jofesd vol. 4 no. 1 - university of uyo · department of forestry and wildlife management modibbo...

JOFESD VOL. 4 No. 1 Published March, 2018

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UNIVERSITY OF UYO, UYO DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT

JOURNAL OF FORESTRY, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (JOFESD).

Editorial Advisers

Prof. Labode Popoola - University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Prof. Emmanuel I. Inah - University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Prof. Pius O. Egwumah - University of Agriculture, Markurdi, Nigeria.

Prof. Luca M. Luiselli - Institute Demetra, via Olona, Rome, Italy.

Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief: Prof. Enefiok S. Udo

Editor: Prof. Michael Akpan

Managing Editor: Dr. Samuel I. Udofia

Assitant Editor: Dr. Opeyemi Olajide

Associate Editors: Dr. Edem A. Eniang

Dr. I. N. Akpan-Ebe

Dr. (Mrs.) Mercy P. Akpan

Dr. E. E. Ukpong

Editorial Assistant: Dr. Kufre Edet Okon


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JOURNAL OF FORESTRY, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (JOFESD) is published biannually by the Department of Forestry and Natural Environmental Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. All Rights Reserved: No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the Copyright. Also, where part of this Journal is adapted, credit must be given to the author(s) and original source and the sense of the original source must not be distorted. ISSN: 2449-1845 Printed in Nigeria by: Wilonek Publishers Uyo Tel: +2348115160434 +2340783377116


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JOURNAL OF FORESTRY, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT (JOFESD) DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF UYO, UYO, NIGERIA

CALL FOR PAPERS The Editorial Board of Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development (JOFESD), hereby calls for scholarly research papers/articles on relevant issues in Nigeria, Africa and Global on Forestry/Forest Science, Wildlife Management, Environmental Sciences, Agriculture, Natural Sciences, Engineering/Technology, Social Sciences and other related areas for publication in the journal. The journal shall be published biannually (March and August). GUIDELINES FOR SUBMISSION OF PAPERS

1. Articles should be type-written with double-line spacing on face only, not more than 15 pages of A4 paper including reference, diagrams, pictures and appendices on 12 font size, Times New Roman font style and the new APA Referencing style.

2. The cover page should bear the title of the Paper/Article, the author’s (s’) name(s), affiliation, e-mail address and phone number.

3. Article should be accompanied with an abstract of not more than 250 words containing statement of problem, methodology, result and recommendations/ contributions to knowledge.

4. Authors should submit hard copies of their articles to the Editor-in-chief, Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development (JOFESD) Department of Forestry and Natural Environmental Management, University of Uyo, P.M.B. 1017, Uyo, Akwa IbomState, Nigeria.

5. A soft copy of the paper/article should be sent on-line as an attachment to e-mail address: [email protected], [email protected] and copied [email protected] after paying an assessment fee of Two Thousand Naira (N2,000.00) or Twenty US Dollars ($20).

All manuscripts shall be peer reviewed to ensure accuracy and relevance. A manuscript will be accepted for publication sequel to the referees’ recommendation. We welcome original manuscripts that have not been submitted elsewhere for publication. Copyright of all accepted articles are ceded to JOFESD. For more enquiries, send an e-mail to [email protected] or [email protected] or [email protected] or [email protected].


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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE(S)

Macro Fauna Species Diversity and Distribution under the Influence of Siltation and Solid Waste Effluents along River Benue Bank, Adamawa State, Nigeria. Dishan, E. E., Tella I. O. and Adaeze, J. E.

… 1-10

Fuelwood Utilization by Rural Dwellers in Khana and Tai Local Government Areas, Rivers State. Nke-ee, L. J., David-Sarogoro, N. and Udofia, S. I.

… 11-19

Tourism Option for Conservation of Endangered Species in Niger Delta, Nigeria: Manatee of Itu Wetland in Perspective. Ijeomah, H.M., Eniang, E.A., Abere, S.A. and Egwali, E .C.

… 20-27

Growth and Yield of Onion (Allium cepa L.) Varieties as Influenced by Different Levels of Phosphorus Application in the Humid Ultisols Environment. Law-Ogbomo, K. E. and Osaigbovo, A. U.

… 28-34

Evaluation of Fibre Characteristics of Anthocleista djalonensis (A) Wood for its Suitability Pulp and Paper Production. David-Sarogoro, N., Amakiri, M. A. and Udofia, S. I.

… 35-41

Occurrences and Utilization of Pentaclethra macrophylla (Benth) and Monodora myristica (Gaertn): Two Major NTFPS in Imo State, South-eastern Nigeria. Ekwugha, U. E., and Edet, D. I.

… 42-49

Effects of Fertilizer Application on Growth and Yield of Celosia argentea L. in a Humid Forest Ultisols Location. Law-Ogbomo, K. E. and Osaigbovo, A. U.

… 50-57

Growth and Allometry of by-catch Portunus validus Herklots, from off Atlantic Coast, Southeast Nigeria. Udoh, J. P. and Robert, E.

… 58-75

Effects of Organic Fertilizer Sources and Levels on Growth and Yield of Extra Early Maize (Zea mays L.) in Uyo, Southeastern Nigeria. Essien, B. A., Ikeh, A. O., Ndaeyo, U. N. and Essien, J. B.

… 76-84

Seedling Emergence from African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don Syn. Gambeya albida) Seeds Subjected to Scarification Intensities. Olayode, O. O.

… 85-90

Sustainable Cowpea Trade in West Africa Region. Sadiq, M. S., Singh, I.P., Yusuf, T. L., Sani, T. P. and Lawal, M.

… 91-105

Variation in Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration on Selected Forest Plantations in Imo State Nigeria. Umeojiakor, A. O., Egbuche, C. T., Uluocha, O. B. and Onwudike, S.U.

… 106-115

Effect of Lift above Poverty Organization Microcredit on Economic Efficiency of Cassava Farmers in Edo State Nigeria. Ogieriakhi, M. O. and Emokaro, C. O.

… 116-125

Effects of Leucaena Biochar and Cowdung on Soil Nutrients and Water Retention of Typic Plinthustalf in Minna, Nigeria. Afolabi, S. G. and

Azubuogu, O. J.

… 126-133

Assessment of Consumption Patterns of Pro-vitamin a Bio-fortified Cassava among Farm Families in Abak Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Etuk, U. R., Ekereke, B. I and Akpabio, A. D

… 134-141

Levels of Mercury, Cadmium and Zinc in Gutter Sediment in Selected Roads in Uyo Metropolis. Simeon, S. D., Esien, E. and Effiong, G. S.

… 142-150


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MACRO FAUNA SPECIES DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION UNDE R THE INFLUENCE OF SILTATION AND SOLID WASTE EFFLUENTS AL ONG

RIVER BENUE BANK, ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

Dishan, E. E., Tella, I. O. and Adaeze, J. E.

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

This objective of this research was to investigate macro fauna diversity, under the influence of siltation and solid waste effluents along River Benue bank. Plots sizes of 20m x 20m were randomly established at the solid waste (SWA), silt + solid waste (SSW), silted (SA) and no-silt; no-waste (NSW) areas. A quadrat size of 1m x 1m was laid to determine the population of macro fauna species within each site. Top soil 0 – 20cm depth was dug to determine the population of macro faunas in each quadrat. Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index was used to analyse species diversity. The results from wiener’s diversity index showed that most fauna species were rare, the population of soil macro fauna were 38 at SWA, 5 at SSW, 1 at SA and 42 NSW areas. The highest occurring species obtained were 55.2% (formicididae sp) at SWA, 80% (Brychius hungerfordi) at SSW and 52.3% (Syntomeida epilais) at NSW. Keyword: Macrofauna, river Benue, diversity and distribution.

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria is a country with diverse landscapes and rainfall regimes with a corresponding high diversity of biological niches harbouring many different species of plants and animals (Aminu-Kano, 2001). Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Among other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other species (Gaston, 2000). According to Gaston (2000), the study of the spatial distribution of organisms, species, and ecosystems, is the science of biogeography . Biodiversity has three fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological organization namely: Genetic diversity which refers to genetic variability among the populations and individuals of the same species. Species diversity which refers to the diversity among species in an ecosystem and ecosystem diversity which refers to diversity of habitat in a given unit area, and it embraces variety of ecosystems on earth (Emma et al., 2010). Terrestrial biodiversity is up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity. Recent study put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million of which 2.1 million were estimated to live in the ocean (Field et al., 2009). However, this estimate seems to under-represent diversity of microorganisms. According to Lavelle (1988) and Anderson and Ingram (1993) soil invertebrates can be classified according to their feeding habits and distribution in the soil profile as follows: Epigeic species: These are species which live and feed on the soil surface. They act as litter transformers or the predators of litter transformers, but do not actively redistribute plant material. Anecic species: They are species which remove litter from the soil surface through their feeding and redistributing it to other horizons, accompanied by effects on soil structure and hydraulic properties.

Dishan, E. E., et al. (2018). Macro Fauna Species Diversity and Distribution under the Influence of Siltation and Solid Waste Effluents along River Benue Bank, Adamawa State, Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 1-10.


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Endogeic species: they are species which live entirely within the soil, feeding on organic matter and dead root materials, which are mixed with other components of the soil, creating mineral-humus complexes and influencing a large suite of soil properties. The quantification of these effects on soil processes requires detailed study, but a simple characterization of macro fauna can assist in assessing their role in different land uses and under various regimes of management. The classification of macro fauna includes: ants, earthworms (pigmented) and wood-feeding termites which is classified under epigeic and anecic. Arachnids, beetle larvae, cockroaches, centipedes, crickets, millipedes, slugs and snail and woodlice belong to the category epigeic. Adult beetle are grouped under epigeic and endogeic. Cicada larvae, earthworm (unpigmented) and soil-feeding termites are classified under Endogeic. Fungus-growing termites are categorized under Anecic.

The microorganisms, bacteria and viruses found in Nigeria are less studied. The Biodiversity Country Study estimates that there are 3,423 fungi species in Nigeria, 134 plankton species, more than 500 virus species and 55 bacteria etc. Apart from the fungi, these numbers may be under estimated and may not be close to the true numbers of biodiversity of these taxa (FEPA, 1992). The biodiversity of Nigeria contains a number of native species, like the chemical compounds produced by amphibians and insects. A myriad of other species in Nigeria may be found to have important uses in agriculture, medicine, and other applications (Aminu-Kano, 2001).

Degradation of the environment threatens the existence of humans. Thus, the existence of anthropogenic environment is significance to the survival of humans. Sustainable development of urban centres is a function of the state at any given time and place. The good state of the environment will enhance its proper functioning and usefulness. Thus, there is the need to plan, manage and protect our environment and this constitutes the main goal of environmental laws as related to conservation of biodiversity. The production of unwanted waste materials are known as waste which includes the entire variety of refuse generated during domestic, industrial, construction and commercial processes. Depending on the industrial base, litter is likely to vary from country to country. Municipal refuse is the litter that originate from urban areas and houses. In Nigeria, Land Use problems that result into land pollution and are accorded highest priority range from the many causes of deforestation, soil erosion and dumping or disposal of both industrial and domestic wastes that are hazardous or harmful and consequently render land unproductive or degrading and unsustainable (United Nations Development Programme, 2004).

The Deposit of silt in an area can severely diminish the ecological value of the area. Silt can change landscapes when it settles in still water. The deposits of silt can gradually fill wetlands, lakes and harbours. When trees, rocks or other materials that prevent erosion are removed in a habitat, it can lead to increase in silt accumulation. Too much silt accumulation can upset some ecosystems (Moss and Green, 1975). The generation of municipal solid waste which are indiscriminately dumped at the shoulders of major roads, available open spaces and even in open water bodies can be a threat to plants and fauna species. Furthermore, it is very common to find the areas being filled up with refuse after rainfall. These refuse are potential contaminants of streams, ground water especially shallow wells and the entire environment. Solid waste effluents on land can disturb the environment, destroy fauna and flora, poison food supplies and jeopardize human health (Ekanem, 2001). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of siltation and solid waste effluents on soil macro fauna population and diversity along river Benue bank, Adamawa state.


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MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was carried out along Doubeli bypass road, Shinko Ward, Yola North Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria. It is located between latitudes 9o 7̍ 30 ̎ and 10o 50″ N and longitude 11o 40″ and 13o 20″ E (Figure 1, 2 & 3). This area is comprised of both indigenous and exotic flora and fauna species (Adefioye, 2013).

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing the location of Adamawa State (http://nigeriantimes.ng /news/explosion-kills-2-in-adamawa/).

Figure 2: Jimeta Map showing River Benue


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Figure 3: Map of the Study Area

Data Collection and Analysis: Plots of 20m x 20m were randomly selected in each of the four established (SWA, SSW, SA and NSW) sites using Clegg et al. (1996) and Barbour et al. (1987) methods. A quadrat size of 1m x 1m was laid at random in each of the plots. Top soil 0 – 20cm depth was dug to search and determine the population of macro fauna within each of the laid quadrat. The soil macro fauna species encountered in each of the sites were collected, counted and recorded. Identification was done using literatures. The picture of the soil macro fauna were also taken to aid in the identification process The computation of species diversity per site was carried out using the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) from which each macro fauna species was determined according to equation (1), the values of Pi was multiplied by 100%. Shannon-Wiener Index ( ) ( )∑ −−=′ ii PPH ln ……………………………… (1)

Where H’ = Diversity Index Pi = Proportion of a species in the whole sample population In = Natural Logarithm of the species ∑ = Summation.

Evenness index (E) = max/ HH ′′ ………………………………………... (2) Where: H’max = InS (S = total number of species)

The species richness was calculated by using the method ‘Margalef’s index of richness’ (Dmg) (Magurran, 1988).

Cultivated area

River Benue

Cultivated area


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Dmg = ( ) NInS /1− ……………………………………………………….. (3) Where S = Total number of species, N = Total number of individuals.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Soil Macro fauna in the Various Sampling Locations

The result showed a total population of 38 macro fauna in the solid waste area with 5 species recorded. Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) Fig. 1, Formicidae sp, Gryllus assimilis, Lepisma saccharina and Aname atra. They belong to the family, Formicidae. Gryllidae, Lepismatidae, Mygalomorphae and Nemesiidae. This area had individual macro fauna species which belong to insecta, annelids, arachnida and reptile with a population of 24, 1, 12 and 1.

Figure 1: Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) Silt + solid waste area had a total population of 5 macro fauna belonging to 2 species under the families; Lumbricidae and Haliplidae. Lumbricus terrestris and Brychius hungerfordi were found in this area. The reason for the low population of macro fauna in the area could be due to the present of silt or toxic chemicals from the solid waste area, therefore rendering the area unproductive for macro fauna habitation. The silted area had the lowest macro fauna population. The macro fauna belongs to the Genus orthoptera and the family Acrididae. This could be due to the timing of this research, as it was conducted during rainy season. The nature of the area which had means of breeding macro fauna. Furthermore, the low occurrence of macro fauna in the region could be due to the deposition of silt as a result of flooding. The result obtained from no-silt; no-solid waste area (NSW) showed 4 macrofauna species Spodoptera ornithogalli, Bisnius blandus, Acrosternum hilare, and Syntomeida epilais. There was one unidentified larvae (Fig. 3). The macrofauna found were from four families: Noctuidae, Staphylinidae, pentatomidae and Erebidae. A total population of 42 macro fauna were found at the NSW area, belonging to the classes insecta, arachnida, and myriapoda. Fig. 4 shows the abundance profile graph of the macrofauna in the studied area and Table 1 is the checklist of Macrofauna at Various Sampling Locations.


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Figure 3: Unidentified larvae

Figure 4: Abundance of Macro fauna Species at Various Sampling Locations Table 1: Checklist of Macro fauna at Various Sampling Locations

1 2 3 4 5

Solid waste area 1 21 8 5 3

Silt + solid waste area 1 4 0 0 0

Silted area 1 0 0 0 0

No-silt; no-waste area 5 9 6 22 0

0

5

10

15

20

25

popu

latio

n M

acro

faun

a

Macrofauna species Family Common names Frequency Percentage (%)

Solid waste area

Thamnophis sirtalis Garter snake 1 2.6 Formicidae sp Formicidae Ant 21 55.2

Gryllus assimilis Gryllidae Black Cricket 8 21.1

Lepisma saccharina Lepismatidae silverfish 5 13.1

Aname atra Mygalomorphae: Nemesiidae

Black wishbone spider 3 7.8

Total 38 100


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Macro fauna Diversity Indices Macro fauna at the studied area: Shannon-Wiener diversity index result showed that H’ value were 0.899, 0.194, 1 and 0.936 at SWA, SSW, SA and NSW areas respectively. The H’ values obtained do not lie within the accepted H’ value ranges of 1.5 to 3.5. This signifies indicated that there was high uncertainty as species were relatively evenly distributed. The evenness (S) value of macro fauna found within the sites were 0.232, 0.311, 1 and (0.255) at the SWA, SSW, SA and NSW. The result obtained indicated that most macro fauna species were rare. The species richness was 38, 5, 1, and 42 at SWA, SSA, SA and NSW. Table 6 shows the checklist of macro fauna at various sampling locations and Table 2 shows the macro fauna Species Diversity and Evenness at the Studied Area Table 2: Macro fauna Species Diversity and Evenness at the Studied Area

Sampling locations

Macro fauna species Freq. pi Inpi pi(Inpi) Evenness Richness (S)

SWA Thamnophis sirtalis 1

0.01 -4.45 0.051795 38 Formicidae sp 21 0.24 -1.41 0.34426 Gryllus assimilis 8 0.09 -2.37 0.220921 Lepisma saccharina 5

0.06 -2.84 0.165402 Aname atra 3

0.03 -3.36 0.117061 Total 38 0.899438 42.248 SSW Lumbricus terrestris 1 0.01 -4.45 0.051795 5 Brychius hungerfordi 4 0.05 -3.07 0.1427 Total 5 0.194495 25.707

Silt + solid waste area

Lumbricus terrestris Lumbricidae Earthworm 1 20

Brychius hungerfordi Haliplidae Hungerford's crawling water beetle

4 80

Total 5 100

Silted area

Genus orthoptera Acrididae Hopper 1

No-silt; no-waste area

Spodoptera ornithogalli

Noctuidae Yellow-striped Armyworm

5 11.9

Bisnius blandus Staphylinidae Rove beetle 9 21.4

Acrosternum hilare pentatomidae Tree Stink Bug 6 14.2

Syntomeida epilais Erebidae 22 52.3

Total 42 100


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SA Genus orthoptera 1 1.00 1.00 1 1 NSW

Spodoptera ornithogalli

5 0.06 -2.84 0.165402 42

Bisnius blandus 9 0.10 -2.26 0.236211 Acrosternum hilare 6 0.07 -2.66 0.185762 Syntomeida epilais 22 0.26 -1.36 0.348752 Total 42 0.936127 0.022

Abundance and diversity of soil macro fauna Soil fauna obtained in the study area had a total of 44 (SWA, SSW and SA) compared to the control (NSW) with 42. As indicated by Shannon-Wiener diversity index the dumpsite showed higher diversity (Tables 1 & 2) above. Similar results were obtained by Chan et al., (1997) in their study on the influence of landfill factors on plants and soil fauna. They reported that soil animal density was higher on the landfill sites than the reference sites, indicating that landfill soil can support a diverse fauna which can play an active role in the food web, compared to the no-silt; no-waste area serving as the reference point. The macro-fauna obtained from the SWA in this study had individual macro fauna species belonging to insecta, annelids, arachnida and reptile with a population of 24, 1, 12 and 1. Insects had the highest abundance at SWA. This results agrees with the findings of Oni et al., (2011) in their study on macro-faunal diversity of a contaminated dumpsite. They reported that, the macro-fauna obtained from the dumpsite belong to the phyla: annelida, arthropoda, and mollusca; with the phylum mollusca having the highest abundance at 51.7%. The reduced abundance of annelids (earthworms) on the SWA compared to the control (NSW) may be due to the pH range obtained, which makes it conducive for the presence of earthworms. According to Yusnaini et al. (2004) earthwarms are known to thrive well at optimum pH range of 6-7. pH affects the optimum development of earthworm (Labrador, 1996). More so, the absence or scarcity of earthworms in the study sites may perhaps be due to pollution by heavy metals. Solid wastes deposition in the area can as well contribute to lack of earthworm. This result is in line with the report by Lukkari et al. (2005) in their separate study. At the control (NSW) site, the abundance of Spodoptera ornithogalli, Bisnius blandus, Acrosternum hilare and Syntomeida epilais obtained at their larva stage may be as a result of the vegetative cover. This is in agreement with Ewuim (2004), he reported that the control soil in his study was enriched with coleopterans known for their herbivorous feeding. Recent studies indicated that Coleopterans were abundant in areas where there were grasses such as Tridax procumbens and Panicum maximum in abundance (Ewuim, 2004). This may be the reason for the present of Spodoptera ornithogalli, Bisnius blandus, Acrosternum hilare, and Syntomeida epilais in abundance at the NSW area, as a result of the abundant vegetative cover in the area compared to SWA, SSW and SA areas with scattered vegetation. The most abundant species was Corchorus tridens (13.55%) followed by Corchorus olitorius (10.16%) at the NSW.

CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATIONS This study showed that silt deposited in the silted and silt + solid waste areas affected the soil macro fauna distribution in the two sites compared to the solid waste and no-silt; no-solid waste areas. The level of refuse dumped at the solid waste site impacted the diversities


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of soil macro faunas at the solid waste site. The diversity of fauna at no-silt; no-solid waste areas was as a result of its distance from the solid waste effluents and silt deposit unlike the silt + solid waste and silted areas which had low fauna species. The result obtained provided information on the nature and condition of the area. It showed the hazards caused by the deterioration of the ecosystem as a result of the deposition of silt and solid waste pollution in the area. It is recommended that government should support industrial recycling activities such as those for used batteries, paint, pesticides, oil and electronic wastes such as used computers and cell phones. Environmentally friendly products should be purchased whenever possible. Artificial regeneration should be encouraged in areas with severe traits of flood and tree planting should be considered as part of developmental projects.

REFERENCES

Adefioye, S. A. (2013). Analysis of Land Use/Land Cover Pattern along the River Benue Channel in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Vol. 2 No. pp128-138.

Aminu-Kano, M. (2001). The State of Nigeria’s Forests and Biodiversity.” Paper delivered at the National Summit of the Nigerian Environment, Abuja, Nigeria. Sept. 18-20. Pp. 1-20

Anderson, J. M. & Ingram, J.S.I. (1993). Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility: a Handbook of Methods. 2nd edition. CAB International, Wallingford. pp. 221

Barbour, M. G., J. H. & Pitt, W. D. (1987). Terrestrial Plant Ecology 2nd Edition, Benjamin Cummings Publishers, New York, pp. 37.

Chan, Y. S. G.; Chu, L. M.; & Wong H. M. (1997). Influence of landfill factors on plants and soil fauna – an ecological perspective. Environmental Pollution 97(1-2): 39-44.

Clegg, C. J., Mackean, D. G., Openshow, P.H and Reynoids, R.C. (1996). Advanced Biology Study Guide, principles and applications, John Marray (publishers) Limited 50 Alhemarle Street London WIXBD, PP.21-29.

Ekanem, E. J. (2001), “Effluent treatment in industry, a case study of textile industries,” Nigerian Journal of Industrial pollution. www.academicpub.org/DownLoadPaper.aspx?PaperID=14943 pp. 1-7.

Emma, O., Lilian, C., Ibeawuchi, Izuchukwu, I., Obiefuna, J.C. (2010). Biodiversity Conservation for Sustainable Agriculture. Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. New York Science Journal 2010; 3(1),

Ewuim S. C. (2004). A study of insect fauna of the permanent site of Nnamdi Azikwe University, Akwa. Faculty of Natural Sciences. Nnamdi Azikwe University, Akwa, Nigeria.

Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA, 1992). “Biological Diversity in Nigeria, A Country Study 1991-92.” pp.104

Field, R., Hawkins, Bradford, A., Cornell, H. V., Currie, D. J., Diniz-Filho, J. A. F., Guégan, J. F., Kaufman, D. M., Kerr, J. T., Mittelbach, G. G., Oberdorff, T., O’Brien, E. M. & Turner, J. R. G. (January 1, 2009). "Spatial species-richness gradients across scales: a meta-analysis". Journal of Biogeography 36 (1): 132–147.

Gaston, K. J. (2000). "Global patterns in biodiversity". 11th May; Nature 405 (6783): 220–227.

Labrador, M. J. (1996). The organic matter in the agroecosystems, Madrid: Espaa. 1996; 293

Lavelle, P. (1988). Earthworm activities in the soil system. Biology and Fertility of Soils 3: 237-251.


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Lavelle, P., Blanchard, E., Martin, A., Spain, A.V. & Martin, S. (1992). Impact of soil fauna on the properties of soils in the humid tropics. In Lal, R & Sanchez, P.A. (Eds.) Myths and Science of Soil of the Tropics. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication 29, Madison, USA. pp. 157-185.

Magurran, A. E. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691084916. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-7358-0. 192 pp.

Moss, A. J. & Green, P. (1975). "Sand and silt grains: Predetermination of their formation and properties by microfractures in quartz". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 22 (4): 485–495.

Oni, A. A. (2010). Physico-chemical parameters and toxicity of solid waste and leachates on selected animals at Aba-Eku landfill site, Ibadan, Nigeria. Faculty of Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Oni, A. A., Adeola, A., Ossai, Adaobi, W., Lawal & Tolulope, K. (2011). Macro-faunal diversity of a contaminated dumpsite in Ibadan, Nigeria Department of Zoology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2004). Municipal Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: A policy Framework. Geneva. Technical paper, 12, Geneva.

Yusnaini, S., Utomo, M. & Arif, M. A. S. (2004). Effect of long term conservation tillage and nitrogen fertilization on soil mesofauna and earthworms. In: Susilo, F., Gafur, X., Utomo, A., Evizal, M., Murwani, R. & Swibawa, I. G. editors. Conservation and sustainable management of below ground biodiversity in Indonesia. Indonesia: University of Lampung. pp. 19-25.


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FUELWOOD UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN KHANA AND TAI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS, RIVERS STATE

1Nke-ee, L. J., 1David-Sarogoro, N.* and 2Udofia, S. I. 1Department of Forestry and Environment, Rivers State University of Science and Technology,

Nkpolu, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria 2Department of Forestry and Natural Environmental Management, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom

State, Nigeria *Corresponding author: [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study assessed fuel wood species commonly used in Khana and Tai Local Government Areas. Multiple staged and systematic sampling techniques were used, two political zones of Tua-Tua and Nonwa areas in Tai and three political zones-Nyo-Khana, Ke-Khana and Babba districts in Khana were selected and six villages (3 each in Tai areas and 2 each in each district in Khana) were systematically selected out of each districts in the political zones, of which ten households were randomly selected. Thus a total of sixty questionnaires (10 per village) were used for the study in each of the Local Government Areas to give a sample size of one hundred and twenty (120) respondents. Retrieved questionnaires were scored on a 4-point Likert scale and descriptive statistics. The results showed that male was 56% and 57% Tai and Khana respectively while the female respondents were 44% and 43% Tai and Khana respectively in Local Government Areas. The dominant occupation was farming in Tai and Khana with 42% and 60% respectively followed by self-employed with 34% and lowest (6%) being civil servant in Khana while in Tai civil servant followed farming with 29% , self-employed-21% and lowest was housewives with 8%. The age bracket of 21-40 years was the highest followed by 31-40 and 41-50 in Tai but in Khana the 31-40 age bracket was the highest followed by 41-50 and 11-20. The oldest group of 61-70 had the lowest with 9% and 0% in Tai and Khana. The marks (m) of Tai and Khana in bracket for each source of energy; fuel wood (m=3.05, 4.21) was highly preferred and accepted than other energy sources that were marginally used by respondents which included kerosene (m=2.49, 0.51) electricity (m=1.16, 0.09), gas (m=1.37, 0.21), solar (m=1.03, 0.05), wood shaving and saw dust (1.79, 0.05), off cuts (1.71, 0.05), planks (0.27) and other wood products (0.78, 0.05). Reason for preferring fuel wood energy type in Tai and Khana respectively in parenthesis was that it was readily available (m=4.34, 2.86), relatively cheap (2.92, 1.45),ease of use was rejected and was not relevant (m=2.38, 0.07), fast in cooking (m=2.32, 0.77). Food cooked with fuel wood tasted better (m=2.51, 0.13), easy to handle (m=1.97, 0.05) and less costly (m=2.23, 0.05). The rural dwellers-users of fuel wood of Tai and Khana LGAs should be enlightened on sustainable utilization of woody fuel wood species by conservation of some the species especially those on danger list of extinction.

