2001. PhD Thesis, UBC

Sea Lice

Sea lice are native however the density of farms may act as bio-magnifiers of parasites and disease such that the migratory habitat becomes saturated ie. pink smolt run

Pink salmon smolts

June 2001

“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution“Theodosius Dobzhansky

Character Trait (e.g. Aggression)

“Normal curve”NaturalSelection

Pro

port

ion

of P

opul

atio

n

Aggression

Pro

port

ion

of P

opul

atio

n

Low High

Farm

Escape Spawn

Wild

Aggression

Pro

port

ion

of P

opul

atio

n

Low High

Wild

Second feral generation displays appropriate levels of aggression - much greater performanceand survivorship.

Escapees selected for “wild type” behaviours and traits

Treatments for parasites and diseases “select” for resistant and more virulent strains – passed back to wild populations (Anti bacterial soaps - “97% effective”)

Processes are likely to change as fast, or faster, than we are capable of describing them.......

Is there a plan?

How many escaped Atlantic salmon are too many?

What infestation rate of sea lice on native salmonids is too high?

How much industrial waste is too much?

Etc....etc.....etc.....

Is salmon aquaculture so different from other industrial activitiesthat threshold effects on the environment are unnecessary?

Principle 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (towhich Canada is a signatory) explains the precautionary principle as, "Wherethere are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certaintyshall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to preventenvironmental degradation."

1) all reasonable actions must be taken to protect the environment

2) inherent to this statement is the understanding of “reverse onus” - the burden of proof lies with industry to satisfactorily demonstrate their activity is not detrimental to the environment. The burden is not on the public to demonstrate the opposite

Research AssistantsChris BorkentRick FergusonJeff HopkinsIan JacobsMegan KaneenTye LougheedSteve MartinDan O’NeilEmily RubidgeMalcolm Wyeth

Dr. Brad R. Anholt - UVic BiologyDr. Barry W. Glickman - UVic CEHGerry Horne - UVic Aquatics Facility

Funded by:

B.C. Habitat Conservation Trust Fund

B.C. Min.Fisheries