Keywords: Fuelwood, utilization, rural dwellers, Rivers State, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION Forest products (timber and non-timber) are hubs of local economy enabling rural dwellers to participate and protect forest for human livelihood sustenance. Wildlife and fire wood are representatives of non-timber and timber products (NTFP). The majority of rural people dependence and livelihood are linked to the forest socially, economically and spiritually (Food and Agriculture Organization, 1990). The fuel wood is a calorific and economic

Nke-ee, L. J., et al. (2018). Fuelwood Utilization by Rural Dwellers in Khana and Tai Local Government Areas, Rivers State. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 11-19.


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resource in high demand in both urban and rural areas (David, 2013). But this unique and dependable resource is depleted and decimated because of deforestation, by humans.

Adegbulugbe (1991) observed that losses in sustainable production of timber and fuel wood and other forest resources in Nigeria was valued at about $700 million and of the fifteen million hectares of forest and wood land reserves in Nigeria, four hundred thousand hectares are deforested annually. He warned that the increasing rate of depletion of Nigeria’s forest resources through fuel wood gathering could make Nigeria treeless in the next fifty years. In Ogoni land certain species such as Acio barterii, Heinsia crinata, Microdesmis puberula, Baphia nitida, Spondias mombi, Harungana madagascariensis, Alchornea cordifolia, Pentaclethra macrophylla are known for their multipurpose uses particularly nutrient fixing and fuel wood functions (Nke-ee, 2016). This study therefore assessed fuel wood species commonly used in Khana and Tai Local Government Areas.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This research was carried out in Khana and Tai Local Government Areas of Rivers State. The two LGAs are parts of Ogoni Land located in the South east of Port Harcourt on latitude 4°55' North and longitude 7°15' East (Plate 1) with average annual rainfall of about 2000mm and covering around 1,000km2 in Rivers State, Southern Nigeria (UNEP Report, 2011). The population of Tai and Khana LGASs is 110,000 and 270,000 respectively (NPC, 2006). The major occupations of the inhabitants of the two LGAs are fishing, farming and petty trading.

Plate 1: Map of Rivers State indicating the study areas Source: Rivers State Ministry of Environment


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Population of the respondents The target population for the study was one hundred and twenty (120) respondents comprising male and female respondents in the selected households in each of the two Local Government Areas (Tai and Khana) of Rivers State.

Sampling procedure and sampling size Multiple staged and systematic sampling techniques was used to sample two political zones-Tua-Tua and Nonwa areas in Tai (Table 1) and three political zones-Nyo-Khana, Ke-Khana and Babba districts in Khana (Table 2) and six villages (3 each in Tai areas and 2 each in each district in Khana) were systematically selected out of each districts in the political zones, of which ten households were randomly selected. Thus a total of sixty questionnaires (10 per village) were used for the study in each of the Local Government Areas to give a sample size of one hundred and twenty (120) respondents.

Table 1: Sampled communities in Tai LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria

Tua-Tua Area Nonwa Area

Botem Ban Ogoi Koroma Gbam

Kpite Sime

Table 2: Sampled communities in Khana LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria

Nyo-Khana District District Ke-Khana District Babbe District

Taabaa Baen Gwara

Sogho Dubulo Zaakpo Field Survey, 2016

Method of data collection Structured questionnaire and oral interview schedule were employed in the collection of data.

Method of data analysis Data obtained from field were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive statistics tools included graphs, tables; frequency counts, percentage and mean scores. A 4-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Agree = 4, Agree = 3, Disagree = 2, to Strongly Disagree = 1 was also used.

RESULTS

Socio-economic characteristics of respondents in Tai and Khana, Rivers State, Nigeria The socio-economic characteristics of the respondents showed that male were 56% and 57% Tai and Khana respectively while the female respondents were 44% and 43% Tai and Khana LGAs respectively (Table 1). The married respondents were highest in Tai (71%) and Khana (63%) LGAs, singles with 28% in Tai and 37% in Khana, while separated and divorced were least with 0% respectively in both LGAs. The family size with 4-6 members was highest with 43% and 54% Tai and Khana LGAs respectively followed by 1-3 members with 27% and 46% and 21% and 0% of 7-9 members in Tai and Khana respectively. The


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dominant occupation was farming in Tai and Khana with 42% and 60% respectively followed by self employed with 34% and lowest (6%) being civil servant in Khana while in Tai LGA, civil servant and self employed followed farming with 29% and 21% respectively while the lowest was housewives with 8% (Table 1).

The age bracket of 21-40 years was the highest followed by 31-40 and 41-50 in Tai but in Khana the 31-40 age bracket was the highest followed by 41-50 and 11-20. The eldest group of 61-70 had the lowest with 9% and 0% in Tai and Khana (Table 1). In Tai, the male (31-40) years had the highest with 31% followed by 41-50 with 27% and 21-30 group with 24% while in 31-40 was the highest with 50% followed by 11-20 and 41-50 groups were the same with 21% and within the female respondents, 31-40 age had highest (29%) followed by 21-30 and 41-50 with 25% and 22% respectively. The oldest age bracket of 61-70 had the lowest amongst female respondents-0% (Table 1).

Table 1: Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents in Tai and Khana LGAs, Rivers State.

Socio-economic Characteristics Tai % Khana % Sex Male 56 57

Female 44 43

Age

011-20 12 20

21-30 25 16

31-40 23 40

41-50 21 21

51-60 10 3

61-70 9 0

Education

Informal Education 16 19

Primary 34 40

Secondary 25 22

Tertiary 25 22

Marital Status

Single 28 37

Married 71 63

Seperated/Divorced 0 0

Divorced 1

Family Size

1-3 27 46

4-6 43 54

7-9 21 0

10-12 9 0

Occupation

Civil Servant 29 6

Farmer 42 60

Self Employed 21 34

Housewife 8 0


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Cooking energy sources of respondents in Tai LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria In Tai, the Likert Scale of sources of cooking energy showed fuel wood (m=3.05) was highly preferred and accepted other energy sources that were marginally used by respondents included kerosene (m=2.49) electricity (m=1.16), gas (m=1.37), solar (m=1.03), wood shaving and saw dust (1.79), off cuts (1.71), planks (2.07) and other wood products (0.76) (Table 2).

Table 2: Cooking Energy Sources of Respondents in Tai LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria

Sources strongly

agree Agree Disagree Strongly Mean of Means Remarks

Fuelwood 39 33 5 6 3.05 Accept Kerosene 32 26 6 1 2.49 Reject Electricity 0 9 31 14 1.16 Reject Gas 6 7 25 27 1.37 Reject Solar 2 7 21 21 1.03 Reject Wood Shaving/Dust 13 27 11 5 1.79 Reject Off-cuts 12 28 8 5 1.71 Reject Planks 28 14 13 5 2.07 Reject Other wood Products 14 1 4 1 0.76 Reject

Cut off Mark=2.50:M≤2.50-Reject, M≥2.50-Accept

Cooking energy sources for respondents in Khana LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria In Khana LGA, the Likert Scale of sources of cooking energy showed fuel wood was highly used (m=4.21). Others were kerosene (m=0.51) electricity (m=0.09), gas (m=0.21), solar (m=0.05), wood shaving and sawdust (0.05), off cuts (0.05), planks (0.27) and other wood products (0.05) (Table 3).

Table 3: Cooking energy sources for respondents in Khana LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria

Sources strongly


Fuel wood used 41 2 0 0 4.21 Accept Kerosene 3 6 0 0 0.51 Reject Electricity 0 0 0 1 0.09 Reject Gas 2 0 0 1 0.21 Reject Solar 0 0 1 0 0.05 Reject Wood Shaving/Dust 1 0 0 0 0.05 Reject Off-cuts 1 0 0 0 0.05 Reject Planks 1 2 0 0 0.27 Reject Other wood Products 1 0 0 0 0.05 Reject


Reasons for preference energy type used in Tai LGA Table 3 shows the various reasons by the respondents who preferred users of fuel wood; readily available (m=4.34) relatively cheap (2.92) ease of use was rejected (m=2.38), fast in cooking (m=2.32). Food cooked with fuel wood tasted better (m=2.51), easy to handle (m=1.97) and less costly (m=2.23) other reasons (m=0.18) in Tai L.G.A. (Table 4).


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Table 4: Reasons for preferred energy type used in Tai LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria

Reasons Strongly


Readily Available 59 39 1 1 4.34 Accept relatively Cheaper 33 33 3 3 2.92 Accept Ease of Use 15 37 11 2 2.38 Reject It is Fast 20 35 2 2 2.32 Reject Food Tastes Better 31 21 6 4 2.51 Reject Easy to Handle 9 29 17 5 1.97 Reject Less Costlier 21 26 8 5 2.23 Reject Other Reasons 0 3 2 2 0.18 Reject


Reasons for preferred energy type used in Khana L.G.A. Table 4 shows respondents reasons for using fuel wood in Khana readily available (m=2.86) was accepted, relatively cheap (m=1.45), ease of use was rejected (m=0.07), fast in cooking (m=0.77). Food tasted better (m=0.13), easy to handle (m=0.05), and less costly (m=0.05) other reasons (m=0.15) in Khana L.G.A. (Table 5).

Table 5: Reasons for energy usage in Khana L.G.A., Rivers State, Nigeria

Reasons Strongly


Readily Available 21 1 0 0 2.86 Accept

relatively Cheaper 20 0 0 0 1.45 Reject

Ease of Use 0 2 0 0 0.07 Reject

It is Fast 14 0 0 0 0.77 Reject

Food Tastes Better 2 1 0 0 0.13 Reject

Easy to Handle 1 0 0 0 0.05 Reject

Less Costlier 1 0 0 0 0.05 Reject

Other Reasons 0 0 0 0 0.15 Reject Cut off Mark=2.50:M≤2.50-Reject, M≥2.50-Accept

Figure 1: Woody species commonly used by respondents

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

% U

tili

zati

on

Fuel Wood Commonly Used

Tai Khana


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Plate 1: Different species of harvested firewood in Tai and Khana LGAs, Rivers State, Nigeria

DISCUSSION

Socio-economic characteristics of respondents in Tai and Khana L.G.As, Rivers State, Nigeria

The age distribution of male showed that majority in Tai and Khana (23%) and 40% is within 31-40 age bracket, followed by age bracket of 21-30 with 25% in Tai and 16%, the age of 41-50 was the same-21%. This finding indicates majority of the household heads were in their youthful age hence they possess the ability to exploit the forest and nearby bushes to obtain fuel wood which agrees with Nair (1995) who stated that age is dependent on their marginal efficiency and productivity, physical energy to work, managerial ability and interest which increase with age.

The gender of respondents, 56% were male, 44% female in Tai, while in Khana, males were 57% and 43%; their percentages were almost the same. This shows that the male engage in fuel wood collection more than the female gender which agrees with Falconer and Arnold (1991) that generally men have greater access to the cash economy from forest product activities. In education, primary school leavers were the highest (34%) and 40% followed by secondary and tertiary with same percentage-25% and 22% in Tai and Khana respectively while informal education at all was 16% in Tai and 19% in Khana. This shows that informal education were involved in fuel wood collection and use as well as educated ones in the LGAs. Marital status indicated that married respondents were highest in both LGAs; 71% and 63% in Tai and Khana respectively while the singles were 28% and 37% in Tai and Khana respectively. This agrees with Afolayan (1998) who reported that majority of married people were engaged in processing and marketing of NTFPs in rural areas.The family sizes of


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respondents were highest within 4-6 members (43%) and (54%), followed by 1-3 members (27%) and (46%) in Tai and Khana. The 7-9 member families had 21% followed by 9% in Tai and not in Khana. This seems that the size of families influenced their participation in fuel wood collection in rural areas. The occupational status shows that majority of respondents were farmers (42%) and (60%) followed by self-employed (21%) and (34%) in Tai and Khana respectively while civil servants recorded 29% and 6% in Tai and Khana respectively. This reveals that non civil servants were more involved in fuel wood collection possibly as source of livelihood. Roper and Roberts (1999) reported about 500million people depend on forests for their sustenance and livelihood-food, medicine, raw materials and shelter.

Sources of energy The results indicated that majority of dwellers in both Khana and Tai LGAs preferred fuel wood but more use of firewood predominantly (m=4.21) in Tai, in Khana lower m=3.05. This shows that preference for a fuel wood in influenced by availability of the woody materials within their environment as because availability and cheapness of woody materials utilization. Reason stated by respondents in Tai to have chosen fuel wood was the better taste foods cook with them as compared with other energy sources.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study has established that woody species of different sizes are scavenged and extracted by respondents particularly in rural areas of Tai and Khana LGAs. The fuel woods are used for cooking it is because readily available and relatively cheaper as compared to other energy sources. The rural dwellers of Tai and Khana LGAs should be enlightened on possible ways to maintain a balance between woody fuel wood utilization and conservation of some the species especially those on danger list of extinction.

REFERENCES

Adegbulugbe, A. O. (1991). A New Environmentally-Sound Energy Strategy for the Development of Sub-Saharan Africa. World Energy Assessment-Energy and the challenges. Retrieved from www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod on 06/12/2016.

Afolayan, T. A. (1998): Impact of Rural Women in the Processing and Marketing of some Selected Non-timber Forest Products. A case study of Irepolodun and Oke-Ero Local Government of Kwara State. 20p.

David, N. (2013). Physico-chemical Properties as Indices to Enhance Utilization of two Lesser-Used-Species in Rivers State, Nigeria (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Rivers State University of Science & Technology, Port Harcourt, Rivers State. 154pp.

Falconer, J. and Arnold, J. E. M. (1991). Household Food Security and Forestry: An Analysis of Socio-economic Issues. FAO, Italy. 12-79pp.

Food and Agriculture Organization, (1990). Forestry and food security. FAO Forestry Paper 90. FAO, Rome: 128p.

Nair, C.T.S. (1995): Income and Employment from Non-wood Forest Products: what do we know? In FAO (1995), beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of Non-wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific, FAO/RAP, Bangkok. 15pp.


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Nke-ee, J. L. (2016). Assessment of Fire wood Species Commonly Browsed by Wild Animal in Tai and Khana Local Government Areas, Rivers State. (Unpublished B.Sc. Project). Rivers State University of Science & Technology, Port Harcourt, Rivers State. 76pp.

National Population Commission, NPC (2006). General Census of Nigerians Roper J. and Roberts, R.W. (1999): Deforestation: Tropical Forest in Decline. Forestry

Issues. No. 1999-2001, CIDA Forestry Advisers Networks (CFAN). Canadian International Development Agency, Canada. 22pp.

United Nations Environmental Programme (2011). Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland.


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TOURISM OPTION FOR CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED SPECI ES IN NIGER DELTA, NIGERIA: MANATEE OF ITU WETLAND IN PER SPECTIVE

1Ijeomah, H. M., 2Eniang, E. A., and 3Abere, S. A. 4Egwali, E. C. 1Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port Ha10rcourt,

P.M.B. 5323 Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Corresponding author: [email protected]; henry,[email protected]

2Department of Forestry and Natural Environmental Management, University of Uyo, P. M. B 1017, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

3Department of Forestry and Environment, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

4Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Uyo, P. M. B 1017, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT Consistent increase in the failure of age-old cultural conservation practices in rural communities has enormous deleterious implications on ecological status of endangered and endemic species, and therefore worrisome. For conservation to be sustained, a concept that can provide the much desired economic benefit to host communities is urgently needed. Introduction of ecotourism in Itu wetland could bring about effective conservation of Manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) and Crocodiles, and the fragile ecosystem where the species thrive. Creation of fascinating recreational activities such as swimming, boating, game viewing and sport fishing together with integrated cultural packages from destination host communities will attract tourists to the site and values to the local resources in the area. Visitation of tourists will bring about many benefits. These arrays of benefits derivable from the project by host communities will stimulate host communities to support effective protection of the resources and environment that attract tourists. This brings about effective conservation of Manatee and Itu wetland ecosystem while empowering the host communities.

Keywords: Itu wetland, Biodiversity conservation, Ecotourism, Manatee

INTRODUCTION Right from creation in the Garden of Eden man has been in constant interaction with the environment. This is evidenced in the fact that the environment and its components determine or regulate the operations of man (in all regions of the earth). These include the food, sports, cloth, mode of worship, materials used for worship, means of transportation, culture of communities; type of house built, occupation and sometimes the name persons and communities are eventually called. The environment has also influenced man’s activities and operational mode of recreation in many ways: those living in desert and savanna areas are always familiar with sports that involve the use of horses (Ijeomah and Aiyeloja, 2012). Those living in uplands are used to mountaineering as practiced in Shere hill of Plateau state while those living in riverine environment are familiar with boating, sport fishing, swimming and boat regatta as practiced in Nembe, Bonny and Opobo areas of Rivers and Bayelsa states. Fishing festivals can be practiced only where water bodies exist. Man has also affected the environment, especially in utilizing the resources therein. The level of use a particular resource is put to depends on the awareness level of the inhabitants concerning the values of the resources. Man has therefore made several efforts towards increasing the existing knowledge of environmental resources in order to use the resources

Ijeomah, H. M. et al. (2018). Tourism Option for Conservation of Endangered Species in Niger Delta, Nigeria: Manatee of Itu Wetland in Perspective. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 20-27.


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more. However, man has been over exploiting these environmental resources for selfish reasons. These high levels of exploitation have threatened many environmental resources and several conservation strategies have also been adopted by man to check excessive exploitation but successes achieved have been unsustainable even in the Niger Delta region.

It is a truism that the Niger Delta region is endowed with diverse kinds of ecosystem and species including endangered, rare, abundant and endemic and that aquatic wildlife species has been the major source of animal protein in the environment (Ijeomah et al., 2015). Some of these species include fish of different species, various species of crocodile, crabs, turtle, hippopotamus, periwinkle and oysters. Other sources of animal protein therein includes; antelopes, rodents, leopards, elephant. Due to the high pollution level of Niger Delta that is world acclaimed, the livelihoods of the inhabitants are seriously affected and households therefore tend to rely on few species that survived the inherent castration caused by pollutants. Competition for sources of non-timber forest products, especially means of accessing animal protein has led to severe competition, over exploitation of biodiversity and migration of people along water ways for survival. These acts have endangered many habitats and species including some that are yet to be known by man.

Pigmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis heslopi) which has been reported to be critically endangered can hardly be found in its home range by both hunters and researchers. Even Hippopotamus amphibious is seriously threatened in Niger Delta environment. Many individuals of elephant (Loxodonta africana) inhabit the Famous wildlife sanctuary in Ikuru, Rivers State. The killing of one of the elephants by an individual from one of the nearby communities was celebrated in the environment irrespective of the fact that the species is globally endangered (Ijeomah and Esaen, 2011). Crocodiles are commonly killed in the Niger Delta region especially the juveniles. Notwithstanding that the species is endangered in its ecosystem, no serious attempts have been locally made in any way to give the species adequate protection (Ijeomah and Efenakpo, 2011a). The fact that the juveniles easily get entangled in fishing nets and are killed shows that many hatched eggs of crocodiles in Niger Delta region hardly survives to adulthood. A hunting group of about three persons that consistently supplies crocodile to sellers in Ogbe Ijaw market of Warri (on weekly basis) killed ten individuals of crocodile in one hunting expedition (Ijeomah and Oruh, 2012). If one local hunter could catch ten individuals in an environment where most inhabitants are hunters and fishermen (who go fishing and hunting on daily basis) it means that crocodile will soon face extinction if effective conservation measures are not embarked upon. More so, many families in riverine areas of Niger delta have been consumptively utilising crocodile at will. Study by Ijeomah and Efenakpo (2011b) revealed that about 1, 239 individuals of crocodile were consumed as at 2010 by households living around the fresh water/saltwater transitional river of Choba, Aluu, Abonema and Emohua communities in Rivers state. The long snouted crocodile (Crocodillus caractus) has become seriously threatened in Niger Delta environment and can hardly be found in its natural ecosystem. Most species of crocodile caught at the moment are mostly Osteolamis tetrapis and some Crocodillus niloticus.

The migratory turtles that breed in the beach of Akassa is being protected by the turtle club, a none governmental organization, through tourism (Ijeomah and Esaen, 2011). This study will therefore focus on the tourism option as a conservation strategy for a globally endangered species, manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) in Itu wetland of Akwa Ibom state.

Manatee: A signal species in Itu wetland of Ibom State Itu as a community, and the local government area got their name from the species, manatee. Right from ancient time history of Itu has it that manatee was usually found stranded in the area. The species travels from the Atlantic Ocean to Eniong Creek area of the River Cross


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during rainy season. The confluence of a tributary of Eniong Creek and River Cross was called Okopedi Itu (which in Ibibio means ever famous Itu). The destination was named so because the appearance and strandling of manatee made the community very popular to early travellers.

The aquatic vegetation of the area is particularly abundant in the rainy season following nutrients from soil erosion brought down from the hills of Itu (the highest elevation in Akwa Ibom State) and those from Eniong Creek axis. There was always bloom of aquatic weeds such as: Echinochla stagnina, Leersia hexandra , Echinochloa cruspavonis Nymphaea lotus, Ipomoea aquatica Acroceras ziganioides (Ogogo et al., 2013) Panicum subaldidum, Pistia stratiotes,Vossica cuspidate,,Colocacia antiquorum, Leptochloa cearulescens, Manihot Palmata, Schoenoplectus,enegalensis, Ficus spp, and Echinochloa piram which Manatee cherishes. The congregation of Manatee in this community coupled with their intermittent strandling when the water leaves made the environment famous and popular- When the water leaves, Manatees find it difficult to escape from upland and therefore become stranded. When the water overflows its bank and enters farms, Manatee follows the water and feed on vegetation in the farm including cassava leaves and other aquatic leaves and grasses. With these abundant feed the relatively increased weight of Manatees makes the species to become stranded when the water leaves them. When individuals of this species become stranded, they can easily be killed by poachers. It was because of this that early travellers called the community Itu, after the animal that was always found there. The popularity of Itu influenced the Federal Government of Nigeria to still name the local government ‘Itu’.

The natives of Itu did not have the skill of killing manatee, they taught of the species as a diety and sacred, a mamaid-like structure that can tickle a fisherman to laugh to death. The indigenes of Itu consider the forelimbs that the animal usually uses to paddle and barrel roll on water during play as its breast. This is an instinctive behaviour of the species apart from surfacing to take air or basking in the sun. Similarly, in some riverine communities of Delta state including Obiaruko, the species was described as a big breasted lady. The breast referred to in error is apparently the flipper. The real breast is under the flipper and is so tiny. It was also because of the flippers that Christopher Columbus who named sirenia described the group as structures that look like a Greek mythology

The species is well known in Akwa Ibom state by natives. Apart from Itu, the species is also visible in Ndiya River and at Oron (River Cross).The level of awareness of the species among natives reflects in various names the species is called. In some area it is called Ubom, meaning canoe because natives perceive that it resembles a canoe. Some communities call it Nyarenyin because it is as big as a cow (Plate 1).


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Plate 1: A manatee weighing about 700kg that was killed in 2013 in Itu wetland of Akwa Ibom state

Because it is perceived to be a deity or marmaid –like structure, natives of Itu consider the species to be very strong as it is difficult to handle or kill. Natives have at many occasions met the animal basking in the sun and perceived that it was a strong spirit that can appear and disappear inside water. On this basis the species was adopted as a symbol of a cult. Some of the superstitious belief of natives concerning the existence of Manatee as summarized by Ogogo et al (2013) are (1) People join manatee cult to either become rich or to cause misfortune to others especially through boat mishap, (2) only people who are members of the manatee cult are able to kill manatee and (3) those who hunt manatee without first joining the cult will become poor.

These beliefs must have helped to reduce the number of people who hunt the manatee thus helping to conserve it else the animal would have gone extinct in the area. These beliefs show that the appearance and thoughts of manatee have become part of the culture of Itu natives. They also show that some natives could view the species as an item of traditional worship. As a riverine environment the culture revolves around objects and species that are aquatic or water related. Extinction of the species will seriously affect the culture and history of Itu natives as the species should be conserved as a heritage- the environment where manatee is most visible in Akwa Ibom state.

The existing superstition that may have partly contributed towards the conservation of the species could be seriously affected by changes in religion. If it is not doing so at present, there are high chances that the superstition will fade away in near future as most sacred forests in eastern Nigeria, conserved on basis of traditional religious beliefs are continuously being cleared due to changes in religion. The absence of manatee in Itu wetland will create a pronounced social, cultural and ecological vacuum in the environment because it was the species that historically made the community famous.


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Killing of manatee in itu wetland Manatee in Itu was not hunted by natives until the arrival of migrant fishermen (including Fulanis, Ghanaians, Ijaws, Orhobos) that followed the River Cross to the spawning ground of Sylver cat fish Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus in the same environment (Itu wetland) where manatee was always stranded. The migrant fishermen follow the migratory fish through the Atlantic Ocean where they could hardly kill them to the spawning ground where this species is easily killed. These migrant fishermen consistently killed manatee with harpoons and other implements. The killing became very pronounced and common that the natives of Itu learnt the skill of killing the species and joined in decimating the animal. Natives even feel great when one kills the species. This was because of the relatively large size of the animal when compared with rodents and antelopes, coupled with the fact that it destroys cultivated crops. The killing became so rampant in the environment until the Forestry Division of Cross Rivers State (then) started issuing permit to hunters to hunt manatee (Owo, personal communication). The state considered it as a non timber forest resource which should be used to generate revenue. It is only the relic population that is left yet the fishermen continuously follow their traditional migratory route to kill them during rainy season when they come up land. The local fishermen are aware of the migratory route and season of the fish.

At Itu bridge, especially during the main fishing period, up to 100 canoes could be seen fishing in the dark, with light. Majority of them use garri and oil as bait. The ecological implication is that they catch the egg swollen females that have gone to spawn. They also harvest periwinkles and oysters. With these large number of canoes operating in the destination overexploitation of every edible species including manatee is common. The indigenes believe that the fish is inexhaustible, and unaware that of Sylver cat fish Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus accumulate there to spawn. The community is therefore not making any effort to conserve the species, Sylver cat fish and whoever kills manatee is taken as a hero.

Habitat destruction is one of the major threats to species. The natives of Itu have allowed nomadic cattle rearers to graze in the area during dry season. Grazing of these areas makes it difficult for the manatees to cope because the vegetation normally fed on by manatee are consumed by cattle. Manatee presently competes with cattle for survival. It is ‘ecologically sacrilegious’ for cattle to graze on a water course. As cattle trample on the soil the habitat is destroyed (plate 1). Hard pans are formed in the soil due to trampling. The fact that Fulanis go there with weapons and kill any animal seen therein makes conservation of the species difficult.

The West African Manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) is critically threatened with extinction (Reynolds and Odell, 1991). Hunting by the local people and habitat destruction have drastically reduced the manatee population. Trichechus senegalensis is found in coastal marine and estuarine habitats as well as fresh water rivers and creeks in the West Coast of Africa including areas in Gambia, Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of Congo (Powell, 1990). The ecology of manatee reveals that the species is solitary with low rate of reproduction. Females mature at about five years of age and males at about nine years of age (Marmontal and Reynolds, 1992), and an average of one calf is born every two to five years. Twins are rare. The gestation period is between 12 to 13 months (Reynold and Powell, 2002). Present threats to manatee in itu wetland Illegal hunting and habitat destruction continues to pose a serious threat to manatee survival in the West African sub-region. The case of Eniong creek is well pronounced because many hunters have known the environment as a habitat for Manatee. Eniong creek lies between


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latitudes 50 04’ and 50 13’ N, and between longitudes 7047’ and 7o58E (Ogogo et al, 2013). Among the villages close to the creek are Obio Usiere and Asang in the lower section; Obu, Obot-Apabio and Akani-Obio in the middle section; and Ikpanya, Opoto and Nkana in the upper section. Majority of households in these villages are farmers and fishermen.

The large number of plant species utilized by manatee shows that manatee requires areas with undisturbed vegetation and high biodiversity. Farming which is commonly practiced in the area with the grazing of cattle recently started is seriously threatening the habitat. This leads to the removal of vegetation that constitutes manatee food in addition to the reduction of the biodiversity of the plant species. The removal of vegetation through burning, grazing and deforestation causes siltation of the creek and makes the environment open (Ogogo et al, 2013). Creating of trails exposes manatee to poachers. This makes manatee highly susceptible to extinction as the species cannot withstand heavy poaching and habitat destruction.

About three week old manatee was caught on the 6th of October, 2015 (by two fishermen using a net), but rescued on the 9th (three days after) (plate 2), and by then it was already late for the rescuers to trace the cow (mother). Manatee is known to breast feed for two years. Thus the one caught was classified as a dependant calf and as such not qualified to be released into a habitat that is danger - prone with manatee traps, barrier farms, fishing nets and extensive husling and fishing activities. These decimating factors make the habitat very dangerous for the manatee calf to be released therein especially as fishermen in the environment knew that it was a male which is a source of the highly needed male organ of the species to prepare charms. The animal was caught by two fishermen. Alhough a lot of awareness has been created concerning conservation of manatee but no conservation ethic can be effectively observed by hungry and none empowered natives. The community rioted when the animal was confiscated (that the species should not be taken away), especially as there was high level of awareness that Yoruba medicine men normally buy the penis of a manatee for N50,000.

Plate 2: A manatee calf rescued from two fishermen in Itu wetland of Akwa Ibom State

Potential of Manatee for Tourism in Eniong Creek The West African manatee possess great potentials and attractions for eco-tourism due to their physical appearance, feeding and breeding habits and behavioural activities (which include somersaulting, barrel rolling, head and tail standing, body surfing and upside


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down gliding). Playful behaviour of manatee makes it an interesting animal that can promote ecotourism where it is found. Natives of Itu are very familiar with these behavioural activities having observed the species many times. As the acrobatic displays performed by chimpanzees and monkeys attract many tourists to Jos Wildlife Park and many conserved areas, the barrel rolling activities of this species will do same. The manatee’s playful behaviour makes it attractive for ecotourism. Tourists enjoy watching big games that engage in acrobatic displays more than animals that are docile in nature. The ecotourism package for Manatee protection Ecotourism in the habitat should not be built on viewing of Manatee alone. Viewing of Manatee from Eniong creek is difficult because it is black, but from the Cross River side, the water is transluscent and a careful observer may be able to observe manatee foraging group. Manatees are not resident in that habitat but they migrate from the Atlantic Ocean upward, crossing Nigeria into Cameroon at Ekok bridge (border of Nigeria and Cameroon at Ikom area).Manatee migrates towards Itu wetland strictly in the rainy season when the water level is very high. Using of speed boat in the habitat will be a disturbance to manatee and the ecosystem due to noise and potential collisions with manatee. However, speed boat is the only means of effective transportation in the habitat during rainy season, and can therefore be used with precision to avoid accidents.

In Florida, manatee survives with speed boats but with specified speed (Reep and Bond, 2006). With very high speed there will be collisions. Specified speed limit allows sleeping manatee to escape before the boat gets closer to the species. Excess speed by boats makes sleeping manatee to collide with boats which sometimes leads to death of manatees and capsiding of boats - Manatees sleep on the surface of water to enable them breathe fresh air. They do not breathe under water.

There are a lot of palearctic migrant birds in the habitat, which could interest tourists to watch. About 25 species including the White throated bee eater have been observed in the environment. Bird watching and viewing of crocodile in the destination can give some satisfaction to tourists, who could not observe manatee.

The population of crocodile in the environment is high (Dwarf, Osteolamis tetrapis and Nile crocodile, Crocodillus niloticus). Consumption of crocodile is considered a taboo in few villages around Eniong creek and the culture had aided in protecting the population therein especially in the past but the effectiveness of the taboo presently should be studied. Besides, there are about three communities that abhor consumption of crocodile whereas the communities that surround the creek are many. Crocodile is migratory. If crocodile migrates towards Arochukwu where killing of the species is allowed the animal will be killed.

As at 2006, crocodile population in the area was quite much to sustain tourism as observers could easily view them, but with emerging trends in hunting of crocodile the rate of decimation of the species has increased. Hunters hunt with boat and special light (amber) that catches the reflection of the eyes of crocodile in the night. Ecologically, crocodile stay on the surface of water to capture air and in the process can reflect the light and can be harpooned with precision. The hunters speedily move with speed boat and harpoon the crocodile to death. Hunting with light makes crocodile very vulnerable because it is easy to detect where amber light is being reflected in the night.

CONCLUSION Manatee in Itu wetland can only be effectively conserved by adopting a strategy that could sustainably provide desired benefits to the natives of villages in Itu. Upgrading the status of the environment to a protected status and introduction of ecotourism will offer conservation


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to manatee and its habitat. The ecotourism should not be built on viewing of manatee alone. Boating, bird watching, viewing of crocodile, sport fishing, watching of fishing activities especially at the landing sites and enjoyment of sea breeze should be parts of ecotourism products. There should be defined speed limits for speed boats that operate in Eniong creek. Fishermen should operate with canoes alone in River Cross. Fishing in the night should be prohibited in the habitat. When properly planned with the natives integrated in the planning and implementation of ecotourism development plans, there will be a lot of benefits to be derived by the host communities. These benefits include employment opportunities and revenue generation as a lot of tourist will be attracted to the environment.

REFERENCES

Ijeomah, H.M. and Esaen, N. 2011. Tourism Management in Selected Ecotourism Destinations in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Asia Research Publishing Network Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences 6(10):1-13.

Ijeomah, H.M. and Efenakpo, O.D. 2011a.Assessment of Nile Crocodile Utilization in selected communities of Rivers State, Nigeria. Asia Research Publishing Network Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences 6(10): 66 – 77.

Ijeomah H.M. and Efenakpo O. D.2011b. Analysis of Nile crocodile (Crocodylus nilotica, laurenti) hunting in selected communities around fresh water - salt water transitional areas of Rivers State, Nigeria. Tropical Agricultural Research and Extension, 14 (4): 80 – 84, http://www.agri.ruh.ac.lk/tare/Online.htm

Ijeomah, H. M. and Oruh, E. 2012. Wildlife based business activities in Ogbe - Ijaw market of Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Social Research (JASR) 12(2): 171 – 186 www.ajol.info/journals/jasr

Ijeomah, H.M.and Alagoa, A. 2012.Utilization of selected non-vertebrate wildlife species in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Tropical Agricultural Research and Extension 15(4): 21 – 28, http://www.agri.ruh.ac.lk/tare/v15%284%29.htm

Ijeomah, H. M. and Aiyeloja, A.A. 2010. Ecotourism: An instrument for combating Renewable natural resources Degradation pp.441 - 470 In: Ijeomah, H.M. and Aiyeloja (Eds.) .2010. Practical Issues in Forest and Wildlife Resources Management. Green Canopy Consultants, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, 625pp.

Ijeomah, H.M. 2012.Challenges of Game Reserves in Nigeria: A Case Study of Pai River Wildlife Park of Plateau State, Nigeria In: Ijeomah, H.M. and Aiyeloja, A.A.(eds.).Challenges to Sustainable Production in Agriculture and the Environment: Nigeria in Perspective. Top Base Nigeria Limited, Lagos, in Conjunction with Green Canopy Consultants, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.

Marmontel, M., D. K. Odell and J. E. Reynolds (1992). Reproductive Biology of South American Manatees in Reproductive Biology of South American Vertebrates edited by William C. Hamlett. New York Springer Verlag.

Ogogo, A. U., Eniang E. A,, Nchor A. A. and Nkamenyin, O. O. (2013).Ecology and Conservation Status of the West African manatee (Trichechus Senegalensis) in Eniong Creek, South Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences (IJRANSS),1(1):19 -24

Powell, J. A. (1990). Manatees in the Bijagos archipeloago: Recommendations for conservation. A technical Report for IUCN, Wetland program.

Reep, R.L. and Bonde, R., K . (2006). The Florida Manatee: Biology and Conservation, University Press of Florida,Orlando, 189pp.

Reynolds, J. E. and Odell, D. K. (1991). Manatees and Dugongs. Facts on File.New York. Reynold, J. E. and J. S. Powell M. (2002). Manatee. Encylopaedia of Marine Mammals, Perrin, W.

F. Wursing, B. and J. G. M. Thewisse, San Diego, Academic Press.


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GROWTH AND YIELD OF ONION ( Allium cepa L.) VARIETIES AS INFLUENCED BY DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PHOSPHORUS APPLIC ATION IN

THE HUMID ULTISOLS ENVIRONMENT

Law-Ogbomo, K. E*. and A. U. Osaigbovo

Department of Crop Science, University of Benin, P.M. B. 1154, Benin City, Nigeria [email protected]

ABSTRACT This research was carried out to assess the effect of different levels of phosphorus on the growth and yield of onion varieties. The experiment was laid out in a 2 x 5 split-plot arrangement fitted into randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plots were the onion varieties (“Rouge de Tana” and “Onion Red Creole”) and the sub-plots were five levels (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1) of phosphorus. Data were collected on growth variables (number of leaves and plant height) at two weeks interval. After harvesting, data were collected on number of roots, root length, number of bulbs/plants, bulb girth, bulb weight and bulb yield. The results of the study showed that taller and more foliated onion plants were obtained in the “Rouge de Tana” variety. Both varieties had similar yield and yield components. Phosphorus application significantly enhanced the growth of onion plants as all phosphorus application levels were statistically significant. Varieties had no significant effect on the yield variables. Phosphorus had significant effect on all yield components except in number of bulbs per plant. The highest bulb yield (10.92 t ha-1) was obtained in plots treated with 60 kg P ha-1 but was statistically similar with other phosphorus application rates. Bulb yield was strong and positively correlated with root length (r = 0.382*), plant height (r = 0.377*), number of roots (r = 0.338*), number of leaves (r = 0.345*), bulb girth (r = 0.406*) and bulb weight (r = 0.691*). It is recommended that any of the onion varieties could be used by farmers in Ultisols environment coupled with phosphorus application rate of 30 kg ha-1. Keyword

INTRODUCTION

Onions (Allium cepa .L.) belong to the plant genus Allium native to Asia in the family of Amarylidaceae and it is cultivated for its bulb. It has spread to every part of the globe. It is used throughout the world for food and purposes. It can also use for flavouring.

Bulb yield in Nigeria is low (15.50 t ha-1, FAO, 2016) owing to among other factors are the low native fertility resulting from phosphorus deficient among other plant nutrients and the use of unimproved onion varieties. Onion productivity could be increased substantially through the use of improved varieties and optimum use of fertilizer (Shaheen, 2007). The performance of a variety mainly depend on the interaction of genetic made up and environment (Brewster, 1994). Many farmers do not used improved varieties that have developed to increase onion productivity instead they relied on unimproved varieties with low yield potential.

The major challenge is to identify high yielding varieties best suited to different conditions imposed by specific environment. Onion varieties are very specific in their photoperiod and vernalization requirement and therefore vary for yield and yield related traits in a specific agro-climate. Phosphorus is low in most tropical soils due to its low native content and high immolization within the soil (fairhust et al., 1999. Phosphorus (P) is essential for plant normal growth and maturity. It has a direct effect on yield and quality.

Law-Ogbomo, K. E. and Osaigbovo, A. U. (2018). Growth and Yield of Onion (Allium cepa L.) Varieties as Influenced by Different Levels of Phosphorus Application in the Humid Ultisols Environment. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 28-34.


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However, where crops are grown on soils with very low natural P levels, additional quantity are required to boost yield and bulb size. Hence, this study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of different levels of phosphorus application on the growth and yield of onion varieties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted between April and August, 2015 and 2016 at the Experimental Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria located within latitude 6°14′ and 7°34′ N and longitude 5°40′and 6° 43′ E with an elevation of the site is 162 m above the sea level. The soil of the soil is sandy loam. The soil on laboraratory analysis had pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and Na of 5.20, 12.47 g kg-

1, 0.07 g kg-1, 5.70 mg kg-1, 1.15 cmol kg-1, 0.74 cmol kg-1, 0.19 cmol kg-1 and 0.69 cmol kg-1, respectively.

The experiment was laid out in a 2 x 5 split-plot arrangement fitted into a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plots were the onion varieties (“Rouge de Tana” and “Onion Red Creole”) and the sub-plots were five levels (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1) of phosphorus. The experimental site had a dimension 6 x 16m and sub-divided into 30 plots, each measuring 1.0 x 1.0m and 0.5m apart and 1m between blocks. Nursery operation was carried out in the field in a wooden seed tray filled with mixture of top soil and cured poultry manure in the ratio of 3:2 and onion seeds were sowed by broadcasting on 13 April each year after which they were watered lightly. Seeds germinated after 4-7 days and remained in the wooden seed tray for eight weeks. While in the nursery, the seedlings were watered daily in early hours of the day. Appropriate nursery management practices were carried out as when due. Four weeks before transplanting, the field was cleared manually and marked out, into beds of 1.0 x 1.0 m spaced at 0.5m apart were prepared. Seedlings were transplanted to the field at eight weeks after sowing in the nursery on the 13th of June in both years at a spacing of 10 x 15 cm. Five levels (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1) of phosphorus (P) were applied on the designated beds on the day of transplanting. The field was weeded manually using hoe and cutlass first at two weeks after transplanting and subsequently as at when due and insects (grasshoppers) were handpicked when necessary. Onion bulbs were harvested at their maturity (nine weeks after transplanting), when stem and leaves have withered and dried off. Harvesting was done on 22 August each year by pulling out the plant with the aid of hand forks and trowels.

Ten plants were randomly selected from the inner row of each plot and tagged for growth parameters (plant height and numbers of leaves) assessment on every two weeks interval. The plant height was estimated by taking measurement using metre ruler from the base to the tip of all the sampled plants per plot and average computed. The number of leaves was the total cunt of leaves of all the sampled plants per plot and the average computed. After harvesting, data were collected on number of bulbs/plant, fresh weight of bulb, bulb girth, root length and bulb yield. The number of bulb per plant was done by counting the bulbs of all sampled plants, divided by the number of plants to obtain the average. Bulb weight was computed by weighing all the bulbs of the sampled plants divided by the number of bulbs. Bulb girth was measured through the placing of venier caliper at the middle of the bulbs of the sampled plants per plot and the average computed. All uprooted sampled plants roots were measured from the base of the bulb to the tip of the root using metre ruler and average computed to obtain the root length. Bulb yield (t ha-1) was estimated though the weighing of all bulbs in each plot and summed up in grammes and converted to t ha-1 and thus:

Bulb yield (t ha-1) = ��

where x = weight of bulbs in a plot (g), y = are of plot


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The two-year data were combined and subjected to variance (ANOVA) and differences among treatment means were compared by using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 0.05 probability level.

RESULTS Growth of onion The effect of variety and phosphorus application levels on the growth of onion is presented in Table 1. “Rouge de Tana” onion variety was significantly taller than the “Onion Red Creole” variety at 4 and 6 WAT except at 8 WAT. At 8 WAT, both varieties produced statistically similar height. Phosphorus application had significant effect on the height of onion throughout the periods of measurement. At 4 and 6 WAT, all the P treated plants had similar plant heights but significantly taller than untreated plants. At 8 WAT, all phosphorus application rate except 60 kg P per hectare had significantly similar height but taller than non-phosphorus treated plants.

There was significant difference in the number of leaves among the varieties throughout the sampling periods. “Rouge de Tana” plants were more foliated compared to “Onion Red Creole” plants throughout the periods of measurement. Phosphorus application had significant effect on onion plants as all phosphorus treated plants had statistically similar number of leaves throughout the sampling periods but significantly more foliated with regards to non-phosphorus treated plants.

Table 1: Effects of varieties and levels of phosphorus application rate on the growth of onion (Allium cepa)

Treatment Plant height (cm) Number of leaves Weeks after transplanting Weeks after transplanting

4 6 8 4 6 8

Variety

Onion Red Creole 13.36 13.80 17.71 2.08 2.20 2.32

Rouge de Tana 21.01 25.05 25.93 3.47 3.49 3.13

LSD(0.05) 5.728 11.792 ns 1.104 0.689 0.629

P (kg ha-1)

0 12.99 13.22 16.90 1.55 2.01 2.05

30 16.75 20.57 23.07 2.62 3.05 2.90

60 18.00 18.85 20.47 3.08 3.15 2.37

90 20.55 21.54 21.72 2.83 3.23 3.20

120 19.14 23.95 23.97 3.13 3.45 3.12

LSD(0.05) 3.535 5.998 4.712 0.619 0.991 0.714

Interaction ns ns ns ns ns ns ns- not significant at 0.05 level of probability

Yield and yield components of onion The yield and yield components of onion as influenced by variety and phosphorus application levels are presented in Table 2. Variety produced non-significant difference on root length as both varieties had statistically similar values. Phosphorus application showed significant difference on root length and ranged from 4.83 cm for untreated plants and 12.33cm for plants treated with 120 kg P ha-1

. Only application levels at 90 and 120 kg P ha-1 had root length values higher than non-phosphorus treated plants.

There was no significant difference on the number of roots per bulb between both varieties, as they had similar number of roots per bulb varieties produced statistically similar values. P application had significant effect on number of roots and ranged from 13.00 for untreated to 31.00 for plants treated at 90 kg P ha-1. Plants treated at 60 kg P ha-1 had similar


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number of roots with the untreated plants. The highest number of roots was obtained in plants treated at 90 kg P ha-1 but were not significantly higher compared to plants treated at 30, 90 and 120 kg P ha-1.

There was no significant difference on the number of bulbs per plant between the two varieties and the levels of phosphorus application as they all have similar values. There was no significant difference in bulb girth between the two varieties. On the other hand, there was a significant difference in bulb girth among the levels of phosphorus application. Thicker bulbs were produced at all levels of phosphorus application with reference to the untreated plants.

Both onion varieties produced similar bulb size (Bulb weight) (P>0.05). But, the bulbs produced by “Rouge de Tana” variety were 35 % heavier than onion bulb weight of “Onion Red Creole” variety. All levels of P application had statistically bulb size (P>0.05) but significantly (P<0.05) heavier than untreated plants.

Both varieties produced similar bulb yield of onion. Bulb yield increased as level of P application was increasing, though not significant (P>0.05). Furthermore, all P treated plants had higher bulb yield in comparison with untreated plants.

Table 2:

Yield and yield components of onion as influenced by variety and phosphorus application rate

Treatment Root Length

(cm) No. of Roots

No. of Bulbs

Bulb Girth (cm)

Bulb Weight(g)

Bulb Yield (t ha-1)

Variety Onion Red Creole 8.63 22.90 1.731 6.13 5.91 9.21 Rouge de Tana 7.10 21.40 1.20 5.93 8.03 8.64 Lsd(0.05) ns ns ns ns ns ns

P (kg ha-1) 0 4.83 13.00 1.33 3.75 4.08 4.72 30 8.17 27.20 1.50 6.83 7.48 9.35 60 7.67 18.80 1.50 7.17 8.23 10.92 90 8.33 31.00 1.50 6.50 8.28 10.65 120 10.33 20.80 1.50 5.92 6.75 9.00 Lsd (0.05) 3.504 10.420 ns 1.123 2.136 2.254

Interaction ns ns ns ns ns ns

ns - not significant at 0.05 level of probability

Coefficient correlation of onion yield and growth variables The coefficient correlation of onion variables is presented in Table 3. The bulb weight was significantly and positively correlated with root length (r = 0.378*), plant height (r = 0.354*), number of leaves (r = 0.394*) and bulb yield (r = 0.681*). Bulb weight was negatively correlated with number of bulbs per plant (r = -0.528*). The bulb yield was positively correlated with root length (r = 0.382*), plant height (r = 0.377*), number of roots (r = 0.358*), number of leaves (r = 0.345*), bulb girth (r = 0.406*) and bulb weight (r = 0.691*). The Number of leaves was significantly and positively correlated with bulb weight (r = 0.394*), bulb yield (r = 0.345*), root length (r = 0.327*) and plant height (r = 0.650*). Furthermore, the number of leaves had strong and negative correlation with number of bulbs per plant (r = -0.369*).


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Table 3: Coefficient correlation of onion yield and growth variables

Variable Bulb girth

Bulb weight

Bulb yield

No. of leaves

No. of bulbs

No. of roots

Plant height Root length

Bulb girth 1.000

Bulb weight 0.201* 1.000

Bulb yield 0.406* 0.681* 1.000 No. of leaves 0.148 0.394* 0.348* 1.000 No. of bulbs 0.266 -0.528* 0.181 -0.369* 1.000

No. of roots 0.378* 0.122 0.338 0.272 0.009 1.000

Plant height 0.198 0.354* 0.377* 0.650* -0.446* 0.341* 1.000

Root length 0.361* 0.378* 0.382* 0.327* 0.518* 0.132 0.427 1.000

DISCUSSION This research indicated that phosphorus application enhanced the growth and yield of both onion varieties. The findings of this study emphasized that P is critical to onion bulb yield and without adequate supply of phosphorus, onion exhibits poor growth and yield. Thus, it had a direct effect on the yield and quality of onion. The soil used for the experiment had low natural P level (5.20 mg kg-1) which was below critical level of P (12.00 mg kg-1) (Osodeke, 2005). This finding is in agreement with Osodeke (2005), he reported that most tropical soils are P-deficient. The soil of the site was strongly acidic (5.20) and could have negatively affected P level in the soil since the proportion of phosphorus in soil is high within the pH range of 6.5 and 7 (Brewster, 1994). The low availability of P is a major factor limiting crop production in acidic soils (Conde et al., 2014).This was evident in this study through the retired onion growth displayed in non-phosphorus treated onion compared to phosphorus treated onoin.

Sustainable agricultural production is dependent on the maintenance of adequate availability of P in the soil among other plant nutrients. Phosphorus is a component of many cell constituents and plays a major role in several key processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell division and cell enlargement. P is a structural component of nucleotides, phospholipids, phosphoproteins and coenzymes (Havlin et al. 2004). The structures of both deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are linked by phosphorus. P is crucial for the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) component. ATP is formed during photosynthesis and contains phosphorus as part of its structure. Higher plant height and longer roots obtained in P treated onions is an indication that adequate P is needed for the promotion of early root formation and growth. This confirmed the findings of Grant et al., (2001) who reported that plants require adequate P from the very early stages of growth for optimum crop production. Longer roots exhibited by P treated onions inferred that P stimulates root development that is necessary for the onions to absorb adequate nutrients and water from the soil to enhance higher number of leaves, plant height, bulb yield and bulb size in the treated onions. The poor agronomic performance exhibited by non P treated onions was as a result of P deficiency which reduced root and leaf growth, bulb size and yield (Brewster, 1994). The strong and positive correlation of the number of leaves with bulb weight (r = 0.394*) and bulb yield (r – 0.681*) were obtained in this study. This implies that higher number of leaves in P treated onions was an evidence of greater photosynthetic capacity resulting in higher accumulation of assimilates in the storage organ (bulb). The increase in the number of leaves enhanced the rate of photosynthesis through increase in the surface area resulting in maximum interception of solar radiation. This led


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to production of higher amount of assimilates due to greater amount of assimilates translocated to the storage organ (bulb).

The positive and significant correlation between plant height and bulb yield (r = 0.377*) is an indication that enhancement of plant height through phosphorus application is a precursor to higher bulb yield. Increase in plant height enables the plant to display its leaves individually to maximized interception of solar radiation and enhance efficiency of photosynthesis leading to greater production of assimilates. The greater assimilates produced, the needed amount that will be translocated to the storage organ resulting in higher yield. The taller the plant, the less the shading of the lower leaves as every leaf in the plant has chances of intercepting light that passed through the upper leaves by the lower leaves. The reduced plant height obtained in the non-phosphorus treated resulted in lower bulb yield. This could be as a result of etiolation of lower leaves due to shade from upper leaves. This lead to lower interception of solar radiation resulting in lower production of assimilates. Hence, reduced quantity of assimilates may translocate to storage organ (bulb) resulting in lower yield.

Both onion varieties exhibited similar growth behaviour in terms of yield. The superior height and number of leaves exhibited by “Rouge de Tana” over “Onion Red Creole” was not translated to higher bulb yield than “Onion Red Creole”. This was probably because the higher number of leaves increases the rate of transpiration rather than light interception efficiency. The higher height obtained could be due to intraspecific competition. The onion yields were generally low as they were below Nigerian average (15.50 t ha-1), (FAO, 2016). This may be due to strong acidic nature of the site on which the crop was planted. This findings of this study agrees with the report of Gambo et al. (2008), they reported that the optimum pH range of onion was 6.00 to 6.80 and onions do not grow well in soils below pH 6.00. Furthermore, the lower yield obtained from both varieties could probably be due to low organic carbon content of the soil. This is an indication of easily dry up, with low water holding capacity. This agreed with Kadayitci et al (2005) that at bulbing stage onions need some substantial amount of water.

CONCLUSION The growth and yield performance of onion were significantly influenced by phosphorus application rather than variety. Thus, the findings of this study showed phosphorus application rate of 30 kg ha-1 was promising in enhancing the yield of onion. Both varieties were similar, in terms of bulb yield. This study implied that both onion varieties can be adopted by farmers in this locality. The application level of 30 kg ha-1 of phosphorus can be adopted by farmers to enhanced onion production in the humid Ultisol location of Benin City.

REFERENCES Brewster, J. L., (1994). Onions and other vegetableAlliums.CAB, International,

Wallingford, UK. 236pp. Conde L D, Chen, Z., Chen H, Liao H (2014). Effects of phosphorus availability on plant

growth and soil nutrient status in the rice/soybean rotation system on newly cultivated acidic soils. American Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 2(6): 309-316

Fairhust ,T., Lefory R., Mutert, E. and Batjes, N. (1999). The importance, distribution and causes of phosphorus deficiency as a constraints to crop production in the tropics.

FAO (2016).Food and Agricultural Report 2016.www.Fao.org. Retrieved 18 June 2016. Gambo, B. A., M. D. Magaji, A. I. Yakubuand and A. U. Dikko, (2008). Effect of Farmyard

Manure, nitrogen, and weed interference on the growth and yield of onion (Allium cepa .L.) at Sokoto Rima Valley. Journal of sustainable Development in Agriculture and Environment, 3(2): 87-92.


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Grant, C. A., Flaten, D. N., Tomasiewicz, D. J. and Sheppard, S. C. (2001).The importance of early season P nutrition.Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 81: 211-224

Havlin, J. L., Beaton, J. D., Tisdale, S. L., Nelson, W. L. (2004). Soil fertility and fertilizers. An introduction to nutrient management Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 7thed. Journal of Botany, 23(3): 298.

Kadayifci, A., G. I. Tuylu, Y. Ucar and B. Cakmak, (2005). Crop water use of onion (Allium cepa.L.) in Turkey, Agricultural and Water Management, 72: 59-68

Osodeke, V. E., (2005) Determination of phosphorus requirements of cowpea (Vignauniquilata (L.) Walp) in the acid soils of south eastern Nigeria using sorption isotherms. Global Journal of Agricultural Science, 4(2): 135-138.


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EVALUATION OF FIBRE CHARACTERISTICS OF Anthocleista djalonensis (A) WOOD FOR ITS SUITABILITY PULP AND PAPER PRODUCTION

1David-Sarogoro, N.*, 1Amakiri, M. A. and 2Udofia, S. I.

1Department of Forestry and Environment, Rivers State University of Science & Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

2Department of Forestry and Natural Environmental Management, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

*Corresponding author: [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT The study examined the fibre characteristics and elucidated the suitability of Anthocleista djalonensis for pulp and paper production. Three trees were selected randomly from the campus of Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt. Slivers from discs extracted from the top, middle and bottom of the merchantable height (MH) and from the transverse section (outer wood, middle wood and core wood nearest the pith) were defibred using the procedure of Oluwadare (2006). Fibre length (FL) of the species was 2.10mm at the bottom, followed by the middle (2.09mm) and the top (2.00mm) along the trees MH. Radially, core wood had FL of 2.36mm, followed by middlewood-2.12mm and lowest was outer wood with 1.70mm. An increase in fibre diameter (FD) recorded ranged from 10.00±0.31 to 12.00±0.82µm, 18.00±0.56µm to 24.00±0.32µm, and 24.00±0.34µm to 25.00±0.23 outer wood, middle wood and core wood respectively; radially, an increase from the top to bottom. FD ranged within 22.00 µm and 24.00µm. The fibre wall thickness ranged from 0.8 to 2.7µm (top) 1.2 to 2.9µm (middle), 1.2 to 2.9µm (bottom) in vertical direction (axial). Fibre wall thickness increased outer wood to middle wood at top (from 0.8 to 1.2µm) and at bottom (from 2.7 to 2.9µm): points of inflexion noticed at middle wood to core wood at top and bottom and at middle of the height-outer wood to middle wood. The fibre lumen width increased significantly axially (top: 20.00±0.21µm to 26.00±0.44µm, Middle: 14.00±1.43µm to 25.00±0.34 µm, bottom: 16.00±1.76 to 24.00±0.11µm and radially, decreased from outer wood to core wood. The average Runkel Ratio of the species was 2.1 indicative of a long fibred species which is a good indicator of the suitability of wood for pulp and paper making. The species is recommended in pulp and paper production.

Keywords: Anthocleista djalonensis, fibre length, radial, pulp and paper

INTRODUCTION Anthocleista djalonensis (A) is in the family Loganiaceae, it extends from Guinea to Nigeria and is found in secondary forest, in drier areas than A. vogelii and may be distinguished from A. vogelii by its white flowers with a long corolla-tube and recurved corolla-lobes (Keay, 1964). It is called Ejinrin in Igbo, Dukwe in Calabar, Anara in Zaria and Omo in Ijebu (Keay, 1964), Abu-a owl in Ogoni (David, 2013). The leaves are as large and are similarly shaped to those of A. vogelii, but are always distinctly stalked. The spines, which may be few or almost lacking, usually have nearly parallel prongs. The mature tree height is about 4-6.5m, much like A. vogelii in habitat. Bark grey; slash cream with orange streaks, granular. Wood is soft and whitish. There are no known propagation methods of raising the species in plantation though researches are on-going to propagate the species.

A wood cell comprises of the cell wall and a lumen-cavity. The cell wall is the wood proper and the lumen is the ordinary cavity. The cell wall is the index of the wood substance: the higher the wall fraction, the smaller the lumen fraction and the higher the wood density.

David-Sarogoro, N. et al. (2018). Evaluation of Fibre Characteristics of Anthocleista djalonensis (A) Wood for its Suitability Pulp and Paper Production. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 35-41.


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When the cell, lumina or the lumens are large the wood proper is small and the overall density is low. This is because in such a wood there is a large volume of air spaces inside the wood which is found mostly in young trees wood (juvenile wood) which is easy to pulp but very weak if used for building and construction. Wood that consists of large cell wall and small cell lumen diameter high pulp yield, and the wood is strong and useful in many wood industries.

Fibre characteristics of wood is very attribute important to pulp and paper industry but may be easily overlooked from solid-wood product perspective. Fibre characteristics are the raw materials for pulp and paper industry (Kayama, 1979). Fibre length, cell wall, fibre diameter and lumen diameter are indices of intrinsic wood quality and their Runkel Ratio determine suitability for pulpability (Ogunsanwo and Omole, 2010). The study examined the fibre characteristics of Anthocleista djalonensis and suitability for pulp production.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample preparation and fibre characteristics determination Three trees of the species were selected randomly from fifteen stands of the species on the campus of Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt. Three discs extracted from the top, middle and bottom of the merchantable height strategic positions of 25%, 50%, and 75% of merchantable height of each tree in accordance with Akachukwu, (1984), Mitchell and Dane (1997) and across the cross section-outer wood, middle wood and core wood (nearest the pith). Step 1: The specimen wood slivers of dimension 20mm x 20mm x 20mm for the study were prepared, labelled and put into wash bottles containing equal volume of glacial acetic acid and 30% hydrogen peroxide (bleaching or cooking liquors) and put in oven at 101± 2oC for 72 hours (time) as adopted by Oluwadare (2006). Bleached slivers were brought out from the various sections of the species. The remaining chemical solution was decanted and slivers washed severally with distilled water. Fibre maceration was carried out by shaking the bottles containing the slivers and glass beads in order to separate them.

The glass beads were removed and the macerated fibres the transverse and radial sections were measured using calibrated eyepiece electron microscope at analytical laboratory of Royal Nemascope Hospital and Labouratory Services, Port Harcourt using Franklin (1954) techniques. Measurements of twenty five (25) fibres were taken at the various sections of each sectioned sites in both transverse and radial sections of three trees and their means computed as representative samples of the entire population (entire tree) (Ogunsanwo and Omole, 2001). Step 2: Cell Measurement: The fibre characteristics evaluated included fibre length (FL), fibre diameter (FD) lumen width (LW) and fibre cell wall Thickness (FT). Experimental design and data analysis Completely randomised design with three treatments replicated thrice and data obtained were analysed descriptive statistics and a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS

Fibre length: The fibre length (FL) of Anthocleista djalonensis was 2.10mm at the bottom, followed by middle (2.09mm) and top (2.00mm) along the trees merchantable height. Radially, corewood had FL of 2.36mm, followed by middlewood-2.12mm and lowest was outer wood with 1.70mm (Figure 1).


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Figure 1: Fibre length of Anthocleista djalonensis wood

Fibre diameter: Radially, an increase in fibre diameter in Anthocleista djalonensis ranged from 10.00±0.31 to 12.00±0.82µm, 18.00±0.56 to 24.00±0.32, and 24.00±0.34 to 25.00±0.23 for outer wood, middle wood and core wood respectively (Table 1), similar trend was observed along the merchantable height of the trees: an increase from the top to bottom (Table 1). Table 1: Fibre diameter (µm) of Anthocleista djalonensis Top Middle Bottom Outer wood 10.00±0.31 18.00±0.56 24.00±0.34 Middle wood 11.00±0.42 22.00±0.01 24.00±0.39 Core wood 12.00±0.82 24.00±0.32 25.00±0.23

Fibre wall thickness: The fibre wall thickness ranged from 0.8 to 2.7µm at the top, at the middle 1.2 to 2.9µm and at the bottom from 1.2 to 2.9µm in vertical direction (axial) while in the radial direction the fibre wall thickness increased at outer wood at the top from 0.8 to 1.2µm and at the middle and bottom, the middle wood and core wood were almost the same within 2.7 and 2.9µm (points of inflexion; points where graphs appear parallel or flat) noticed at middle wood and core wood are parallel to each other at middle-50% and base-75% (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Fibre wall thickness of Anthocleista djalonensis wood

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Outerwood Middlewood CorewoodMerchantable Heigth

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Fibre lumen: Radially, the fibre lumen width within outer wood across the transverse section decreased from the top, outer wood with 20.00±0.21µm followed by core wood with 16.00±1.76µm and least the middle wood 14.00±1.43µm while at the middle of the merchantable height of trees, middle; outer wood had 28.00±0.43µm followed by middle wood with 24.00±0.29µm and core wood with 22.00±0.32µm. Similarly, outer wood had 26.00±0.44µm followed by middle wood with 25.00±0.34µm and core wood with 24.00±0.11µm (Table 2).

Consequently, fibre lumen increased radially from outer wood to bottom wood at the middle and bottom of the trees except at the top that decreased from top. Contrariwise, along the vertical height (axial), fibre lumen increased from top to bottom; 16.66±0.82µm followed by 24.67±036µm and bottom with 25.01±0.45 µm (Table 2). Table 2: Fibre lumen width of Anthocleista djalonensis (µm) Radial Lumen Width (µm) Top Middle Bottom Outerwood 20.00±0.21 28.00±0.43 26.00±0.44 Middlewood 14.00±1.43 24.00±0.29 25.00±0.34 Corewood 16.00±1.76 22.00±0.32 24.00±0.11 Mean 16.66±0.82 24.67±036 25.01±0.45

DISCUSSION

Fibre characteristics of the species

Fibre Length: Fibre length is a poor criterion for evaluating the suitability of tropical hardwoods for pulp production and as a rule these, like other broadleaved species alike have fewer and shorter fibres and more hemicelluloses, parenchymatic and vessel cell than coniferous species (Valkomies, 1969). The oven-dry density or specific of these wood species vary from 0.2 to 1.2. Approximately one third of the species have a density outside, mainly above, the 0.3 to 0.8 specific gravity range normally considered suitable for pulping (Valkomies, 1969). The density of Anthocleista djalonensis ranges from 0.54 to 0.58 103kg/m3 increased from sapwood to heartwood due to disproportionate orientation of cambial initials at the within the pith (Nwiisuator, 2013); its fibre length increased from sapwood to heartwood. – an increase in density increases the pulp yield form a given volume of wood (Ogunsanwo, 2000). Pulp yields are a reflection of weight of wood in digester in relation to the fixed volumetric capacity (Jozsa and Middleton, 1995).

The high fibre length of Anthocleista djalonensis makes it a better wood for pulp production because of its high the wood density and high cell wall matrix and less lumen fraction. This increase in fibre length along the bole from the top to middle and decrease at the bottom indicate that stronger paper sheets could be produced from top and middle of the species if the pulp from the wood is used. The observed variation may be due to genetic or geographical factors. Anthocleista djalonensis is less dense means that the resulting pulp might have low tensile strength and burst values and high tearing strength. This conforms to Samariha, et al., (2011) that dense hardwoods produce pulp with high tensile and burst values but lower tearing strength while low density woods produce of pulp of lower tensile and burst values and high tearing strength. Though, is a direct connection between fibre length and strength properties of wood has not being established, however longer fibre will make stronger paper sheets.


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Darkwa (1973) reported that thick-walled fibres required high beating for the fibres to develop the necessary strength during production of pulp and paper. The average fibre length ranges from 1.18mm to 7.39mm for conifers while that for hardwood ranges from 0.5mm to 2.6mm (Panshin and Dezeeuw, 1980), Anthocleista djalonensis had average of 2.06mm. The fibre lengths of these species are longer than those of some tropical species such as Terminalia ivorensis (1.20mm), Musanga cecropoides (1.39mm) and Triplochiton scleroxylon (1.30mm), Paulownia (10.02mm). Anthocleista djalonensis, bottom was the longest which disagrees with Jozsa and Middleton (1995) that shorter fibre length at the base of trees. This might be caused by the compacted, condensed and denser wood cells devoid of much moisture and in some cases free water is absent in the lumen and interstitial or bound water is constricted leading to the stout pattern of the wood matrices at the bottom and physiological and morphological factors hitherto unknown (David, 2013).

The Anthocleista djalonensis FL of 2.06mm varies with FL of Ailanthus altissima trunk wood of 9.34mm (Samariha, et al., 2011); paulownia (1.02mm); aspen fiber (9.60mm) (Law & Jiang, 2001) lower than hornbeam fiber (12.50mm) (Talaeipour et al., 2010); wheat straw (7.40mm) (Deniz et al., 2009) and cotton stalks fiber (8.30mm) (Ververis et al., 2004).

Fibre diameter The FD of Anthocleista djalonensis of 22.00 and 24.00µm is similar to canola stalk (23.02) (Enayati et al., 2009); lower than paulownia (35.44µm); coniferous (32-43µm) (Koch et al., 2002); hornbeam (23.97µm) and cotton (13.2µm), rice straw fiber (14.8µm) (Tutus et al., 2004) and Robinia pseudo-acacia fiber (21.15µm) (Khattak & Ghazi, 2001). Samariha, et al., (2011) observed the FD of A. altissima trunk wood was 22.6µm and the branch wood 17.77µm.

The fibre diameter decreased from core wood to outerwood of species studied agrees with Ogunsanwo (2000) that found decreasing trend from pith to bark in Triplochiton scleroxylon, Gmelina arborea and plantation grown cotton wood. However, this contradicts the study conducted by Osadare and Udohitinah (1993) found increase from pith to bark on Ceiba petandra and Bombax buonopozenopozense. Along the tree, the decrease in fibre diameter from the base upward in Anthocleista djalonensis disagrees with the report of authors such as Panshin and Dezeeuw (1980), Rulliaty and America, (1995) on big-leaf mahogany from Indonesia due to low lignifications of wood and extractives within upper parts and increase in individual wood cells from top to bottom of the species (David, 2013). The decrease in cell diameter from pith to bark is probably due to cell development and maturation.

Lumen width: The lumen width decreased from the base upward while a decrease from outer to corewood in this species agrees with the result of Osadare (2001) who reported an increase from breast height lumen width and decrease to 50% of the tree height which however conforms to the radial variation. The variation in cell wall thickness may be responsible for the changes in lumen width.

Fibre wall thickness: The decrease in wall thickness from corewood to outerwood runs contrary to the reported work of Rulliaty and America (1995) on big leaf Mahogany, Shupe et al., (1996) on loblolly pine and Ogunsanwo (2000) on Triplochiton scleroxylon but agrees with Adejoba and Onilude (2012) who observed a decrease from corewood to outer wood of Ficus mucoso fibre wall thickness. This may likely be due to the level of development of the secondary cell wall which is a function of the fibre maturation of the cell wall.


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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Anthocleista djalonensis produced long fibre with smaller lumen, with low density which is a good indicator of the suitability of the wood for pulp and paper manufacturing. Other fiber dimensions and characteristics are in normal range for hardwoods; fiber indices make it suitable for paper making. The long and thin walled fibers of the species could give dense paper which is strong in tearing strength but which is inferior in burst and tensile properties.

REFERENCES Adejoba, O.R. & Onilude, M. A. (2012). Evaluation of fibre characteristics of Ficus mucoso:

a lesser-user-species. Paper presented at Third Biennial Nation Conference of the Forests and Forest Products Society, University of Ibadan. Oyo State.

Akachukwu, A.E. (1984). The Effects of some internal and external factors on growth rate of Lovoa trichiloides. Wood Anatomy. IOWA Bulletin. 3 (5), 75-80.

Darkwa, N. A. (1973). Problems of utilizing tropical mixed hardwoods in the production of pulp and paper. Technical Newsletter. 7 (1 & 2), 19. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/wood fibre on 05/03/2010.

David, N. (2013). Physico-chemical properties as indices to enhance utilization of two lesser-used-species in Rivers State, Nigeria (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Rivers State University of Science & Technology, Port Harcourt, Rivers State. 154pp.

Deniz, I. Kirci, H. and Ates, S (2004). Optimization of wheat straw triticum drums kraft pulping. Industrial Crops and Production. 19, 237-243.

Enayati, A. A., Hamzeh, Y., Mirshokraie, A. and Molaii, M. (2009). Papermaking potential of Canola stalks. Bio-resources. 245-256.

Franklin, G.L. (1954). A rapid method for softening wood for anatomical analysis. Tropical Woods. 88, 35-36.

Jozsa, L. A. & Middleton, G. R. (1995). A Discussion of wood quality attributes and their practical implications. Special Publication No. SP-34, Forintek Canada Corp., Vancouver, BC.

Kayama, T (1979). Pulping and paper making properties and wood properties of tropical hardwoods. Forpride Dig. 8, 48-59.

Keay, R. W. (1964). Nigerian Trees 2. Claredon Press.

Khattak, T.M. and Ghazi, J. (2001). Suitability of some non-commercial fast growing wood yielding trees growing in Azad Kashmir for production of pulp and paper. Pak. J Bot. 33 (special issue).

Koch, A. S. N. Dogu, Atik C, Aksu B and Erdinler, S. (2002). The chemical mechanical, physical and anatomical properties of economically important wood in Turkey. IU Istanbul. J. For. Pp. 70-88.

Mitchell, M. D. & Danne, M. P. (1997).Variation in density of Picea sitchensis in relation to within tree trends in tracheid diameter and wall thickness. Forestry-Oxford, 70(1), 84.

Nwiisuator, D., (2013). Physico-chemical properties as indices to enhance utilization of two lesser-used-species in Rivers State. Rivers State, Nigeria. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Rivers State University of Science & Technology, Nkpolu-Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.

Ogunsanwo, S.A. & Omole, T. (2010). Basic practical procedures in wood science. In H. M. Ijeomah & A. A. Aiyeloja (Eds.), Practical issues in forestry and wildlife. (pp. 211-223). Topbase Press.


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Ogusanwo, O. Y. (2000). Characterisation of wood properties grown Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon K.Schum) in Omo Forest Reserve, Ogun State, Nigeria. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Ibadan. Oyo State.

Oluwadare, A.O. (2006). Variation of fibre and chemical properties of some Nigerian wood and non-wood species for pulp production. Tropical Forest Resources.1405, 110-119.

Osadare, A. O. & Udohitinah, J. S. (1993). Fibre characteristics of some Nigerian raw materials for long fibre pulp production. Paper presented at 23rd Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria. University of Ibadan, Oyo State.

Osadare, A.O. (2001). Basic wood and pulp properties of Nigerian grown Caribbean (Pinus caribeae, Morelet) and their relationship with trees growth indices. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Ibadan. Oyo State.

Panshin, A.J. & Dezeeuw, C. (1980). Textbook of Wood Technology. McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Rulliaty, S. & America, W. A. (1995). Natural variation wood quality indicators of Indonesian big leaf mahogany Swietenia macrophylla. Paper presented at IUFRO World Congress, Tempere, Finland.

Samariha, A. Majid, K., Mohammad, T. & Mohammad, N. (2011). Anatomical structure differences between branch and trunk in Ailanthus altissima wood. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 12, 1676-1678.

Shupe, T. F. Choong, E. T., Stokke, D. D. & Gibson, D. M. (1996). Variation in the dimension and fibril angle for two fertilized even-aged loblolly pine plantation. Wood and Fibre Science, 28, 268-275

Talaeipour, M., Hemmasi, A.H., Ebrahimpour, Kasmani J., Mirshokraie, A. and Khademieslam, H. (2010). Effects of fungal treatments on structural and chemical features of Hornbeam chips. Bio Resources. 5(1), 477-487.

Valkomies, P.J. (1969). Wood raw materials for pulp paper in tropical countries. Paper presented at second session of the FAO committee on Forest Development in the Tropics, held at Rome, 21-24th October, 1969.

Ververis, C., Georghiou, K. Christodoulakis, N. Santas, P. and Santas, R. (2004). Fiber dimensions lignin and cellulose content of various plant materials and their suitability for paper production. Industrial Crops & Products. 19, 245-254.


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OCCURRENCES AND UTILIZATION OF PENTACLETHRA MACROPH YLLA (BENTH) AND MONODORA MYRISTICA (GAERTN): TWO MAJOR NTFPS IN

IMO STATE, SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA

Ekwugha, U. E. and Edet, D. I.

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Technology Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the occurrences and utilization of Pentaclethra macrophylla and Monodora myristica across the three (Owerri, Orlu and Okigwe) agro-ecological zones in Imo State, South-eastern, Nigeria. This was achieved with the use of semi-structured questionnaire as well as field inventory using systematic sampling technique in different land-use types. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The result showed that P. macrophylla was more prevalent in the natural forest (27±13) compared to farm lands (02±

0.07) and home gardens (18±6) in Owerri Zone. M. myristica tree were only found in the natural forest and home gardens. Home garden in Owerri Zone had the highest occurrence of M. myristica (17±7) with the least in Orlu Zone (3±2). The seeds of P. macrophylla were utilized more in Owerri and Okigwe Zones with 93.7% and 91.7% of respondents used as food. While 85.3% and 82.3% of respondents in Owerri and Orlu Zonse used M. Myristica as food. There were significant differences in the utilization of the species in the three Zones. The barks and leaves of both species were used in traditional medicines and food. The woods of Monodora myristica was used as fuel, but was not sighted on farm and fallow lands. This indicated that the species was at the verge of extinction, as there was no indications that the species was cultivated on farm lands, despite its high rate of utilization in the Zones. Hence, it is recommended that the species be domesticated and aggressively cultivated to ensure sustainability. Key words: land-use types, species occurrence, sustainability, utilization, Zones.

INTRODUCTION

Forest research in recent years has shown the complexity of natural resources providing a wide range of economic, social and environmental benefits, which contribute in several ways to the well-being of the societies and their natural environment (Vinceti et al., 2013). Such contributions include satisfaction of subsistence needs, substitution for purchased farm input, and opportunities for supplementing cash income through the sale of raw or processed produce as well as the food security aspect of forest resources during the hungry season or pre-harvest period (Eboh, 2005).

Worldwide, forest industries provide employment for 60 million people. Some 1 billion people depend on pharmaceuticals derived from forest plants for their medicinal needs. Various research have reported that poverty in rural areas can only be reduced by sustainable management of natural resources that generate income and provide environmental services. The forests of the world are among the most important natural resources which provides support to nearly half of the 2.8 billion people, who lives on $ 2 or less a day (World Bank, 2002). Thus, forests can assume a more prominent role in meeting the United Nations 2000 Millennium Development Goals of reducing extreme poverty by half by 2015.

Ekwugha, U. E. and Edet, D. I. (2018). Occurrences and Utilization of Pentaclethra macrophylla (Benth) and Monodora myristica (Gaertn): Two Major NTFPS in Imo State, South-eastern Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 42-49.


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Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) forest resources assessment report has synergized the assessment of trees outside forest, which consists mainly of agro-forestry systems as well as trees in urban areas. Indigenous practices such as the planting and protection of many tree species introduced during the colonial era and later through forestry and agro-forestry projects are already widespread in Africa (Ajake, 2012). However, most of this practices are suitable to low-intensity agricultural systems and performed below their expected potential productivity. This could be as a result of the use of poor adapted species, provenances and management systems. The assessment may be more reflective of inadequate attention to these resources than of their status in traditional diets.

Pentaclethra macrophylla and Monodora myristica are plants of immense values in eastern Nigeria, especially in Imo State, because the seeds and leaves of this two Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are special delicacies. According to Okafor (1995) and Ibeawuchi et al. (2008) as tropical species they have multiple usage, particularly for food and medicine. The seeds of P. macrophylla are either eaten, boiled or roasted. They can be fermented to yield snacks or condiment with a meaty taste. This is a popular delicacy called “Ugba” in south-eastern Nigeria, while the empty dry pods are used as fuel for cooking.

Farmers protect this species in farms because most of its trees are leafless during the cropping season and its open crown does not affect crop growth. The leaves also contribute to soil fertility. Its wood is suitable for fuel-wood and for charcoal making. Traditionally, pestles and mortars are made from the wood. The flowers produced are attractive to bees for honey production. The leaves when boiled are used for traditional human and veterinary medicines. The species plays a key role in traditional ceremonies (Oboh, 2007).

Pentaclethra macrophylla plays a fundamental role in the socio-economic well-being of the rural people of Imo State. It activities ranges from harvesting, processing, marketing, charcoal making, sale of fuel-wood for carpentry works. This is particularly so in sub-saharan Africa, where most of the countries have large rural populations that depend on natural resources exploitation for their livelihood (Pimental et al., 1997). Monodora myristica is a species of calabash nutmeg, the edible seeds yield a nutmeg-flavoured oil, which is used in West Africa for cooking (Eggeling, 2002). Monodora myristica seed extract contains important pharmacological compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids and vitamins A and E as well as many important lipids.

Traditionally, the plant is widely used to relieve toothache and in the treatment of dysentery. When roasted and ground, the seeds are rubbed on the skin for (unspecified) skin diseases (Irvine, 2000). This suggests that the seeds of M. myristica plant could be germicidal or antiseptic. The roasted ground seeds are chewed, spat into the hand and then rubbed across the forehead to relieve headache. The seeds can be crushed and used as insecticide, while the crushed root relieves toothache (Oguntimein et al., 1999). Essential oil from the seed of M. myristica is used in pharmaceutical and dental preparation (Talalaji, 1999).

Okafor and Fernandez (1987) identified 171 edible tree species in the south-east Nigeria. The most commonly used and highly-valued species were P. macrophylla, M. myristica and G. africanum. This species were reported to provided food, beverages, stakes, fodder, fuel-wood, medicine, fibre, housing material and income for the rural households. Despite the ubiquity in some parts of Imo State, no research has been carried on the occurrence, distribution, availability and utilization of this two major NTFPs in Imo State. This study was conducted to provide information on occurrence, distribution and utilization of P. macrophylla and M. myristica in Imo state.


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MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was carried out in Imo State, south-east Nigeria. The area falls within tropical rainforest zone with a mean annual rainfall between 2000 and 2500 mm (Imo State Planning and Economic Commission, 2000). The research involved two types of survey: socio-economic and ecological. The socio-economic survey involved the use of a semi-structured questionnaire, designed to elicit information on the prevalence of P. Macrophylla and M. Myristica, where they were planted or naturally occurred within the different land-use types. Other information sought included extent of coverage and degree of usage of the species. In all, nine hundred (900) questionnaires were systematically distributed within the three agricultural zones of Imo State. The ecological survey involved field studies in the Natural forests, farm/fallow lands and home gardens. 10% of the existing forested and farmed lands were sampled and complete enumerations were done for the species in the home gardens. In each of the Natural forest, transects of 1 km were laid at 100m intervals. Statistical Analysis: Data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as graphs, means, frequency and percentages. Tree volume and basal areas were computed and extrapolated on per hectare basis using Newton’s formula.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The result indicated that P. macrophylla was more prevalent in the natural forests of Owerri Zone than the other land-use types (Table 1). The structural developments (the height and diameter growths) were better in the Natural forest than the farm/fallow lands and home gardens in the zone. In Orlu and Okigwe zones, P. macrophylla occurrences were higher in home gardens compared to natural forests. This suggested that more values are placed on the utilization of the species in the rural areas (Orlu and Okigwe) in comparison with the modernized-city (Owerri) zone. Table 1: Occurrence and growth of P. macrophylla

Variable Zone Land-use type Natural forest Farm/fallow land Home gardens Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD

No./ha Owerri 27 ± 13 0.2 ± 0.07 18 ± 6 Orlu 16 ± 5 0.42 ± 0.08 18 ± 14 Okigwe 20 ± 10 0.27 ± 0.08 26 ± 7

Dbh (cm) Owerri 41.84 ± 13.81 22.64 ± 6.11 22.18± 9.61 Orlu 51.76 ± 7.76 23.69 ± 6.74 21.84 ± 11.73 Okigwe 37.39 ± 13.60 24.46 ± 6.37 20.12 ± 5.81

Ht (m) Owerri 14.89 ± 5.17 7.30 ± 2.07 7.80 ± 3.88 Orlu 18.65 ± 3.64 7.77 ± 5.50 7.50 ± 2.79 Okigwe 13.26 ± 5.76 7.47 ± 1.82 7.08 ± 1.78

BA (m2)/ha Owerri 3.72 ± 1.78 0.09 ± 0.45 3.31 ± 0.41 Orlu 2.76 ± 0.72 1.88 ± 0.34 2.98 ± 0.93 Okigwe 3.77 ± 1.64 0.57 ± 0.28 3.77 ± 1.18

SV (m3)/ha Owerri 0.06 ± 0.001 0.01 ± 0.001 0.04 ± 0.001 Orlu 0.004 ± 0.001 0.002 ± 0.0004 0.04 ± 001 Okigwe 0.006 ± 0.003 0.001 ± 0.0001 0.006 ± 0.001

N.B: No. - number of tree occurrence; Dbh - diameter at breast height; Ht - tree total height; BA - tree basal area; SV - stem volume As shown in Table 2, Monodora myristica were not sighted on farm/fallow lands in any of the three agricultural zones of the state. In the natural forest the occurrence of the species was highest in Owerri Zone with least in Orlu Zone. The scarcity of the species on


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farm/fallow lands could be attributed to its dense shade-cover on agricultural crops, which results to unhealthy competition with arable crops. This make the farmers to cut it off, since it is not a good candidate for agroforestry. As an edible plant, its frequent usage may have also hampered the species regeneration. This result is in line with the report of Vuyiya et al. (2014), they asserted that human activities affect tree species richness, relative density and occurrence. Table 2: Occurrence and growth of Monodora myristica in the study area Variable Zone Land-use type

Natural forest Home gardens Mean ± SD Mean ± SD No./ha Owerri 17 ± 7 4±1 Orlu 15 ± 5 3±2 Okigwe 16 ± 7 4 ± 2 Dbh (cm) Owerri 29.57 ± 9.71 26.24 ± 9.42 Orlu 26.54 ± 10.38 26.19 ± 7.94 Okigwe 29.08 ± 3.31 23.41± 2.21 Ht (m) Owerri 11.24 ± 2.97 9.34±2.78 Orlu 9.84 ± 3.22 9.42±2.67 Okigwe 10.32 ± 3.31 8.75±2.22 BA (m2)/ha Owerri 3.64 ± 0.63 0.21± 0.09 Orlu 0.99 ± 0.36 0.25±0.20 Okigwe 2.42 ± 2.29 0.17 ± 0.07 SV (m3)/ha Owerri 0.006 ± 0.0003 0.003 ± 0.0001 Orlu 0.0014 ± 0.0002 0.0004 ± 0.0002 Okigwe 0.004 ± 0.003 0.001 ± 0.0007

N.B: No. - number of tree occurrence; Dbh - tree diameter at breast height; Ht - tree total height; BA - tree basal area; SV - tree stem volume Furthermore, the result showed that 93.7% of the people in the study area used P. macrophylla seeds as food, 14.3% used the barks for medicine, 11.7% utilized the leaves for medicine and 10.3% used the wood for fuel in Owerri Zone. With regards to M. myristica, 85.3%, 15.7 % and 13.3% of the respondents utilized the seed, bark and leaves for food, medicine and fuel wood respectively (Fig. 1).

In Orlu Zone, 88.7%, 17.0%, 10.7 and 9.4% of the respondents utilized P. macrophylla for food (seeds), medicine (barks), medicine (leaves) and fuel (wood). The respondents consumed the seeds as food. M. myristica is consumed by the respondents in forms of food (seeds) (82.3%), medicine (bark) (12.5%) and medicine (leaves) (11.2%).


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Fig. 1: Utilization of Pentaclethra macrophylla and Monodora myristica in Owerri Zone

Fig. 2: Utilization of Pentaclethra macrophylla and Monodora myristica in Orlu Zone

93.7

0

79.3

14.3

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24.2

11.7

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17.4

10.3

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P. macrophyllaM. myristica

17

0

12.510.7

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11.29.4

82.3

88.7

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P. macrophyllaM. myristica

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The result further showed that 91.7% of the people in the study area used P. macrophylla seeds as food, 13.3% used the barks for medicine, 10.7% utilized the leaves for medicine and 10.3% used the wood for fuel in Owerri Zone. On the other hand, 79.0% utilized M. myristica. The rate of P. macrophylla seed utilization was higher in Okigwe in comparison with Owerri Zone, which is an urban area (Fig. 3). This is in line with the report by Zahari et al. (2011), they asserted that modernization and globalization have affected the consumption of native food by the rural populace. Majority of the people in this zone utilized the species for medicinal purposes than as fuel-wood. Consumption and utilization of these species were least in Orlu zone, probably due to reduced population and lower occurrence of the stands compared to the other two zones.

Fig. 3: Utilization of Pentaclethra macrophylla and Monodora myristica in Okigwe Zone Large proportion of the two NTFPs consumed in the study area come from the natural forests 85. 0% (Fig. 4). This is in line with the findings of Ros-Touen and Wiersum (2003), they stated that the contributions of NTFPs to the improvement of livelihood is tied to the existence of Natural forests, as most of the commercial extractions of e resources are carried in the Natural compared to other land use-types.

93.7

0

79.3

14.3

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24.2

11.7

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17.4

10.3

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P. macrophyllaM. myristica91.7


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Fig. 4: Sources of the two Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) utilized in the study area

CONCLUSION The study provided information on the occurrence and distributions of the two (Pentaclethra macrophylla and Monodora myristica) Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) across different land-use types (natural forests, fallows/ home garden) and the contributions of the species to rural Livelihood and food security. Heavy dependence on the species in the three agricultural zones of Owerri, Orlu and Okigwe did not match the regeneration or propagation of the species, as most of the extractions were carried out in the wild (natural forests). No M. myristica stand was sighted on farm land, this was attributed to the competitive nature of the species when intercropped with arable crops. This may pose danger to the extinction of local species, considering the rate of consumptions and utilizations of the species among the communities in the state. It is recommended that government institutes a policy, which would ensure that all those involved in the extraction, consumption and commercialization of the two species should be made to cultivate them. At the same time, interested persons, who are willing to cultivate the species, should be encouraged by incentives. It may also be helpful for government to partner benefiting and surrounding communities to conserve the species while considering other local viable options to ensure sustainable production and management of the species.

69.7 69.9

0.9 1.5

85

42.8

6.53.9

50.3

38.7

0

10

20

30

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1 2

Sources

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Natural forest

Fallow land

Farmland/homegarden Plantation

Purchased

M. myristica

P. macrophylla


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REFERENCES Ajake, A. O. (2012). Analysis of forest trees species retention and cultivation in rural

farming system in cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 2(10): 60-75.

Eboh, E. (2005). Harnessing Renewable Resources Sectors for Economic Prosperity. Paper presented at the Economic Workshop Organized by AIEA and Department of International Development Abuja 22nd June, 2005.

Eggeling, W. J. (2002). The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda protectorate (Revised and enlarged by Ivan R. Dale). Government printer, Entebbe Uganda, Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. 491pp.

Ibeawuchi, I. I., Obiefuna, J. C., Ita, N. O., Onyia, V. N. and Uzoho, B. U. (2008). Soil amendments for enhanced field establishment and yield of Gnetum africanum (Okazi) plantlets in Owerri, Southeastern Nigeria. Life Science Journal 5(2): 63-69.

Imo State Planning and Economic Development Commission (2000). Statistical year book. Official document No. 4.

Irvine, F. R. (2000). Woody Plants of Ghana with special reference to their uses. Oxford University Press, London pp. 13-23.

Oboh, G. (2007). Pentaclethra Macophylla Benth. In: Van der vossen, H.A.M and Mkamilo, G.S. (Editors). PROTA 14: Vegetable oils/Ol’eagioneux (CD-Rom) Wageningen, Netherlands.

Oguntimein, B., Ekundayo, O., Laasko, I. and Hitunen, R. (1999). Constituents of the essential oil of Monodora tenuifolia. Flav. and Fragr J. 4: 193-195.

Okafor, J. C. and Fernandez, E. C. M. (1987). Compound farms of southeastern Nigeria: a predominant agroforestry home garden system with crops and small livestock. Agroforestry Systems 5(2): 153-168.

Okafor, J. C. (1995). Conservation and Use of Traditional Vegetables from Woody Forest spp. in southeastern Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the IP- GRI Workshop on Genetic Resources of Traditional Vegetables in Africa, August, 1995. Nairobi, Kenya.

Pimental, D., McNair, M., Buck, L., Pimental, M. and Kamil, J. (1997). The value of forests to world food security. Human Ecology 25(1): 91-120.

Ros-Tonen, M. A. F. and Wiersum, K. F. (2003). The importance of non-timber forest products for forest-based rural livelihoods: an evolving research agenda.

Talalaji, S. J. (1999). Essential oil from Monodora myristica grown in Ghana. West African Pharmacist 4: 64-65.

Vinceti, B., Ickowitz, A., Powell, B., Kehlenbeck, K., Termote, C., Cogill, B. and Hunter, D. (2013). The Contribution of Forests to Sustainable Diets. FAO, Rome. 30pp.

Vuyiya, E., Konje, M., Harrison, Tsingalia, H., Obiet, L., Kigen, C., Wamalwa, S. and Humphrey, N. (2014). The impact of human activities on tree species richness and diversity in Kakamega Forest, Western Kenya. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 6(6): 428-435.

World Bank (2002). The Contribution of Indigenous Vegetables to Household Food Security, Knowledge and Learning Center. African Region, World Bank.

Zahari, M. S., Kutut, M. Z. and Langgat, J. (2011). The Level of Alteration of Ethics Native Food: (A Case of Sarawak, Malaysia). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 1(6): 137-144.


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EFFECTS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION ON GROWTH AND YIE LD OF Celosia argentea L . IN A HUMID FOREST ULTISOLS LOCATION

Law-Ogbomo, K. E.* and Osaigbovo, A. U.

Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin, PMB 1154, Benin City, Nigeria [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This research was carried out to evaluate the effects of fertilizer application on the growth and yield of Celosia argentea L. and to determine the nutrient content and uptake of the crop as a result of fertilizer application. The study was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin in 2013 and 2014. The experiment was laid out using Randomized Compete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Six treatments were used for the trial: control, cattle manure, goat manure, swine manure, poultry manure and NPK (15:15:15) fertilizer. Routine analysis of the soil indicated that the soil was low in nutrient content. Data were collected on number of leaves, plant height, leaf area index (LAI) and stem girth at two, four, six, eight and ten weeks after transplanting (WAT). Total dry matter (TDM) was taken at four and eight weeks after transplanting. The dried samples were analysed for nutrient content and uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The results showed that the organic fertilizers performed better compared to NPK in both growth and yield parameters. The highest herbage yield (14.55 t ha-1) was obtained in swine manure treated plants and there was no significantly different with regards to cattle manure (14.26 t ha-1), goat manure (12.99 t ha -1) and poultry manure (12.81 t ha-1) treated plants. Fertilizer treated plants had higher nutrient content and uptake with reference to the control plants.

Keywords: Low fertility status, Nutrient uptake, productivity, total dry matter.

INTRODUCTION Celosia argentea L. commomly known as Cockscomb is an edible species of the genus, Celosia, family Amaranthaceae, and subfamily Amaranthoideae. This leafy vegetable is an essential component of people’s diet in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa. It has high economic value especially during the dry season, as it is a source of income to the rural vegetable farmers (Akinfasoye et al. 2008). The leaves and young shoots of Cockscomb plant are used in making soup and other vegetable source. The soup is consumed with staple foods such as rice, maize, cassava or yam. The leaves contain high levels of calcium, phosphorus and iron. Cockscomb plant is an important source of proteins, calories, vitamins and minerals especially in areas where animal protein sources are scarce. The seed could be processed into food items, supplements and additives. It has some medicinal properties as the liquid extract from the leaves and flowers is used to bath a patient recovering from illness, while also serving as an antidote for snake bites (Denton et al., 2004). It is can be used as a treatment for intestinal worms (particularly tapeworm), blood diseases, mouth sores and eye problems (Wikipedia, 2014).

The root is used to treat chronic eczema and gonorrhoea, the seeds are used to treat diarrhoea and chest complaints. It is reported be useful in the treatment of diabetes in India (Denton et al., 2004). The crop is used in Africa to help control the growth of the parasitic Striga plant. The crop is predominantly produced in Nigeria by resource-poor farmers and compound gardens where it is intercropped with arable starchy staples to produce enough

Law-Ogbomo, K. E. and Osaigbovo, A.U. (2018). Effects of Fertilizer Application on Growth and Yield of Celosia argentea L. in a Humid Forest Ultisols Location. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 50-57.


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food to satisfy their dietary and cash requirements (Akinyemi and Tijani-Eniola, 1997) and to minimize the risk of crop failure.

The average yield of this crop (7.60 t ha-1) has been limited by obsolete cultural practices employed in its production, such as non-use of manure/fertilizer input among other factors (Food and Agriculture Organization FAO, 2004). A major problem facing the production of C. argentea in Africa is low soil native fertility status as a result of continuous cultivation. To alleviate this problem the use of organic manure especially poultry droppings and ruminant dung is common with farmers in Nigeria for the production of this vegetable. Organic manure helps to improve the physical condition of the soil, provides adequate amount of necessary nutrients to soil productivity and plants growth (Adeyeye, 2009). The use of inorganic fertilizer by farmers has decline because of its high cost and scarcity. The fear of soil and water pollution by inorganic fertilizers calls for the use of organic manure that are renewable and less harmful (Ehigiator, 1998). Organic fertilization has been reported to produce better crops yield that keep produce longer and more nutritious than inorganic fertilizers (Yinda and Adeoye, 1994, Adediranet al., 1998). Furthermore, organic materials including crop residues, animal manure, sewage sludge and composted organic favour high yield and quality of food crops (Asuegbu and Uzo, 1984).

High crop yields are desirable due to the increasing pressure to feed the ever increasing population. It is therefore important to increase the productivity of the available land through the application of organic manure and/or inorganic fertilizer. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of organic manures (cattle manure, goat manure, swine manure, poultry manure) and inorganic fertilizer (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium i.e NPK) on growth, yield, nutrient content and uptake of C. argentea.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo state, Nigeria between 2013 and 2014. Benin City is located on Latitude 5°45′ N and Longitude 5°04′ E. It is characterized by a tropical climate and lies within the humid region. The area has a bimodal rainfall with mean annual total of 1762 mm and mean daily temperature of 26.5°C (Edo State Agricultural Development Project EADP, 1995). The study area was previously cultivated and left to fallow for a year with the dominant fallow species guinea grass (Panicum maximum). The site was mapped out and prepared prior to planting by manually clearing all existing vegetation and burning the debris. A composite soil sample was collected at a depth of 0-15 cm using an auger after which it was taken to the laboratory to air-dried, sieved and routinely analysed for its physiochemical properties using standard laboratory procedures.

The experiment was laid out using randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. Six treatments were used for the trial. The treatments were control, cattle manure, goat manure, swine manure, poultry manure and NPK (15:15:15) fertilizer. Four of the treatments, properly cured manures (cattle manure, goat manure, swine manure and poultry manure) which were procured from the University of Benin Teaching and Research Farm Project, with each incorporated into the soil at 15 t ha-1 four weeks before planting for equilibration. A sample of each of the organic fertilizers was analysed for its chemical composition using standard laboratory procedures. Seedbeds were constructed manually using hoes and spades.

The seeds of C. argentea were obtained from “Uselu” Market, Benin city, Nigeria. Seeds were sown by broadcasting in nursery beds erected in the experimental site. The nursery beds were shaded and manure incorporated into the soil before sowing. The beds were watered properly when necessary. After three weeks, seedlings were transplanted to the prepared seedbeds in the field and spaced at 40 cm by 40 cm to achieve a population of


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62,500 plants per hectare. The plots were watered and mulched after transplanting. NPK 15:15:15 was applied at the rate of 400 kg ha-1 to designated plots, one week after transplanting. After transplanting, watering, weeding, insect pest and disease control were carried out appropriately.

Data were collected on five randomly selected plants from the inner rows of each plot on number of leaves, plant height, leaf area, stem girth and dry matter. Dry matter and dry herbage were taken at eight and 10 weeks after transplanting (WAT). The dried herbage yield were analysed for NPK content. 0.2g of the ground material was ash 450°C for four hours. The ash was then taken up in hot dilute hydrochloric acid. Phosphorus was determined on the samples using Molybdenum Blue method and 1L on flame photometer (Obigbesan and Agboola, 1978). Total nitrogen was determined using Micro-Kjeldahl method (Obigbesan and Ayoola, 1978). From the NPK nutrient composition, nutrient uptake was determined as a product of total dry weight and the percentage nutrient composition (Obigbesan and Ayoola, 1978).

The plants were harvested at 10 WAT by cutting off the succulent part which are edible on the sampled plants to determine the fresh and dried herbage yield of the crop. Collected data were analysed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with GENSTAT statistical package, means were separated using Least Significant Differences (LSD) at 5% level of probability.

RESULTS Physical and chemical properties of the soil and chemical properties of used organic manures The result of the soil analysis is presented in Table 1. The soil textural class was sandy loam, slightly acidic, low in total N, K and low in organic carbon. Table 2 shows the chemical properties of the organic manures used for the trial. The chemical properties of the manure showed that cattle, goat and swine manures were slightly acidic, while poultry manure was slightly alkaline. Cattle manure had the highest amount of organic carbon. Furthermore, the results indicated that all the manures used contain total nitrogen and appreciable quantities of phosphorus, magnesium and potassium. Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of the soil at the experimental site before

cropping with C. argentea

Parameter Results pH (H2O) 5.38 Organic carbon (g kg-1) 11.97 Organic matter (g kg-1) 20.64 Total nitrogen (g kg-1) 0.89 Available phosphorus (mg kg-1) 7.92 Exchangeable cations (cmol kg-1): Calcium (Ca) 0.76 Magnesium (Mg) 0.12 Potassium (K) 0.75 Sodium (Na) 6.94 Exchangeable acidity (cmolkg-1) 0.60 Particle size (g/kg): Sand 872.60 Silt 17.60 Clay 109.80


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Table 2: Chemical properties of organic fertilizers applied before cropping with C.

argentea Parameter Organic fertilizers Cattle Goat Swine Poultry pH 6.00 6.50 5.60 7.70 Organic carbon (%) 38.00 21.00 20.00 26.20 Total Nitrogen (%) 2.30 1.37 1.30 3.00 Phosphorus (%) 0.84 0.84 2.18 1.28 Magnesium (%) 0.54 0.48 1.88 1.06 Potassium (%) 0.38 0.30 0.28 0.68

Effects of fertilizer application on the growth of C. argentea The effect of fertilizer application on the growth of C. argentea at eight WAT is presented Table 3. The tallest plants were obtained in plots treated with goat manure (39.80 cm) and the shortest plants were obtained in control plots (23.80 cm). All treated plants were statistically comparable and significantly taller compared to control plants. High stem girth and the thickest stems were obtained in plants treated with cattle manure (1.74 cm) and goat manure (1.66 cm) while other treatments including control had the least. The number of leaves ranged between 129 and 192 leaves in control plants and plants treated with cattle manure. Plants treated with cattle manure were significantly different from control. The distribution trend observed in number of leaves was mirrored in leaf area index (LAI). In terms of total dry matter (TDM), all fertilizer treated plants significantly accrued drier matter compared to control plants. TDM was significantly accrued in cattle manure treated plants (2235 g plant-1). Effects of fertilizer application on herbage yield, nutrient content and uptake of C. argentea Table 4 showed the effect of fertilizer application on herbage yield, nutrient content and uptake of C. argentea. All fertilizer treated plants produced fresh herbage yield than control except NPK. Though, plants treated with cattle manure had the highest herbage yield, they were not significantly different from plants treated with goat, swine and poultry manures. The dry herbage yield ranged from 1.50 – 3.89 t ha-1 for control and swine manure treated plants. All treatments had higher dried herbage yield in comparison with control, except NPK. Plants treated with swine manure had the highest dried herbage yield, but were not significantly higher compared to plants treated with poultry, goat and cattle manures.

For N content, all the treatments were significantly different. Plants treated with poultry manure had the highest N content while the control plants had the lowest N content. P content ranged from 4.86 – 5.94 g kg-1 in control and NPK. All treatments were significantly different among themselves. For K content, plants treated with cattle manure (1.00 g kg-1) had the highest and control (0.54 g kg -1) had the lowest. Only cattle and goat manure treated plants performed better with regards to control. For N uptake, the lowest N uptake was obtained in control plants and plants treated with poultry manure had the highest N uptake. Among the treatments, NPK was the least followed by cattle and swine manure treated plants. For P uptake, control plants had the least (7.29 g kg-1) while swine manure treated plants had the highest (22.09 g kg-1). All treatments were significantly different with reference to control. Among the treatments, cattle manure was the least. For K content, all the treatments were significantly different


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than control. The highest K uptake was obtained in plants treated with goat manure followed by plants treated with swine manure, poultry manure, cattle manure and NPK in descending order.

Table 3: Effects of fertilizer application on the growth of C. argentea Treatment Plant height Stem girth No. of leaves LAI TDM

(cm) (cm) (g plant-1) Control 23.80 1.36 129 0.70 210.00 Cattle manure 38.60 1.74 192 1.73 2235.00 Goat manure 39.80 1.66 164 1.46 1070.00 Swine manure 34.20 1.52 159 1.23 1127.00 Poultry manure 33.30 1.52 150 1.26 1107.00 NPK 34.10 1.56 158 1.45 664.00 LSD(0.05) 8.090 0.212 62.6 0.521 225.400

Table 4: The effect of fertilizer application on herbage yield, nutrient content and uptake of C. argentea

Treatment Herbage yield

(t ha-1) Nutrient content

(g kg-1) Nutrient uptake

(g kg-1) Fresh Dry N P K N P K Control 9.27 1.50 7.20 4.48 0.54 4.56 7.29 0.93 Cattle manure 14.26 2.65 11.30 5.23 1.00 11.53 13.27 1.66 Goat manure 12.99 2.89 30.30 5.68 0.73 32.65 15.11 2.88 Swine manure 14.55 3.89 22.50 4.99 0.61 11.98 22.09 2.83 Poultry manure 12.81 3.10 43.50 5.01 0.63 69.75 15.46 1.89 NPK 11.39 2.49 18.30 5.94 0.62 10.80 14.79 1.34 LSD(0.05) 2.758 1.249 0.135 0.053 0.112 0.074 0.049 0.017

DISCUSSION

The soil used for cropping had low fertility status and was deficient in nutrients. The chemical composition of the organic manures used showed that they contain nutrients that can be used by crops. This was in agreement with FAO (1998) report that highlighted the role of organic matter in sustaining the fertility of soil for good production of vegetables by binding the soil to form good soil structure. According to Anon (2011), fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to the soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Recent study by Stewart et al. (2005) reported that about 40 to 60% of crop yields are attributed to commercial fertilizer use. This increase in crop yield is attributed to the nutrient content of the fertilizers used. Adeyeye (2009) asserted that organic manure helps to improve the physical condition of the soil. In addition it is a major contributor to plant nutrients. This study showed that the organic manures used contain the essential nutrients needed by plants in appreciable quantities.

Increase in plant height was most effective and noticeable in plants treated with cattle manure followed by goat manure. This increase was lowest in control plants. This may be related to insufficient nutrient uptake as the plants had to rely on the native fertility


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of the soil which was shown to be deficient in total N. The results obtained from the trial has showed that plant height increased with the WAT which suggest that plant height is sensitive to adequate nutrient supply (Sharma, 1997). The improvement in plant height was attributed to improvement of soil fertility with the application of fertilizer which replenished the soil with nutrients. Increasing number of leaves was noticed in plants treated with cattle manure. Leaves are the main organ of photosynthesis, any reduction in number of leaves will result to lower yields. This was in agreement with the work carried out by Ayodele (1983) which stated that changes in the number of leaves are bound to affect the overall performance of amaranth as the leaves serve as the photosynthetic organ of the plant. C. argentea is propagated mainly for its leaves and thus the increase in number of leaves over the WAT showed that fertilizer application had a positive effect on the photosynthetic organ of the plant that influenced its vegetative growth. Changes in stem girth were significant over the WAT in plants treated with cattle manure. This is in line with the work of Aliyu and Olanrewaju (1996) on Capsicum annum, he reported that the beneficial effects of macronutrients can be seen in the increase of stem girth and thus interpreted as accumulated growth. Increased LAI was more pronounced in plants treated with cattle manure. The LAI of any plant is a measure of the capacity of the photosynthetic system of translocation.

This increase in LAI as a result of fertilizer application led to higher dry weight and yield as shown in the results. Plants treated with cattle manure had the highest dry weights at eight WAT while the control plants had the lowest dry weights at the stated WAT. Furthermore, fresh and dry herbage yields were highest in plants treated with swine manure and lowest in the control plants. Previous works reported that application of fertilizers leads to larger dry matter production and yield (Obi et al., 2005) due to better utilization of solar radiation and more nutrient (Saeedet al., 2001). The yield of plants treated with NPK was reduced compared to plants treated with the organic manures as the trial approached termination. The findings in this study is in line with the works done by Levy and Taylor (2003), Xuet al (2003) and Walker and Bernal (2004), they reported that vegetables grows better at a later growth stage resulting in higher yields which can be attributed to high nutrient sustainability of organic fertilizer and improved biological properties of the soil.

Organic fertilization produce better crop yield that keep produce longer and more nutritious with regards to inorganic fertilizers (Yinda and Adeoye 1994, Adediranet al., 1998). According to Sridlar and Adeoye (2003) the use of inorganic fertilizers enhance crop growth and nutrient uptake. N, P and K of the harvested foliage were dependent on the soil nutrient status. N and P were the main nutrients removed from the soil against the small amount of K. Lower N content of NPK treated plants compared to goat and swine manures agrees with the findings of Alabi and Odubena (2008). The differences in the uptakes of primary nutrients (N, P and K) among treatments is attributed to proportionate increase in dried herbage production which ultimately increased the total uptake of nutrients (Srinivan, 1992).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This study showed that fertilizer application has a tremendous effect on the overall performance (growth and yield) of C. argentea. The cattle manure, goat manure, swine manure and poultry manure performed better compared to chemical fertilizers in terms of fresh herbage yield which is the economic yield. Based on the findings from this research, it is recommended that farmers can apply fertilizers to infertile soils to increase productivity of vegetable production for a sustained soil and excellent crop yield.


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REFERENCES Adediran, J.A., F.I. Oguntoyinbo, R. Omonode, and R.A. Sobul, (1998).Evaluation of

Phosphorus availability from three sources in Nigerian soils.Common Soil sci. plant Anal. 29: 2659-2673.

Adeyeye AS, (2009). Pod shattering attributes and the responses of soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) to Compost, Nitrogen fertilizer and Rhizobium inoculation. PHD Theses submitted to the Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan 2009.

Akinfasoye J.A., Ogunniyan D.J., Akanbi W.B., Olufaji A.O. (2008). Effect of organic fertilizer and spacing on growth and yield of lagos spinach (Celosia argentea) J. Agric. Soc. Res. 8(1):70-77.

Akinyemi, S.O.S. and Tijani-Eniola, H. (1997).Effects of cassava density on productivity of productivity of plantain and cassava intercropping system.Fruits 50: 17-23.

Alabi, D.A. and Odubena, Y. (2008).A preliminary study of the effect of two organic wastes and NPK (15:15:15) on the growth and yield of cowpea.Nigeria Journal of Horticultural Sciences 8: 19 – 27.

Aliyu, L. and Olanrewaju, J.D. (1996). Response of pepper to fertilizers.Nutrient concentration and uptake as affected by nitrogen and phosphorus level. In: Proc. 14th Horton Conference, Ago-Iwoye, 1-4 April 1996.

Anon (2011). “Glossary of Soil Science Terms” Soil Science Society of America. Retrieved on October 20, 2014 from:https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary

Asuegbu J.E., Uzo J.O. (1984). Yield and yield components; Response of Vegetable crops to farm yard manure rates in the presence of inorganic fertilizers on the growth and yield of maize. J. Agric. of Univ. of Puerto Rico 68: 238- 243.

Ayodele, O. J. (1983). Soil fertility management for the production of fruits and vegetables in South Western Nigeria. Acta Hort. 128:237-242.

Denton O.A. (2004).Celosia argentea L. (internet) Record from Protabase.Grubben, G.J.H & Denton, O.A (Editors) PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressourvesvegetales de I’Afriquetropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. http://database.prota.org/search.html:

EADP (Edo State Agricultural Development Project) (1995). Edo State Agricultural Development Project Annual Report. 1995.

Ehigiator J.O. (1998). Farmyard manure need for adoption as an alternative to chemical fertilizer uses in Nigeria. Niger. J. Hort. Sci., 3: 1-9.

FAO (1998). Food and Agricultural Organisation Yearbook volume 52 FAO (2004).Food and Agriculture Organisation statistical database.FAOSTAT website,

http//faostat.fao. Levy, J.S. & Taylor, B.R., (2003). Effects of pulp mill solids and three composts on early

growth of tomatoes. Bioresource Technology 89(3), 297 – 305. Obi, C.O., P.C. Nnabude and E. Onucha (2005). Effects of kitchen waste compost and tillage

on soil chemical properties and yield of Okra (Abelmoschusesculentus), Soil Sci. 15: 69-76.

Obigbesan, G. O. and A. A. Agboola (1978).Uptake and distribution of nutrients by yr.m (Dioscorarotundata).Expt. Agric. 14: 349-355.

Saeed, I.N, Abbasi, K. and Kazim, M. (2001). Response of maize (Zea mays) to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization under agro-climatic condition of Rawalokot Azad Jammu and Kashmir.Pakistan Journal Biological Sciences.4: 53-55.

Sharma, R.A. (1997). Influence of conjunctive uses of organic and fertilizer nutrients on nutrient uptake and productivity of soyabean- sunflower cropping sequence in typicchromusterts. Crop Research, 13: 321-325.


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Srinivan, K. (1992). Effect of amendment and zinc levels on the growth and yield of maize.Indian Journal of Agronomy 37: 246 – 249.

Stewart, M. W., Dibb, W.D., Johnston, E.A. and Smyth, J.T. (2005).The contribution of commercial fertilizer nutrients to food production. Agronomy Journal, 97: 1-6.

Sridhar, M.K.C., and G.O. Adeoye (2003).Organomineral Fertilizers from urban wastes: The Nigerian Field 68, 91 -111

Walker, D.J. and Bernal, M.P., (2004). Plant mineral nutrition and growth in a saline Mediterranean soil amended with organic wastes. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 35(17 & 18), 2495 – 2514.

Wikipedia (2014).Uses of Celosia.Retrieved from: http://www.en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celosia

Xu, H.L., Wang, R., Xu, R.Y., Mridha, M.A.U. andGoyal, S., (2003). Yield and quality of leafy vegetables grown with organic fertilizers. ActaHortic. 627, 25 – 33.

Yinda G.S., andAdeoye G.O. (1994). A comparative study of two composting methods. Proceeding of 3rd African Soil Science Society Conference, Ibadan.


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GROWTH AND ALLOMETRY OF BY-CATCH Portunus validus HERKLOTS, FROM OFF ATLANTIC COAST, SOUTHEAST NIGERIA

1*Udoh, J. P. and 2Robert, E. 1Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Environmental Management, University of Uyo, Akwa

Ibom, Nigeria 2Hatchery Unit, National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research, P. M. B. 6006, New Bussa,

Niger State, Nigeria *Corresponding Author: [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Portunus validus (Herklots) from the distant marine water off Qua Iboe River Estuary, Nigeria, were studied over a 9-month period. Carapace length-weight, carapace width-weight and carapace length-width parameters of 367 specimens of P. validus were investigated. Crab weight was found to be positively allometric with carapace length - CL (b = 5.712) and carapace width - CW (b = 3.238) indicating that crab gets plumper as it grows larger. The carapace length-width relationship was negatively allometric (b = 1.692). Females grew faster compared to males (2.8 mm and 0.833 mm CL per month). Males were heavier than females while sex ratio was in favour of females (1:1.15, χ2 = 3.841,1 df, p < 0.05; and the coefficient of determination (r2 = 76.4%) showed regular increase in chela size of female.

KEYWORDS : By-catch, chelae handedness, crab fishery, size distributions

INTRODUCTION Crabs are one of the least exploited crustaceans in artisanal and trawl fisheries in West Africa; the target species being shell fisheries (particularly prawns and shrimps) with high export potential (Ajana, 1996; Awosika, 2002). Majority of crabs of commercial value belong to families Portunidae (swimming crabs), Xanthidae (mud crabs) and Cancridae (cancer crabs). Portunus validus (Herklots, 1851) belong to the family Portunidae along with Callinectes sp. P. validus is found in marine or brackish water at 1 to 55 m, common at depths of 10 to 30 m, but at 30-70m in the Nigerian deep sea waters (Tobor, 1991) and can swim into sea channels inhabiting shallow coastal waters with bottoms consisting of sand or mud (Fischer et al., 1981). They also occur as epibenthic macrobenthos and in sandy burrows (between 5 - 20 m from sea) in the mangrove forests exclusively preferring zones with relatively high salinity, > 8g L-1 (Takeda, 2003; Ngo-Massou et al., 2012).

The portunid crabs like others, are less studied. Manning and Holthuis (1981) reported on the West African brachyuran crabs and noted that Portunus pelagicus and Callinecles sapidus were among 15 species introduced into the Eastern Mediterranean through the Suez Canal and apparently have become established there as part of the Eastern Atlantic species. P. validus was one of the least abundance among 13 mangrove crabs encountered in the mangrove forests of the Wouri River estuary, Cameroun (Ngo-Massou et al., 2012). Portunid crabs occur as incidental harvesting (by-catch) by commercial marine fish and shrimp trawlers in the near shore and deep waters. Fisheries by-catch is an international issue and is prohibited for human consumption, for that reason, thrown overboard as discards; hence, catch data are not reported for Portunus sp. caught in the Gulf of Guinea and bound for European market (López, 2012). Zeller and Pauly (2005) report a declining trend in global discards in recent times while Taiwo and Udoh (2013) advanced ecosystem-based mitigation measures used to

Udoh, J. P. and Robert, E. (2018). Growth and Allometry of by-catch Portunus validus Herklots, from off Atlantic Coast, Southeast Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 58-75.


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reduce seabird kills and by-catch in Australia that could be adopted to strengthen fisheries management in Nigeria.

Though by-catch problem exists, it is not given prominence in Nigeria, since they are not recognized as discards and are sold (about 3 metric tons daily, Ajayi and Adetayo, 1982) in local fish markets along the coastline as consumable. By-catch problem is pronounced in penaeid shrimping. Investigation of fishery information on 1919 international sales from 70 trawlers operating in the Gulf of Guinea evidenced 23 species with cephalopods (particularly Octopus vulgaris and Sepia officinalis) and decapods (particularly Penaeus notialis) as the target species and the rest considered as by-catch; including P. validus (3.66%), Panulirus regius (0.20%) and Penaeus monodon (0.56%) most of which were small in size, lacked well-defined sizes classes or classification and sometimes under marketable quality (López, 2012). In response, Chaiyawat et al. (2009) encourage the fattening of crabs to bigger sizes to improve their marketability and food quality, increase production and compensate for reduced catches from the sea. Ogunfowora et al. (2009) reported by-catch composition of large quantity (> 50-70%) of juveniles of commercial species and crabs - P. validus (̴ 30m depth), lobster - Panulirus regius (5-40m depth), brown cuttle fish- Sepia officianalis (down to 200 m), octopus; turtle - Eretmochlys imbricate (hawksbill), molluscs, e.g., snails and bivalves and others. They also reported that shrimping operations at 10 m depth around Qua Iboe fishing ground comprise 25.7% fish, 24% shrimp, 50.3% by-catch and, interestingly, 0% crabs (no catch). This is at variance with a growing market for crabs landed by trawlers along the coast. Tobor (1991) however, reported that trawlers operating offshore southwest Nigeria landed a crab catch of 49-70 kg at Lagos.

Crabs are rich in nutrition. Sudhakar et al. (2009) asserted that hard shell P. sanguinolentus crabs are superior compared to soft shell crabs in terms of nutritive value. Eight (51.096%) of 10 essential amino acids were reported in hard shell crabs against 7 (43.627%) in soft shell crabs; same for nonessential amino acids. The hard shell crabs contributed maximum (3.985mg) of minerals and minimum was in soft shell crabs (3.018 mg). The protein, carbohydrate and lipid contents were found to be higher (32.6±0.9, 1.17±0.92 and 2.41±0.30) in hard shell crabs in comparison with soft shell crabs (17.17±0.48, 0.68±0.15 and 1.50± 0.7).

Fattening of crabs like P. validus or P. pelagicus to improve their meat quality could best be achieved with live blue mussels which recorded the highest weight gain (38.79%), followed by crabs fed with moist pellets (32.16%); chopped fish (32.13%) and red seaweed (32.06%) respectively. Crabs fed with blue mussel and red seaweed also had the highest survival rate (88.33 %) while those fed only with red seaweed had the lowest weight gain (23.12%) and survival rate (75%) as well as lowest protein, fat, amino acid and fatty acid contents. Feeding with red seaweed or supplemented with red seaweed gave the highest methionine, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid - EPA, 20:5ω3 and docoesahexaenoic acid, DHA, 22:6ω3) and astaxanthin content (0.37 g/100g, 20.93, 2.50% and 10.32 mg/g) respectively, but the lowest cholesterol content (63.50 mg/100g). The moisture, protein, lipid, ash, carbohydrate and cholesterol (mg/100g) were found to be comparable (74.84±0.34, 14.93±0.06, 0.30±0.07, 1.50±0.13, 8.42±0.38 and 60.02±0.03) for wild caught and crabs fattened with live blue mussels (74.77±0.42, 13.35±2.50, 0.83±0.65, 1.78±0.07, 7.97±1.83 and 63.16±0.64) respectively, with no significant difference between the meat quality of the two crabs (Chaiyawat et al., 2009). Furthermore, the species is ideal for aquaculture because it is fast-growing with ease of larviculture, high fecundity and relatively high tolerance to both ammonia (Romano and Zeng, 2007a) and nitrate (Romano and Zeng, 2007 b, c) and responds to artificial diet.

Another feature of P. validus biology is the attachment of the barnacle Chelonibia patula as a common ecto-symbiont on its carapace (Lawal-Are, 2010) as also


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reported in P. pelagicus and P. sanguinolentes (Phillips and Cannon, 1978; Babu et al., 2012) and P. segnis (Pasternak et al., 2002; Özcan, 2012). Udoh and Otoh (2016) observed that the abundance of C. patula contributed negligibly to weight of C. amnicola. Santos et al. (1987) and Mendez et al. (2014) highlighted several impacts of barnacles on host organisms to include reducing access to their mouth, inhibiting cheliped and leg functions including anti-predatory escape or defense, reducing ecosystem engineering and digging behavior of crab and reducing survival at semi-terrestrial conditions during low tides, increasing susceptible to predators and fishing among others.

Growth and allometry of crabs are less studied because crabs grow through molts which make it impossible to mark an individual for a long time (Fukui and Wada, 1986). The premier records on growth and allometry of P. validus were the works of Baron (1975a,b) and Fischer et al. (1981). Baron (1975b) encountered P. validus of 11 - 18 cm CW male and 11 - 20.5 cm CW female with mode of 15.5-17.5 in males and 16 -16.5 cm for females; least occurrence was 11 - 19 cm crabs. He also reported a carapace width-chela diameter relationship for male and female with b values of 0.82 and 1.11 respectively; a sex ratio biased towards female - 1:3 and maximum carapace width of 19.0 cm which is in agreement with that of Fischer et al. (1981). The results of Baron (1975b) suggested that the males were preferred and could attain commercial value earlier than the females, with maximum chela size of 155 mm for males and 115 mm for females respectively.

Portunid crabs are popular and high quality sea food with high evolving market, but poorly studied. This study is aimed at investigating a natural population of marine P. validus fished off the Atlantic Coast southeast Nigeria and landed at the Qua-Iboe River Estuary over a nine-month period. Specifically, the study will establish the biometric characterization, population structure and the carapace length CL-body weight BWt, carapace length CL-carapace width CW, carapace width CW-body weight BWt relationships of the crab. The study will also provide information on the linear relationships of cheliped dimensions (palm depth - PD, palm length -PL, and gape - G) with carapace length (CL) in order to assess the characters which afford high discriminatory values between sexes thereby describe the secondary sexual characteristics for the species and also estimate developmental stability of the species by the degree of fluctuating asymmetry of bilateral trait (chelae handedness) of the crab. Results obtained could be compared with others and will give ecological information, important for its monitoring, management and conservation, especially as regarding commercial sizes landed by trawlers along the southeast coast.


Crab samples for this study (n = 367) were purchased bi-monthly from fishmongers at Ukpenekang beach, Ibeno, in the Qua Iboe River Estuary, located within latitude 4o 45’

North and longitude 7o 50’ to 8o 00’ East, in the tropical rainforest belt, southeast Nigeria (Udo and Ekpe, 1991). The crabs were caught as by-catch of shrimp / fishing trawlers operating in the Atlantic Ocean off southeast coast Nigeria and landed at Ukpenekang beach among other beaches, between November and August (excluding February). The climate of the study area is comprised of two seasons: the wet season (February- August) and dry season (September). Specimens were fixed in 10% formalin after collection prior for analysis. Sex determination was based on morphology of abdomen: narrow in males and broad in females (Udoh et al., 2011). Carapace length with spines - CL mm (from tip of frontal spine to margin of carapace), carapace length without spines - CSL mm (from base of frontal spine to margin of carapace) and carapace width with spine - CW mm (from the tip of one lateral spine to the tip of the other) were measured to 0.1mm using a sliding jaw


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vernier calipers, while body weights - (BWt) taken to 0.1g using electronic balance, after draining excess water from the body.

Sixteen different characters and their symbols were measured based on the sex on both males and females (Figure 1) including Carapace length with spine - CL; Carapace length without spine - CSL; Carapace width - CW; Body Weight - BWt; Body Depth - BD; Male Abdominal width- MAW; Male Abdominal length - MAL; Female Abdominal width (6th) - FAW6; Female Abdominal width (4th) - FAW4; Female Abdominal length - FAL; Meral length - ML; Palm length - PL; Palm Depth - PD; Gape - G; Eyestalk length - E and Finger length - FL. Crabs were grouped into size classes of 5 mm CL class sizes, their (cumulative) frequencies taken and relationships made. Relationships were drawn to determine the population structure of the species and the proportional changes in body parts, in correlation with variation in size of the species. Meral lengths (log length) measured were taken as indicators of lateral asymmetry in the legs (Williams et al., 1980). Huxley (1950) suggested that within a leg, each segment has different growth coefficients. Cheliped morphometry (Figure 1b) such as the palm length (PL), palm depth (PD), finger length (FL) and gape (G) were measured to 1.0 mm using vernier calipers and used to define the shape aspects or secondary sexual characteristics using (PL x FL x PD)1/3 for “Chela size”, PD/PL for “Chela robustness” and FL/(PL x PD)1/2 for “Finger size” (Williams et al., 1980).

Figure 1. Characters measured for P. validus (a) dorsal carapace, (b) major chela and (c) abdomen (Carapace length with spine - CL; Carapace width - CW; Abdominal Width - AW; Abdominal Length - AL; 4th Abdominal width - AW4; 6th Abdominal width - AW6, Meral length - ML; Palm length - PL; Palm Depth - PD; Gape - G; Eyestalk length - E and Finger length - FL)

Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) software. The χ2 test was used to investigate significant difference in sex ratio from unity (1:1). The mean, standard deviations and least square regression analysis (with carapace length after logarithm transformation) of each morphometric and meristic feature were determined and established for male, female and both sexes. The intersexual differences in cheliped morphometry were determined using the χ2 test. Regression analysis was used to explain relationships between various morphometric characters and expressed as: W = a + bL, where W = log total weight in grams, L = log carapace length (CL) or width (CW) in mm, a = intercept on Y-axis and b = exponent or slope of carapace width or length indicating isometric growth when b = 3 (Udoh et al., 2011). The carapace length-width relationship was determined by method of least square regression analysis in the form of CW = a + bCL. The exponents of the regression analysis b obtained were tested for departure from isometry using t-statistics: t = [(Sx.|b-3|.√n-2) / (Sy √1-r2)] (Sokal and Rohlf, 1981), where Sx, Sy are standard deviations of the independent variable (X: CL, CW) and dependent variable (Y: BW, FL, G, PD, etc.) respectively; r2 is the coefficient of determination of the relationship (Udoh et al., 2011). The length-at-first-capture (CL50 and CW50) or size at which 50% of the catches are retained by the gear or 50% of the recruits are under full exploitation was


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estimated as 50% probability on the logistic curve of the plot of % cumulative frequency against mid-length of class intervals.

RESULTS

Sex ratio and size distribution A total of 367 specimens of Portunus validus were examined (171 males and 196 females) with an overall male-female sex ratio of 1:1.15 which is significantly different from unity in favour of females (χ2 =3.481, 1 df, p < 0.05). The highest sex ratio of 1:2.8 was recorded in December and the least (1:0.4) in March. The preponderance of females over males was displayed throughout the sampling period (Figure 2b) and with crab sizes (Figure 2c), except in the months of March and May (Figure 2b) and at size classes (mid-length) 17.5, 22.5, 27.5, 42.5 and 77.5 mm CL. The male and female crabs ranged from 55.0 to 190.0 mm CW (109.70±50.47) and 48.3 to 175.0 mm CW (108.31±32.45) respectively, with a pooled mean of 109.01±42.37 mm CW. The seasonal abundance and size distribution of P. validus in the different months by sexes is depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Frequency polygon (%) of monthly abundance (a), sex ratio (b) and sex distribution by size (c) of P. validus from the distant marine water off Southeast Nigeria

Monthly mean length was least (37.93 mm CL) in December and highest in March, 80.36 mm CL (Figure 3c). Modal mean length was least (32.5 mm CL) in December and highest in May, 87.5mm CL (Figure 3a,d); the corresponding modes were 77.5 mm and 167.5 mm CW (Figure 3b). Mean carapace length with and without the short spine were 55.07 ±21.34, 51.12±22.40, 56.38±22.96 mm CL and 70.56 ±30.63, 50.79±19.85, 60.67±27.61 mm CSL, for male, female and pooled, respectively (Figure 3). The respective values for body weights were, 165.02±184.83, 118.83±128.36 and 109.01±42.37 g; hence, males were significantly heavier by 46.19 g (p < 0.05, χ2 = 29.66**) and longer by 3.95 mm CL (p > 0.05) than females. The crabs displayed parity in other body dimensions in terms of intersexual comparison (Table 1). The computed length-at-first-capture, CL50, were 63.4 mm (CW50 = 123.71 mm) and 55.0 mm (CW50 = 107.1 mm) for male and female, respectively (Figure 4).


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Table 1. Intersexual variation in body dimensions of P. validus (mm CL) Body Dimension Male Female Pooled χ2

MER_LEN 35.62±23.62 26.21±14.27 30.54±19.69 1.46 BD 33.17±13.94 33.17±13.94 33.92±13.94 0.03

E 6.24±4.97 6.24±4.97 7.78±5.28 0.61

CHEL_SIZ 18.68±10.98 21.72±8.45 24.09±55.67 1.45

CHEL_ROB 0.57±0.13 0.68±0.18 0.62±0.16 0.01

FING_SIZ 1.01±0.65 1.02±0.63 1.64±4.93 0.48

FAW6 - 8.14±4.89 8.14±4.89 -

FAW4 - 31.63±14.24 27.23±16.30 -

FAL - 35.58±13.66 35.62±13.87 -

MAW 6.66±4.28 - 24.81±14.14 -

MAL 27.71 ±10.76 - 36.98±12.78 -

Growth

Mean lengths (Figure 3a,b) at monthly intervals (Figure 3c) and modal (Figure 3d) scales shows distinct peaks and low points which form a pattern of growth in the crabs under study. Figure 3d shows the progression of three modal lengths (suggesting cohorts averaging 83.5, 41.0 and 36.0 mm CL) of P. validus in the catch sample. Cohort A represents larger-sized crabs who enter the fishery from 81 mm CL in November and grow largely up to 86 mm CL in May; giving an average growth rate of 0.833 mm CL per month. Cohort B describes crabs recruited in December at the length of 31 mm CL; grew to 36 mm CL in January, 41 mm CL in April and 56 mm CL in August giving an average growth rate of 2.778 mm CL per month. Cohort C describes smaller crabs recruited in June at 36 mm CL, which remained at 36 mm CL in the following month, July, giving an average growth rate of 0 mm CL per month. Generally, the larger-sized crabs display a smaller growth rate (0.833 mm CL) compared to the smaller crabs which grow faster (2.778 mm CL per month).


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Figure 3. Polygon of carapace length (a), width (b), monthly (c) and progression of three modal lengths (d) in P. validus off the Atlantic coast, Southeast Nigeria

Figure 4. Probability of capture analyses of P. validus off the Atlantic coast, Southeast Nigeria indicating length-at-first capture, CL50 = 63.4 mm (CW50 = 123.71 mm) and 55.0 mm (CW50 = 107.1 mm) for male and female.

Allometry Shape, allometry and chela relationships Statistically, significant allometry with carapace length was observed in relation to carapace width-CW, short carapace length-CSL, body weight-BW, body depth-BD, meral length-MER LEN, palm depth-PD, palm length-PL, male abdominal width-MAW, male abdominal length-MAL, fourth female abdominal width-FAW4, and female abdominal length-FAL. Chela size (chel-siz) was only significant with respect to female. Details of the regression analysis are highlighted in Tables 2 and 3. There was regular increase in chela size of female (b = 0.429) with coefficient of determination, r2 = 76.4%. The same was not true for male, r2 = 0.7% (Tables 2). Hence, chela size is a good secondary sexual character for female P. validus.

The chela robustness was approximately constant over the whole size ranges, in relation to carapace length- CL. Finger length- FL and gape - G, decrease with increase in carapace length, meral length and carapace width - CW (negative b values). The chela


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relationship (palm depth, PD) with meral length, carapace length and width are indicated below for this study and for Baron (1975b). Male: PD = 0.096 Mer_Len + 19.191 (r2 = 4.4) (This study) Female: PD = 0.030 Mer_Len + 16.895 (r2 = 0.3) Both: PD = 0.102 Mer_Len + 16.848 (r2 = 4.1) Male: PD = 0.165 CL + 13.108 (r2 = 14.0) (This study) Female: PD = 0.025 CL + 11.095 (r2 = 12.0) Both: PD = 0.159 CL + 13.364 (r2 = 14.4) Male: PD = 0.03316 CW + 18.977 (r2 = 2.4) (This study) Female: PD = 0.152 CW - 0.609 (r2 = 63.3) Both: PD = 0.06928 CW + 11.697 (r2 = 9.7) Male: PD = 0.82 CW + 66 males (r2 = 0.94) (Baron, 1975b).

Female: PD = 1.11 CW +51 females (r2 = 0.90)

Allometry in meral lengths Merus length (MER_LEN) strongly correlated with carapace width and carapace length of crabs in both sexes (r2 > 69%; Tables 2 and 3); stronger in males than females. The relationship indicated secondary sexual characters. Table 4 shows the estimates of b, in the relationship of meral length with chela dimensions (palm depth, gape, finger length, palm length, chela size, chela robustness and finger size). Significant relationships were established with palm depth and palm length. Gape, finger length and finger size decreased in size with meral length. The allometric values for all the characters were close to zero (0.0005 in chela robustness; 0.567 in palm length) with chela size of females showing highest positive significant value of b = 0.689.

Carapace relationships Carapace length-weight relationship Carapace length and total weight were significantly correlated in P. validus (r2 = 0.720, p < 0.05); 72% of the variations in body weight were explained by changes in carapace length. The values of the exponent b, for males and females were significantly higher than 3.0 (p < 0.05, b = 5.712) indicating that pooled sample of weight growth for male and female P. validus are positively allometric.

The carapace length-weight relationships of P. validus are thus: Male: Log BW = -212.416 + 6.544 Log CL (r2 = 0.751, p < 0.05, df =168)

(off Ibeno, Southeast; Present study) Log BW = - 0.5380 + 2.5023 Log CL (n = 192, r = 0.9110)

(off Lagos, Southwest; Lawal Are and Bilewu, 2009) Female: Log BW = -139.108 + 4.708 Log CL (r2 = 0.704, p < 0.05, df =197)

(off Ibeno, Southeast; Present study) Log BW = - 1.1475 + 3.0494 Log CL (n = 426, r = 0.8910)

(off Lagos, Southwest; Lawal Are and Bilewu, 2009) Pooled: Log BW = -178.478+ 5.712 Log CL (r2 = 0.720, p < 0.05, df =366)

(off Ibeno, Southeast; Present study) Log BW = - 0.9331 + 2.8566 Log CL (n =618, r = 0.8888)

(off Lagos, Southwest; Lawal Are and Bilewu, 2009)


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Carapace width-weight relationship The carapace width-weight relationships obtained for P. validus correlated significantly, where b was significantly different from 3 (p > 0.05) revealing positive allometric condition in males, females and combined sexes with these forms: Male: Log BW = 1.000+0.850 Log CW (r2 = 0.723, p < 0.05, df =168) Female: Log BW = 1.000+0.888 Log CW (r2 = 0.789, p < 0.05, df =168) Pooled: Log BW = 1.000+0.855 Log CW (r2= 0.730, p < 0.05, df =337)

Table 2. Regression analysis of body dimensions of P. validus based on carapace length (CL) as independent variable after log-log transformation Y Variable Sex n a b r2 x100 95% CI

Lower 95% CI Upper

tb

CW M F

M+F

140 198 338

28.226 35.547 18.596

1.453 0.438 1.692

91.3 12.7 84.1

1.385 0.276 1.614

1.522 0.599 1.771

41.98* 5.34*

42.21* CSL M

F M+F

169 198 367

58.204 35.547 44.478

0.214 0.438 0.356

2.9 12.7 8.0

0.026 0.276 0.232

0.403 0.599 0.480

2.25* 5.34* 5.64*

BW M F

M+F

169 198 367

-212.416 -139.108 -178.478

6.544 4.708 5.712

75.1 70.4 72.0

5.968 4.277 5.346

7.119 5.138 6.079

22.45* 21.57* 30.63*

BD M F

M+F

169 169 338

1.653 1.653 3.428

0.572 0.572 0.541

76.7 76.7 82.1

0.524 0.524

-0.514

0.620 0.620 0.568

23.44* 23.44* 39.29*

E M F

M+F

169 198 367

8.963 6.696 7.531

0.0006 0.0223 0.0182

0.1 0.6 0.5

-0.026 -0.018 -0.007

0.038 0.062 0.044

0.38 1.10 1.40

MER_LEN M F

M+F

169 198 367

-15.398 -.781

-8.540

0.885 0.528 0.722

84.0 68.7 74.7

0.826 0.478 0.679

0.943 0.578 0.765

29.63* 20.73* 32.83*

PD M F

M+F

169 198 367

13.108 11.095 11.364

0.165 0.025 0.159

14.0 12.0 14.4

0.102 0.080 0.119

0.227 0.178 0.199

5.21* 5.16* 7.85*

G M F

M+F

169 198 367

16.483 10.101 12.554

-0.112 -0.056 -0.075

6.3 2.3 3.3

-0.178 -0.107 -0.116

-0.046 -0.005 -0.033

-3.36 -2.17

-3.551 FL M 169 37.093 0.257 1.1 -0.121 0.635 1.34 F

M+F 198 367

26.371 29.494

0.246 0.285

1.1 1.4

-0.087 0.037

0.579 0.533

1.45 2.26

PL M F

M+F

169 198 367

0.437 7.728 3.116

0.570 0.314 0.463

79.8 57.6 65.7

0.526 0.276 0.428

0.614 0.352 0.497

25.68* 16.31* 26.47*

CHEL_SIZ M F

M+F

169 198 367

14.745 -3.226 3.666

0.272 0.429 0.377

0.7 76.4 2.6

-0.231 0.395 0.137

0.774 0.462 0.617

1.07 25.19* 3.091

CHEL_ROB

M F

M+F

169 181 367

0.565 0.664 0.631

0.00013 -0.00023 -0.00028

0.1 0.1 0.2

-0.001 -0.001 -0.001

0.001 0.001 0.001

0.321 -0.400 -0.793

FING_SIZ M F

M+F

135 181 316

0.680 3.264 2.512

0.005 -0.022 -0.15

3.2 0.5 0.5

0.000 -0.066 -0.039

0.010 0.022 0.009

2.080 -0.970

-0.1223

CL-CW M F

M+F

125 165 290

0.406 0.389 0.402

0.0013 0.0021 0.0016

20.3 63.7 25.5

0.001 0.002 0.001

0.002 0.002 0.002

5.60* 16.90* 12.58*

MAW M 136 -1.862 0.303 73.4 0.232 0.374 8.79*


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MAL M 135 5.213 0.800 8.11 0.651 0.950 10.95*

FAW6 F 196 10.721 0.021 0.2 -0.049 0.091 0.587 FAW4 F 197 -4.045 0.618 71.7 0.563 0.673 22.25* FAL F 197 7.650 0.529 .773 0.488 0.569 25.79* χ2 = 3.841, 5% level, 1df; *represents significant at 5% level; CI-confidence interval M-Male, F-Female, M+F- combined Table 3. Regression analysis of body dimensions of P. validus based on carapace width (CW) as independent variable after log-log transformation

Y Variable Sex n a b r2 x100 95% CI Lower

95% CI Upper

tb

CSL M F

M+F

169 169 338

77.294 -13.198 46.162

-0.061 0.591 0.133

1.0 93.2 4.2

-0.154 0.567 0.065

0.031 0.615 0.202

-1.31 48.03*

3.83

BW M F

M+F

169 198 338

-176.496 -261.760 -211.083

3.113 3.514 3.238

72.3 78.9 73.0

2.818 3.236 3.027

3.408 3.791 3.450

20.86* 24.99* 30.17*

BD M

F M+F

169 169 338

9.277 -8.519 3.773

0.231 0.385 0.277

75.3 80.2 73.1

0.211 0.356 0.259

0.252 0.414 0.295

22.56* 26.04* 30.22*

E M

F M+F

169 169 138

11.998 -1.781 7.239

-0.024 0.074 0.050

5.7 23.4 0.2

-0.040 0.054

-0.008

-0.009 0.095 0.018

-3.19* 7.14*

0.730*

MER_LEN M F

M+F

169 169 338

-13.198 -2.079

-11.032

0.445 0.297 0.403

90.4 70.0 82.7

0.423 2.68

0.383

0.467 0.327 0.423

39.70* 19.72* 40.13*

PD M

F M+F

169 169 338

18.977 -0.609 11.697

0.03316 0.152

.06928

2.4 63.3 9.7

0.001 0.135 0.047

0.065 0.170 0.92

2.03 16.96* 6.02*

G M

F M+F

169 169 338

21.761 -0.514 13.884

-0.107 0.045

-0.062

24.6 52.7 9.8

-0.136 0.038

-0.082

-0.078 0.051

-0.042

-7.38 13.64*

-6.05

FL M F

M+F

169 169 338

66.325 -8.496 38.778

-0.131 0.334

0.0096

1.2 86.7 0.0

-0.315 0.314

-0.105

0.052 0.354 0.125

1.41 33.04* 0.164

PL M F

M+F

169 169 338

6.558 -4.671 1.136

0.244 0.262 0.251

62.1 82.0 59.8

0.215 0.243 0.229

0.273 0.280 0.273

16.55* 27.58 22.38

CHEL_ SIZ

M F

M+F

169 169 338

16.665 -4.745 8.431

0.125 0.224 0.162

0.6 80.3 1.4

-0.119 0.226 0.017

0.369 0.263 0.307

1.01 26.10*

2.20

CHEL_ ROB

M F

M+F

169 169 338

0.524 0.853 0.646

0.0004 -0.0016 -0.0002

3.1 8.7 0.2

0.000 -0.0002 -0.001

0.001 -0.001 0.000

2.33* -3.981 -0.842

FING_ SIZ

M F

M+F

135 168 303

0.691 0.994 0.868

0.0025 0.0002

0.00013

2.1 0.0

0.05

0.000 -0.0003 -0.001

0.005 0.003 0.003

1.672 0.157 1.24

CL-CW M F

M+F

125 165 290

0.423 0.366 0.404

0.0005 0.0013 0.0008

8.9 54.6 22.1

0.000 0.001 0.001

0.001 0.001 0.001

3.46 13.99* 9.03*


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FAW6 F 196 -6.442 0.134 78.9 -7.66 -5.223 24.646* FAW4 F 197 -8.025 0.366 83.1 -10.431 -5.618 31.34* FAL F 197 13.51 0.23 45.1 9.821 17.198 12.824*

MAW M 136 1.63 0.212 42.6 -3.982 7.244 9.963* MAL M 135 0.204 0.303 85.3 -2.728 2.982 27.995* EW F 266 -4.858 7.414 2.5 11.395 1.679 -2.838 E V F 77 46.078 0.19 9.7 34.471 57.566 -2.03

χ2 = 3.841, 5% level, 1df; *represents significant at 5% level; CI-confidence interval M-Male, F-Female, M+F- combined

Table 4. Regression analyses of body dimensions of P. validus based on meral length (MER LEN) as independent variable after log-log transformation. Y Variable Sex n a b r2 x100 95% CI

Lower 95% CI Upper

tb

PD M F

M+F

169 198 367

19.191 16.895 16.848

0.096 0.030 0.102

4.4 0.3 4.1

0.028 -0.052 0.051

0.164 0.113 0.152

2.78 0.727 3.97*

G M F

M+F

169 198 367

17.517 14.047 14.499

-0.211 -0.260 -0.196

20.8 20.5 16.1

-0.274 -0.332 -0.242

-0.148 -0.188 -0.150

-6.63 -7.11 -8.36

FL M F

M+F

169 198 367

61.495 57.671 54.110

-0.269 -0.715 -0.301

1.1 3.7 1.1

-0.661 -1.231 -0.599

0.123 -0.199 -0.004

-1.35 -2.73 -1.99

PL M F

M+F

169 198 367

13.142 14.216 11.826

0.567 0.364 0.535

73.4 31.5 61.3

0.5.15 0.289 0.491

0.619 0.440 0.579

21.46* 9.50*

24.06* CHEL_SIZ M

F M+F

169 198 367

18.727 0.614 9.349

0.328 0.689 0.482

0.9 80.2 2.9

-0.192 0.641 0.196

0.849 0.738 0.767

1.25 28.20*

3.31 CHEL_ROB M

F M+F

169 198 367

0.555 0.626 0.612

0.0005 0.0010 0.0001

0.9 0.7 0.0

0.000 -0.001 -0.001

0.001 0.003 0.002

1.22 1.18 1.25

FING_SIZ M F

M+F

135 181 316

0.834 6.429 4.560

0.004 -0.153 -0.058

1.5 9.5 4.4

-0,002 -0.223 -0.088

0.010 -0.084 -0.028

1.40 -4.35 -3.80

χ2 = 3.841, 5% level, 1df; *represents significant at 5% level; CI-confidence interval M-Male, F-Female, M+F- combined Carapace length-width relationship The regression analyses indicated significant correlations (r2 = 0.841, p < 0.05) while b, was significantly lower than 3 in males, females and pooled sexes indicating negative allometry. Male: Log BW = 0.956+1.000 Log CW (r2 = 0.913, p < 0.05, df = 168) Female: Log BW = 0.920+1.000 Log CW (r2 = 0.127, p < 0.05, df = 168) Pooled: Log BW = 0.917+1.000 Log CW (r2 = 0.841, p < 0.05, df = 337) The equations for converting (long) carapace length (CL, with epibranchial spines) into short carapace length (SCL, without spines) are: male, SCL = 58.204 CL + 0.214; female, SCL = 35.547 CL + 0.438 and combined sexes: SCL = 44.478 CL + 0.356. In each case, the b value was significantly lesser than unity. Similarly, the equations for converting the long carapace width (CW, with epibranchial spines) into short carapace width (SCW, without spines) are: male, SCW = 77.294 CW - 0.061; female, SCW = -13.198 CW + 0.591 and combined sexes: SCW = 46.162 CW + 0.133. In this case, only the female b value was significantly lesser than unity.


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DISCUSSION

Growth and Allometry The size distributions of Portunus crabs in increasing order ranged from 6.0 – 15.0, 9.1-12.3, 11 - 18 cm CW, for male and 5.0 – 14.5, 10.4 - 11.7 and 11 - 20.5 cm CW for females as reported by Hosseini et al. (2012), López (2012) and Baron (1975b), respectively. Similarly, Portunus crab CL ranged from 3.5 – 8.0, 8.3 - 9.1 cm for male and 3.0 – 7.0 and 8.2 – 9.0 cm CL for female as reported by Hosseini et al. (2012) and López (2012), respectively. Lawal-Are and Bilewu (2009) recorded 9.2 - 19.5 cm CW and 4.5 - 11.4cm CW for P. validus off the Lagos Coast, Nigeria, for males and females, respectively. The male and female crabs for this study were 5.5 - 19.0 cm CW and 4.83 – 17.50 cm CW respectively, with a pooled mean of 10.90 cm CW and 2.52 – 9.85 and 1.25 -10.25 cm CL for male and female, respectively, smaller than Portunus sp. values reported above. Mean CW was higher in males (10.97 cm) than females (10.83 cm).

Result indicated that P. validus displays sexual dimorphism in size; males achieved larger size. Sexual dimorphism can serve as an initial assessment of the strength of sexual selection and may help to identify characters likely to be the subject of selection (Berkunsky et al., 2009). This is a common dimorphic trait found in many crab species (Rosenberg, 2002; Rufino et al., 2004) and in other decapods species (Barría et al., 2011) as a result of differences in reproductive patterns and growth rates since females divert significant amount of energy for reproduction and do not moult during incubation of eggs while males continually apportion their energy for growth (Fransozo et al., 2003; Hirose and Fransozo, 2008). The size differences may also have been due to differences in maximum body size (Hopkins and Thurman, 2010), ontogenetic allometry, age at maturity, nourishment, ecological or in environmental conditions of the water body (Arshad et al., 2006; Orensanz et al., 2007), predation pressure and food availability (Hines, 1989). The size difference in this study was however, non-significant (p > 0.05) suggesting that at birth, moulting frequency was similar among the young males and females which allowed them to attain maximum size almost about the same instant. Differences were also observed in weight between sexes in the present study possibly attributed to the bigger, strong chelipeds of males.

The abundance of the different sexes of P. validus varied monthly during this study (Figure 2); showing females to be slightly more than males (1:1.15) all through the study period. This is similar to a sex ratio of 1:2.2 obtained for P. validus off the Lagos Coast, Nigeria by Lawal Are and Bilewu (2009) but at variance with observation of male dominance (3:1) in P. validus by Baron (1975b), Mady-Goma et al. (2014), Ngo-Massou et al. (2014), López (2012) 2.1:1 and Hosseini et al. (2012)1: 0.88. However, Ngo-Massou et al. (2014) reported that most mangrove crab species in Cameroun present a sex ratio biased towards female as corroborated by Longonje (2008). Female-biased distribution was also reported by Devi (1985), White (1999) and Sumner and Malseed (2004) for P. pelagicus, and Udoh et al. (2011) for Callinectes amnicola. Generally, differences in sex ratios could result from differential growth rates, differential production of gametes and differential mortality between the sexes (Johnson, 2003). Other reasons include lunar phases and intertidal zonation (Emmerson, 1994), spatial preference of females for deeper waters, efficiency of fishing gear and market preference for large crabs (Archambault et al., 1990); and schooling according to sex (Devi, 1985). The female-biased distribution in the present analysis may be attributed to differential primary sex ratio, differential growth rates and mortality between sexes and susceptibility of females to capture. Furthermore, the population studied displayed a preponderance of females over males in most size classes sampled; males outnumber females in the largest size classes due to differential growth rates


Page | 70

during reproduction. When females attain maturity, they grow more slowly as a result of energy allocation to egg production. This delays the number of females in some size classes, especially in the reproductive size classes (Conde and Diaz, 1989).

The study revealed that P. validus exhibits average growth rates of 0.833 and 2.778 mm CL per month; much lower than 6.8 and 6.8 mm CL per month and 10 and 7.0 mm CL per month recorded for female and male P. pelagicus and Scylla serrata crab, respectively, in Kakinada region of India by Devi (1985). The faster growth reported by the latter may be attributed to environmental conditions favouring multiple moulting. The values of P. validus carapace width in this study attest bimodal distribution indicating juvenile and good recruitment with modes at 77.5 mm and 167.5 mm CW. The presence of crabs of smaller sizes in this study afforded observation of juvenile recruitment while Baron (1975b) observed that absence of individuals < 11 cm in commercial catch samples yielded unimodal distribution corresponding to the recruitment size obtained in this study (15.5-17.5 cm in males and 16 -16.5 cm in females). Lawal Are and Bilewu (2009) also documented unimodal distribution in P. validus of 4.5 - 11.4 cm CL and 9.2 -19.5 cm CW in which most of the crabs were of the same year class and of medium sized group.

The exponent, b, in the carapace length-weight (b = 5.712) and carapace width-weight (b = 3.238) relationships, were significantly different from 3 for P. validus indicating positive allometry. The exponent of the carapace length-width relationship was significantly lower than 3 (b = 1.692) indicating negative allometry. Udoh et al. (2011), obtained isometric b values for male; and negative allometry for estuarine female species of Callinectes amnicola; at variance with observations made for marine species in this study. This suggests that marine species tend to be heavier than estuarine species.

The b values of 0.03 and 0.15 were obtained in the carapace width-chela diameter relationship for male and female, respectively, much lower than 0.82 and 1.11, respectively, obtained by Baron (1975b). The chela diameter relationship with meral length and carapace length also exhibited allometric values towards zero. William et al. (1980), observed that the allometric values of body dimension were generally near to zero. Similar observations were made in this study with special reference to eyestalk length, palm depth, gape, finger length, chela size, chela robustness and finger size. Higher b values were observed for body depth, meral length, palm length, male abdominal length, fourth female abdominal width and female abdominal length. Fourth female abdominal width, female abdominal length and male abdominal width were observed to be strong predictors of sexual characteristics in the crab from this study. Similar observations were made by Udoh and Nlewadim (2011). Chela size in this study had positive values and increased with (size) carapace length; while chela robustness and finger size were negative. Chela size and finger size in this study had positive values and increased with carapace width; while chela robustness was negative. In most cases, only the female characters showed significant variations. This study also reveals that as the carapace length increases, the body weight and carapace width, and cheliped palm depth, palm length, finger length and gape reduces. Palm length (PL), palm depth (PD) and finger length (FL) are the standardized values of the major chela and can be used to define the shape aspects or secondary sexual characteristics including chela size, chela robustness and finger size (William et al., 1980).

Sanchez et al. (2013) applied landmark-based geometric morphometrics, specifically relative warp (RW) and Euclidean distance matrix analysis (EDMA), in describing geographic differences in the populations, species, ecological and fishery-related variations of the blue swimming crab Portunus pelagicus from Mindanao Bays, Philippines by pairwise comparison of carapace shape linear measurements. They noted that allometric changes in morphological shape serve as important sources of variation that could result in taxonomic synonymy and misidentification. Their analysis of shape showed that the carapace shapes of


Page | 71

both sexes were size-dependent and dimorphism correlated to specific functions carried out by each sex. This assertion is upheld in this study based on the CL and CW (criteria assessed for carapace shape) and cheliped data.

Length-at-first capture The length-at-first capture from this study (63.4 mm CL, 123.71 mm CW and 55.0 mm CL, 107.1 mm CW for male and female, respectively) indicate higher fishing pressure on the male crabs. This agrees with the legal minimum size for capture, CW = 127 mm (Potter and de Lestang, 2000). The critical size ratio (Lc/LMax) which is a proxy for mesh size is 0.650 and 0.537, for male and female, respectively. From the management point of view, increasing the mesh sizes of the gear used in the resource exploitation would allow escape of young crabs and to decrease the fishing pressure. This would enable more females participate in the reproductive activity and also to allow the young recruits to grow and reproduce in order to assure resource availability and sustainability. However, since crabs of commercial sizes were used in this study, the length-at-first-capture derived here does not represent that of the entire fishery; rather it could be regarded as index of capture or effort.

Export records of crab meat show excessive fishing pressures, decrease in the CPUE (catch per unit effort) of crabbers (Ingles and Flores, 2000) and scarcity of catch which has been attributed to the catch of crabs before they reached maturity or lay eggs. The present fishery practices such as the use of seines, push nets, and compressors damage the fishery by catching and landing large volumes of immature individuals and berried female crabs. This problem could be averted or minimized by implementing policies that prevent capture of crabs < 60 mm CL or 120 mm CW and 55.0 mm CL, 100 mm CW, for male and female, respectively. From the morphometric studies, crabs in the area are a potential stock for export and for aquaculture brood stock.

CONCLUSION The by-catch crabs would hence serve as a good source of food to the coastal communities. Live P. validus crabs could also serve as sources for broodstock for aquaculture and for fattening to attain higher market value. The continual capture and exploitation of undersized or juvenile crabs particularly between December-January should be discontinued. Such practices would eventually result in reduced catch of larger-sized crabs. Undersized and berried crabs incidentally captured, if alive, should be returned to the water to swim free or to regenerate lost swimming or chelate legs.

REFERENCES Ajana, A. M. (1996). Survey of coastal and brackishwater shellfish fisheries of Delta State.

A Refils report for the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP). Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR), Lagos.

Ajayi, T.O. and Adetayo, J. A. (1982). On the fish by-catch and discard or the shrimp fishery of Nigeria. Technical Paper No. 5 Nigeria Institute of Oceanography and Marines Research (NIOMR), Lagos.

Archambault, J. A., Wenner, E. L. and Whitaker, J. D. (1990). Life history and abundance of blue crab Callinectes sapidus Rathbun at Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. Bulletin of Marine Science 4b (1):145 – 158.

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EFFECTS OF ORGANIC FERTILIZER SOURCES AND LEVELS ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF EXTRA EARLY MAIZE ( Zea mays L.) IN UYO,

SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA

*Essien, B. A., Ikeh, A. O., 2Ndaeyo, U. N.2 and Essien, J. B.3 1Department of Horticulture and Landscape Technology, AkanuIbiam Federal Polytechnic,

Unwana, Afikpo, Ebonyi State Nigeria. 2Department of Crop Science Technology, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State Nigeria.

3Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Agriculture, Ishiagu, Ebonyi State. Nigeria

Corresponding Author: *[email protected]/[email protected]

ABSTRACT Yield of extra-early maize with different organic fertilizers at different levels was investigated in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design in a 5 x 4 factorial arrangements, replicated 3 times. The treatments include; Poultry droppings, Goat, Cow and pig manure with NPK 15:15:15 (400kg/ha) as control. The other factors were 4 rates of manure namely; 15, 10 and 5t/ha and control (no soil amendments). Parameters studied were; germination percentage, number of leaves, leaf area (cm2), plant height (cm), stem thickness, number of cobs, number of rows, number of seeds and grain yield (t/ha). Results revealed that application of poultry manure resulted in higher growth and yield of extra-early maize with plant height of 156.18cm and 162.33cm at 9WAP in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively while the lowest of 131.25cm and 130.04cm, respectively at 9WAP was recorded in pig manure. Application of 15t/ha of organic manure resulted in taller plants(152.68cm and 155.73cm) in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively. Poultry manure significantly increased leaf area (136.45 and 146.75cm2) in both years. Application of 15t/ha produced widest leaf area of 142.33 and 145.74cm2 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively. Zero application produced the lowest (72.52 and 86.33cm2).leaf area at 9WAP in both years, respectively. Application of poultry manure contributed to highest grain yield of 2.24 t/ha and 2.35t/ha in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons followed by cow dung and goat manure. Similarly, 15t/ha resulted to produced higher grain yield of 2.11t/ha and 2.24t/ha, respectively. Result of economic returns to management showed that poultry manure application had highest cost benefit ratio 1.97 and 2.39, respectively. Application of 10t/ha of organic manure had highest benefit ratio, 1.65 and 2.10, respectively while loss of -0.56 and -0.50 was recorded from control. Therefore, application of poultry, goat and cow manures at 10t/ha could be recommended for the production of maize in Uyo, southeastern Nigeria. Keyword: Organic manure, cost benefit ratio, growth characters, Maize, yield

INTRODUCTION Maize (Zea mays L) is one of the most important staple food crops in Sub-Sahara region. The savanna of West and Central Africa has one of the greatest potential for its major production because of relatively higher incident of solar radiation and less incident of pest and diseases during the cropping season (Sharifai et al, 2012). In 2008, the World production was 822.7million tons, 53.4million tons for Africa and 7.5million tons for Nigeria (FAO, 2010). Maize is an important crop in Nigeria mainly as an energy giving

Essien, B. et al. (2018). Effects of Organic Fertilizer Sources and Levels on Growth and Yield of Extra Early Maize (Zea mays L.) in Uyo, Southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 76-84.


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food. Based on cropped land and quantity produced, maize is Nigeria’s third most important cereal crops after sorghum and millet (Sauwaet al, 2013) and first in the rainforest zone. In spite of the fact that maize is cultivated virtually in every community and hamlet in Nigeria, the production of the crop for human consumption, livestock feeds and other multi-various industrial uses, its production is still below national demand (Idem et al, 2012). Declining soil fertility is a major production constraint in Nigeria and it is becoming increasingly critical to secure sustainable soil productivity. Inorganic fertilizers has been used as a way of sustaining soil productivity. However, the extent to which farmers can depend on this input is constrained by unavailability of the right type of inorganic fertilizers at the right time; high cost, lack of technical know-how and lack of access to credit (Chude, 1999). This has diverted attention of farmers to source for option. Organic fertilizer serve as alternative to inorganic fertilizer for improving the physical properties of soil that allow profitable crop production (Somani and Totawat, 1996).

Organic fertilizer include livestock and poultry excrements, crop waste (grains, legume chaff and stubble, fruit pods, shells and peels etc.), green manure (grasses, legumes, fresh crops etc.) and sewage sludge (Udohet al, 2005). More recently, organic fertilizers are on the rise as people are resorting to environmental friendly products. The low yield and productivity of maize in Southeastern Nigeria could be attributed to several factors among which include declining soil fertility, low solar radiation, high night temperature and poor agronomic practices. Morphologically, extra-early maize varieties are generally shorter in height (185-190cm), have few number of leaves per plant, flowering usually occur at about 40days after sowing (Elemo, 1997) and it requires high input of fertilizer. However, because of high cost of inorganic fertilizer couple with its unavailability, leaching, soil degradation, underground water pollution, animal manure becomes next option.

The use of animal manure in Southeastern Nigeria especially goat, pig, sheep and poultry is an old practice. The research study of Agymin et al (2006) showed great improvement in crop yield as a result of improvement of organic matter content of the soil of Northern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. Idem et al. (2012) also showed high yield performance of fluted pumpkin grown with organic manure compare to inorganic fertilizer. Ikeh et al. (2012) reported higher yield of cucumber grown on ultisol of Southeastern Nigeria under poultry and goat manure treatment.

In Southeastern Nigeria, there is lack of information on fertilizer requirement for extra-early maize especially Uyo, where maize production is pronounced in their farming system. Against this background, this study was carried out to assess the effect of organic manure on growth and yield productivity of maize in Uyo, Southeastern Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The field experiment was carried out at National Cereals Research Institute, Uyo -Outstation in 2013 and 2014 late cropping season. Uyo is located between Latitude 50.171and 50.271N and Longitude 70.271 and 70.581E (UCCDA, 1998), and an altitude of about of 38.1m above sea level. This ecological area lies within the humid tropical rainforest zone and has distinct seasons, the rainy season and dry season. The rainy season begins in March and last till October with a short dry spell in August, traditionally called “August break”.

Annual rainfall ranges from 2000 to 2500mm with relative humidity of about 75-95%. The maximum temperature is more than 300C while minimum temperature is less than 240C with a minimum sunshine duration of 2-4 hours per day (UCCDA, 1989). The soil physico-chemical properties of the experimental site at 0-20cm soil depth was; pH 5.50, organic matter 1.99%, total nitrogen 0.07%, available phosphorus 21.77mg/kg, exchangeable K 1.01cmol/kg. The soil particle size was sand (87, 81%), silt (7.29%) and clay (4.9%). The experimental site has been under cultivations for the past three years.


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Fluted pumpkin was harvested out of the experimental plot prior to the experiment. No fertilizer was added to the soil during fluted pumpkin cultivation. The experimental site measured 70m x 15m and the site was manually cleared and prepared into 5m ridges. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design in a 5 x 4 factorial arrangement, replicated three times. Planting was done at 75cm x 25cm inter and intra row spacing, respectively. The treatments were four organic fertilizer; poultry, goat, pig and cow dungs and recommended dose of NPK 15:15:15 (400kg/ha) and four organic fertilizer rates; 0, 5, 10 and 15t/ha was used.

Three seeds were planted per hole at a planting depth of 2-3cm. They were thinned down to one plant per stand at14days after planting. Planting was done on the crest of ridges. Organic manure was incorporated in the soil according to treatment basis during land preparation. Manual weeding was done twice at 3 and8 weeks after sowing using native African weeding hoe. Harvesting was done manually using cutlass in cutting the stalk and the cobs were removed, dehusked, dried and shelled.

The following growth and yield parameters were assessed from 10 sampled plants on germination percentage, number of leaves per plant, leaf area, plant height, number of cob per plant, number of rows per cob, number of seeds per row and grain yield in tonnes per hectare. Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance as described by Wahua (1999) and significant means were separated using least significant difference at 5% probability level. The cost of production and economic returns to management was also assessed using partial budget method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Results of chemical composition of organic fertilizer applied are presented in Table 1. Maize height as influenced by organic fertilizer source and rate is shown in Table 2. The maize height were significantly different (P≤0.05) at 3, 6 and 9 weeks after planting (WAP) in both cropping seasons. Application of poultry fertilizer had the tallest plant (38.71, 101.31 and 156.18cm in 2013) and (41.01, 109.45 and 162.33cm in 2014) at 3, 6, and 6 WAP, respectively. The shortest plant (24.31 and 79.25cm in 2013) and (27.45 and 81.70cm in 2014) at 3 and 6 WAP was from NPK. At 9 WAP, pig manure application had the shortest plant; 131.25 and 130.04 cm in 2013 and 2014 cropping season, respectively. The poultry manure plot had (4-37%, 9-22% and 9-16% in 2013) and(1-33%, 13-25% and 17-20% in 2014) taller plant than other organic fertilizer sources.

The effect of organic fertilizer rates on maize height were significantly different (P≤0.05) (Table 2). The increase in organic fertilizer rate showed increase in plant height.The application of 15t/ha of organic fertilizer had the tallest plant (36.45, 114.14 and 152.68cm in 2013) and (37.41, 124.60 and 155.73cm in 2014) at 3, 6 and 9WAP, respectively. The shortest plant (20.13, 61.14 and 75.61cm in 2013) and (37.41, 124.60 and 155.73cm in 2014), respectively was from control (no soil amendment). The result of interaction effect between organic fertilizer source and rate showed no significant difference (P≤0.05) in both cropping seasons.

Number of leaves per plant as influenced by organic fertilizer source differed significantly only at 9 WAP in both cropping seasons (Table 3). The poultry manure plot had the highest number of leaves per plant; 16.74 and 16.31 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively at 9 WAP, followed by goat manure; 13.63 and 14.71 leaves per plant, respectively. The poultry manure plots had 19-24% and 10-18% higher number of leaves per plant at 9 WAP than other organic fertilizer sources.

Comparing the effect of organic manure rates on number of leaves per plant, the result showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in all the weeks under study in both cropping season (Table 3). The result also revealed that increase in organic fertilizer rate, resulted to


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significant increase in number of leaves per plant. Application of 15t/ha of organic fertilizer resulted in highest number of leaves per plant (8.95 and 14.87 leaves per plant in 2013) and (9.28 and 14.99 leaves per plant in 2014) at 6 and 9 WAP. The interaction effect between organic fertilizer source and rate on number of leaves per plant was not significantly different.

Maize leaf area as influenced by organic fertilizer source showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in all the weeks under investigation (Table 4). Application of poultry manure produced the largest leaf area, followed by goat manure and cow dung. The NPK 15:15:15 plots had the least leaf area in all the weeks sampled. At 9 WAP, poultry manure had 136.45 and 146.75 cm2 leaf area in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively while NPK 15:15:15 had 128.91 and 131.06cm2 leaf area, respectively.

Effect of organic fertilizer rate on maize leaf area varied significantly (P≤0.05) in all the weeks under study (Table 4). Application of 15t/ha had highest leaf area (41.20, 112.66 and 142.33cm2 in 2013) and (45.80, 115.36 and 145.74cm2 in 2014) at 3, 6 and 9 WAP, respectively. The least leaf area (25.11, 59.09 and 72.52cm2 in 2013) and (28.77, 61.20 and 86.33cm2 in 2014), respectively was from control. The interaction between organic fertilizer source and rate on maize leaf area was not significantly different (P≤0.05) in all the sample weeks. Number of cobs per plant as influenced by organic fertilizer source and rate, showed no significant difference (P≤0.05) in both cropping seasons (Table 5). Among the fertilizer rate, application of 15t/ha of poultry manure had highest number of cobs per plant with 1.22 and 1.19 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively which was not statistically significantly different when compared to 0.95 and 0.96 cobs, respectively from control.

Number of rows per cob as influenced by organic fertilizer source showed significant difference (P≤0.05) with application of poultry manure producing highest number of rows per cob of 18.31 and 16.77 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively, followed by application of cow dung and goat manure while NPK 15:15:15 had 10.05 and 11.18 rows per cob, respectively. The effect of organic fertilizer rate on number of rows also varied significantly (P≤0.05) in both cropping seasons (Table 5). Application of 15t/ha the highest number of rows per cob with 14.56 and 14.94 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively; followed by 10 and 5t/ha application while control had the least; 10.68 and 9.92 rows per cob in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively.

Number of seeds per row as influenced by organic fertilizer source and rate varied significantly in both treatments. Poultry manure had significantly higher number of seeds per cob while pig manure had the least. The 15t/ha of organic fertilizer had the highest number of seeds per row while the least was from control.

Grain yield as affected by different organic fertilizer source varied significantly (P≤0.05). Application of poultry manure had the highest maize grain yield; 2.24 and2.35t/ha in 2013 and 2014 cropping season, respectively. This was followed by application of cow dung and goat manure. The least grain yield; 1.85 and 1.88t/ha, respectively was from pig manure. The result shows that application of poultry manure had 11 – 17% and 13 -20% grain yield more than other organic fertilizer sources.

The effect of organic fertilizer rate on grain yield also vary significantly (P≤0.05) with application of 15t/ha of poultry manure, producing highest grain yield (2.11 and 2.14t/ha) in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively, while control treatment had least grain yield, 0.31 and 0.33t/ha, respectively.

Results of cost of production indicated that application of NPK 15:15:15 resulted to highest cost of production N333,000 and N350,500 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively (Table 6). The highest cost of production recorded in treatment of NPK was due to the cost of purchasing NPK fertilizer. High cost recorded in 2014 compared in 2013


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was due to the increase in cost of fertilizer. Comparing the net return to management, the result shows that the application of poultry manure resulted to highest economic return of N572,400 and N 662500 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively with corresponding cost benefit ratio of 1.97 and 2.20, respectively; followed by application of goat manure, N488.300 and N 558,600 with cost benefit ratio of 1.78 and 1.95, respectively. The least economic returns to management, N417,750 and N469,200 with least cost benefit ratio of 1.23 and 1.30 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively was obtained from NPK.

Among the organic fertilizer rate, application of 15t/ha resulted to highest cost of production (N333,500 and N345,700), respectively in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons while control treatment had least cost of production, N270,000 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively. The results further indicated that application of 10t/ha of organic fertilizer contributed highest to economic return to management (N481, 850 and N597, 800) with benefit ratios of 1.65 and 1.99 in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, respectively. The least net return to management with – N150,650 and - N134,700 was from control in 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons, with lost benefit ratios of -0.56 and -0.50 in 2013 and 2014 cropping season, respectively.

DISCUSSION The result of soil analysis before planting indicated that the soil was acidic, low in organic matter and total nitrogen. The particle analysis revealed that the soil was predominantly sandy soil. The low nutrient reserve recorded in the soil could be due to exhaustive use of the soil over the years without appropriate soil conservation practices. The significant differences recorded in growth and yield parameters evaluated under different fertilizer sources and rates could be attributed to the report of Ibia and Udo (2009) that crop respond more to fertilizer application in soil with very low nutrient content than soil with high nutrient reserve. Also increase in growth and yield recorded in treatment that received organic fertilizer could be that organic manure improves the soil fertility and soil pH especially in poultry, cow dung and goat manure that resulted to higher yield of grain. Low grain yield recorded in NPK treatment could be as a result of leaching and only nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content of NPK was not enough to support the growth and development of early maize. Low grain yield recorded in pig manure could be due to low nitrogen content recorded in pig manure. Application of poultry manure superseded all other fertilizer in terms of maize growth and yield. This could be due to high content of nitrogen and other micro nutrient present in it. This observation agreed with report of Ano and Agwu (2005), that high growth and yield parameters recorded in treatment that received poultry manure could be attributed to the increase in mineralized nutrient which improves soil physical and chemical conditions and improves the availability of micro and macro nutrients in the soil which were necessary for both development and yield of extra early maize.

The result also indicated increase in organic fertilizer rate with increase in growth and yield parameters evaluated. That means that increase in organic fertilizer rate also led to increase in nutrient content. The nutrients were also well utilized and assimilated then translocated to different parts of the crop. Result of cost of production and economic returns to management indicated that application of poultry manure resulted in highest return to farmers while the use of NPK resulted in highest cost of production with lowest cost benefit ratio. The result of rate of application indicated that most rational application with highest cost benefit ratio was application of 10t/ha irrespective of higher yield recorded in the treatment that received 15t/ha.


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CONCLUSION The results of the study show that application of organic fertilizer could guarantee higher production of extra early maize in Uyo, Southeastern Nigeria. Farmers in Southeastern Nigeria should apply organic fertilizer especially poultry, cow dung and goat manure at 10t/ha rate for high productivity and maximum returns to management.

REFERENCES Agyenim B., S. Zickermann, J. and Kornahrens M. (2006). Poultry Manual effect on

growth and yield of maize. West Africa Journal Applied Ecology, 9:1-11 Ano, A. O. and Agwu, C., (2005): Effect of Animal Waste on Soil Chemical Properties.

Nigeria Journal of Science, 15:14-19 Chude, V. O. (1999). Perspective on Fertilizer use in the 21st Century.Book of Abstract, Soil

Science Society of Nigeria Benin. In: Proceedings of 25th Annual Conference held at Precious Palm Royal Hotel from 21-25 Nov. 1999.

Elemo, K. A. (1997). Extra- early and early maize varieties as affected by rate and Time of nitrogen fertilization. In: B. Badu Apraku, M. O., Fakorede, M. Dedraogo and F. M. Quinn (eds). Proceedings of Regional maize workshop on strategies for sustainable maize production in West and Central Africa, Held at IITA, Cotonou, Benin Republic from 29th May-2 June, 1995. 241-246 pp.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2010). Soil Brota and Biodiversity “The Cereals of Sustainable Development” ftp: /Hp. Fao/010/i0112eo7.pdf, February, 2010

Ibia, T. O. and Udo, E. J. (2009). Fertilizer used for crops in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria. Sibon Book Limited, Nigeria. pp 109.

Idem, N. U. A., Ikeh A. O., Asikpo, N. S., and Udoh E. I (2012). Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizer in growth and yield of fluted Pumpkin (Telfariaoccidentalis, Hook .F) in Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State Nigeria Journal of Agriculture and Social Research, Vol. 12 (2): 74-84

Ikeh, A. O., Udoh, E. I., Uduak, G. I., Udounnang, P. I., and Etokeren, U. E., (2012). Response of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) to Different Rate of Goat and Poultry manure on an Ultisol. Journal of Agriculture and social Research, Vol.12 (2): 132-139

Sauwa, M. M., Lukman, S. A., Yusif, S. A., and Shehu A. (2013). Effect of manure sources and rates on growth and yield of maize in Sokoto, Nigeria. In proceedings of the 47th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Society of Nigeria held at Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Moore plantation Ibadan, pg 111-114.

Sharifai, A. I., Mahmud, M., Tanimu, B. and Abubakar I.U. (2012).Yield and yield components of extra early maize (Zea mays) as influenced by Intra- row spacing nitrogen and poultry manure rates. Bayero Journal of Pure Applied Science, 5 (1): 113-122

Sonami, L. L. and Totawat, K. L., (1996). Soil Conditioners and Amendment. Agro Tech. Pub. Academy, Udarpur.1st Edition. Pp28-160

Udo, J. U., Ndon, B. A., Asuquo, P. E. and Ndaeyo N. U. (2005). Crop Production Techniques for the Tropics. Concept Publication Ltd Lagos Nigeria. 409pp.

UCCDA (Uyo Capital City Development Agency) (1989). Metrological Information of Akwa-Ibom State.

Wahua, J. A., (1999): Applied Statistics for Scientific Studies. Africa Link Book. Page 355


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Table 1: Chemical Composition of Organic Fertilizer Nutrient (%) Nitrogen 4.88 4.15 3.84 4.50 Phosphorus 0.32 0.21 0.28 0.55 Potassium 0.84 0.68 0.65 0.43 Calcium 0.29 0.18 0.42 0.33 Magnesium 0.23 0.15 0.22 0.28 Sodium 0.40 0.35 0.31 0.42 Organic Carbon 48.70 51.25 40.11 51.80

Table 2: Maize Height (cm) as Influenced by Organic Fertilizer Source and Rate Treatment 2013 2014

Weeks After Planting Weeks After Planting Organic Fertilizer Source

3 6 9 3 6 9

Poultry manure 38.71 101.31 156.18 41.01 109.45 162.33 Cow dung 36.45 92.40 142.71 35.77 94.45 135.61 Pig manure 37.33 90.40 131.25 40.42 91.25 130.04 Goat manure 36.42 87.31 134.31 36.12 92.12 132.11 NPK 15:15:15 24.31 79.25 133.45 27.45 81.70 134.26 LSD(P<0.05) 2.12 4.40 4.55 2.70 4.19 5.03 Fertilizer rate (t/ha) 0 20.13 61.144 75.61 19.14 47.47 73.16 5 30.45 92.30 130.41 31.60 99.45 128.73 10 35.17 102.40 151.11 34.73 118.47 149.81 15 36.45 114.14 152.68 37.41 124.60 155.73 LSD(P<0.05) 2.11 4.22 4.90 2.12 3.69 3.75 Interaction NS NS NS NS NS NS

NS= not significant

Table 3: Number of maize leaves per plant as influenced by organic fertilizer source and Rates

NS= not significant

Treatment 2013 2014 Weeks After Planting Weeks After Planting

Organic Fertilizer Source

3 6 9 3 6 9

Poultry manure 3.75 8.69 16.74 3.81 8.75 16.31 Cow dung 3.15 7.33 12.68 3.36 7.51 13.41 Pig manure 3.22 7.45 12.84 3.24 7.67 13.55 Goat manure 3.40 7.74 13.63 3.45 7.84 14.71 NPK 15:15:15 2.75 7.39 13.50 2.91 7.58 13.92 LSD(P<0.05) NS NS 1.20 NS NS 1.12 Fertilizer rate (t/ha) 0 2.14 5.22 7.25 2.60 5.67 8.12 5 3.75 8.66 13.67 3.81 8.75 13.59 10 3.80 8.75 14.75 3.92 9.25 14.82 15 3.80 8.95 14.87 3.99 9.28 14.99 LSD(P<0.05) 0.55 1.10 1.33 0.11 0.92 1.75 Interaction NS NS NS NS NS NS


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Table 4: Maize Leaf Area (cm2) as Influenced by Organic Fertilizer Source and Rate Treatment 2013 2014

Weeks After Planting Weeks After Planting Organic Fertilizer Source 3 6 9 3 6 9 Poultry manure 39.40 106.26 136.45 42.68 110.75 146.70 Cow dung 34.45 99.20 127.56 38.14 101.33 135.25 Pig manure 32.40 102.36 130.49 39.40 105.98 132.66 Goat manure 33.40 101.45 132.40 35.12 102.75 134.75 NPK 15:15:15 30.40 98.20 128.91 32.34 99.92 131.06 LSD(P<0.05) 0.73 0.89 1.06 0.22 1.40 1.25 Fertilizer rate (t/ha) 0 25.11 59.09 72.52 28.77 61.20 86.33 5 36.40 97.66 120.40 38.50 99.25 124.74 10 40.45 108.75 139.20 45.20 109.01 140.66 15 41.20 112.66 142.33 45.80 115.36 145.74 LSD(P<0.05) 2.61 3.01 3.45 2.78 3.14 3.27 Interaction NS NS NS NS NS NS

NS= not significant Table 5: Yield and Yield Components of Extra-Early 2014 2015 Number of

Cobs/Plant Number of Rows/Cob

Number of Seeds/Row

Grain Yield (t/ha)

Number of Cobs/Plant

Number of Rows/Cob

Number of Seeds/Row

Grain Yield (t/ha)

Organic Fertilizer Source

Poultry manure 1.59 18.31 19.61 2.24 1.40 16.77 28.12 2.35 Cow dung 1.10 14.01 16.22 1.99 1.12 14.16 17.10 2.04 Pig manure 1.15 12.99 14.24 1.85 1.14 10.02 14.55 1.88 Goat manure 1.16 14.02 16.40 1.98 1.16 14.10 16.70 2.06 NPK 15:15:15 1.10 10.05 15.90 1.95 1.15 11.18 14.70 1.97 LSD(P<0.05) NS 1.66 0.85 0.68 NS 0.91 1.12 0.49 Fertilizer rate (t/ha)

0 0.95 10.68 11.25 0.31 0.96 9.92 14.92 0.33 5 1.18 14.50 17.20 1.69 1.17 14.88 18.14 1.77 10 1.19 14.55 18.90 2.01 1.18 14.90 18.77 2.19 15 1.22 14.56 18.94 2.11 1.19 14.94 18.99 2.24 LSD(P<0.05) NS 0.55 0.71 1.07 NS 1.14 0.28 1.40 Interaction NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS

Table 6: Cost of Producing Maize (N) and Economic Returns to Management in 2013 and 2014

2013 Total Cost

of Production (N)

Grain Yield (t/ha)

Gross Revenue (N)

Net Revenue (N)

Cost/Benefit Ratio

Organic fertilizer Source Poultry manure 290,000 2.24 862,400 572,400 1.97 Cow dung 280,000 1.99 766,150 486,160 1.74 Pig manure 278,000 1.85 712,250 434,250 1.56 Goat manure 274,000 1.98 762,300 488,300 1.78 NPK 15:15:15 333,000 1.95 750,750 417,750 1.23


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Fertilizer rate (t/ha) 270,000 0.31 119,350 -150,650 -0.56 0 283,500 1.69 650,650 367,150 1.30 5 291,000 2.01 773,850 481,850 1.65 10 333,500 2.11 812350 478,850 1.44 2014 Poultry manure 301,000 2.35 983,500 662500 2.20 Cow dung 300,000 2.04 836,400 536,600 2.79 Pig manure 280,000 1.88 770,800 490,800 1.75 Goat manure 286,000 2.06 844,600 558,600 1.95 NPK 15:15:15 350,500 1.97 807,700 457,200 1.30 Fertilizer rate (t/ha) 0 270,000 0.33 135,300 -134700 -0.50 5 285,500 1.77 725,700 440,200 1.54 10 300,100 2.19 897900 597,800 1.99 15 345,700 2.24 918,400 572,700 1.66

LP = Land preparation, SA = Soil analysis, PC= Planting cost, MP= Manure and application, WD= Weeding, MIS= Miscellaneous, TCP= Total cost of Production, GY= Grain yield, GR= Gross revenue, NR= Net revenue, CBR= Cost benefit ratio. *Miscellaneous (Cost of harvesting, shelling and treatment). * A tonne of maize grain was N385,000 and N410,000 in 2013 and 2014, respectively, based on the prevailing market price in each year.


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SEEDLING EMERGENCE FROM AFRICAN STAR APPLE ( Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don Syn. Gambeya albida) SEEDS SUBJECTED TO SCARIFICATION

INTENSITIES

Olayode, O. O. Department of Forest Resources and Wildlife Management,

P.M.B. 5363, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. [email protected] +2348034811371

ABSTRACT

Different methods with modifications have been adopted to overcome hard seed coat problem in tropical tree seeds. This study was conducted to investigate seedling emergence of Chrysophyllum albidum (G. Don) commonly called African Star Apple subjected to scarification intensities. Matured fruits of C. albidum were obtained from its area of natural range in Ekiti State. De-pulped seeds were then subjected to varying scarification intensities after which they were sown in polythene pots filled with topsoil. Cumulative counting of germinated seeds was done till no further germination was observed for about 7 days. There were four treatments based on the intensity of scarification which were Control (no scarification) known as E1, 10 strokes (E2), 15 strokes (E3) and 20 strokes (E4). E1 produced highest cumulative germination of 96.7% and completed germination at 36 Days After Sowing (DAS) followed by E2 which had 73.3% with germination ending at 29 DAS, E4 had 16.0% with germination completed at 26 DAS while E3 had the least of 10.0% with germination concluded at 22 DAS. ANOVA result for germination rate of C. albidum seeds revealed that at 24 DAS, 26 DAS, 28 DAS, 30 DAS, 32 DAS, 34 DAS and 36 DAS, there were significant differences among the treatments except for those of 18 DAS, 20 DAS and 22 DAS which showed no significant differences. Scarification did not improve germination of C. albidum seeds. Therefore, C. albidum seeds may not require any form of pretreatment when its fruits are freshly harvested, de-pulped, seeds extracted and sown immediately. Keywords: Chrysophyllum albidum, scarification intensities, germination rate.

INTRODUCTION

Seeds are considered as very essential in forest regeneration. In addition, the production of seedlings for afforestation, reforestation, and agroforestry projects are largely dependent upon the germination of available seeds. The use of good quality seeds in any planting endeavour is therefore imperative to its success whereas the highest seed yield is achieved in normal condition of nutrition and environmental conditions (Beyranvand et al., 2013; Kiani et al., 2013; Shaban, 2013a; Shaban, 2013b). In order to raise high quality forest seedlings, foresters require healthy seeds capable of producing plants which have ability to grow well on the chosen forest sites when given sound silvicultural treatments. Seeds are very crucial to forest regeneration especially in developing countries where seeds are still considered as the most practical, economical and commonly used planting material for propagation. Schmidt (2000) highlighted the uniqueness of seeds in natural regeneration and propagation to include the fact that seeds constitute unique genetic composition resulting from mixing parental genetic material and the random combination of gametes during fertilization. Seeds are usually produced in large numbers and are readily available each year or at longer intervals. Seeds are usually small concentrated packages of plants-to-be, containing nutrients for the establishment of the plant and usually much more resistant to damage and environmental stress. Also, many seeds can be stored for long periods under cold dry conditions with the exception of recalcitrant seeds.

Olayode, O. O. (2018). Seedling Emergence from African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don Syn. Gambeya albida) Seeds Subjected to Scarification Intensities. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 85-90.


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However, many factors hinder germination of seeds. These factors may either be external or internal to the embryo. Usually a major factor that is external to the embryo and prevents seedling emergence is that of hard seed coat. Although, seed coat testa has an advantage of protecting the seed from damage but it also makes it waterproof (impermeable). This is a problem for the germination of some seeds because the growing embryo needs oxygen and water which the hard seed coat makes impossible. Some seeds will not be able to germinate until the seed coat has been injured so that water can be imbibed and the embryo can respire. Therefore, to overcome this problem of hard seed coat in seeds, seeds are subjected to some treatments before sowing. FAO (2014) stated that more information is needed on the control of tree seed germination. Such information should include how dormancy can be alleviated and the factors influencing varying degrees of dormancy such as time of collection as well as climatic conditions. Consequently, this study was carried out to investigate the response of Chrysophyllum albidum seeds to different scarification intensities because of its hard seed coat. Generally, when a seed is exposed to favourable conditions, water and oxygen are taken in through the seed coat while the cell of the embryo then starts to enlarge. Then the seed coat breaks open and root or radicle emerges first; followed by the shoot or plumule that contains the leaves and stem. Nevertheless, as simple as this process appears, many factors can cause poor germination of seeds. High temperature causes the plant not to have enough oxygen. Another is sowing seeds too deeply; this can cause an emerging seedling to use up all the energy (food reserve in the seed) before reaching the soil surface. Also, some seed coats are so hard that water and oxygen cannot get through until the coat breaks somehow in order to allow imbibitions of water and oxygen. Several methods with different modifications have been adopted to overcome the problem of hard seed coat in tropical tree seeds. However, scarification is being adopted in this study to improve germination in seeds of C. albidum because Orwa et al. (2009) reported that light cracking of its seed might improve germination nevertheless, the extent was not stated. Many benefits have been highlighted as derivable from C. albidum. Some of these include the physical, chemical and nutritional characteristics of C. albidum fruits which have shown high industrial potentials (Oyelade et al., 2005; Olayode and Olawale, 2017). Its seeds are a source of oil, which is used for diverse purposes. The fruit pulp has been reported to be rich in Vitamin C and iron; also as an excellent source of raw material for industries (Akubugwo and Ugbogu, 2007). The fruits can be fermented and distilled for the production of wine and spirit. Several components of the tree including the roots and leaves are used for medicinal purposes. The bark is used as a remedy for yellow fever and malaria, while the leaves are used as emollient and for the treatment of skin eruptions, diarrhea and stomach ache, which are as a result of infections and inflammatory reactions (Adewusi and Bada, 1997). C. albidum fruit is also a rich source of natural antioxidant and has been established to promote health by acting against oxidation stress and related diseases such as diabetes, cancer and chronic heart disease (Burits and Bucar, 2002) whereas antioxidants are found in large quantities in fruits and vegetables. Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don commonly called African Star Apple belongs to the family Sapotaceae and it is native to the Central, Eastern and Western Africa (Amusa et al., 2003). The plant is specifically distributed in Nigeria, Uganda, Niger, Cameroon and Cote d’ivoire. It is widely distributed from West Africa to Sudan with an Eastern limit in Kakamega forest, Kenya (Orwa et al., 2009). It is a plant of the humid tropics. It is also called white star apple and distributed throughout the Southern part of Nigeria (Idowu et al., 2006).


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MATERIALS AND METHODS Four treatments were used in this study. The treatments were control and three intensities of scarification. Scarification of C. albidum seeds was achieved by scratching the distal portion of the seed on grater. Therefore, in this experiment E2, E3, and E4 had 10 strokes, 15 strokes and 20 strokes respectively while E1 was the Control (no scarification). Each stroke represents scratching the seed on the grater from one end to another which is 4cm in length. Thirty seeds in three replicates were used for each treatment making a total of one hundred and twenty seeds used for this experiment. Seeds were then sown into germination trays filled with topsoil after subjecting them to the different scarification intensities at 2 cm depth. These were watered daily to field capacity once in the morning. Cumulative germination count was done daily until no further germination was observed for about seven days. Germination was taken to have occurred when the cotyledon emerged above soil surface. Data obtained were subjected to one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) while Duncans’ Multiple Range Test was used to separate the means that were significantly different at 5% probability level.

RESULTS Germination of seeds of C. albidum seeds under different scarification intensities Germination started on the 18th DAS (Days After Sowing) for E1 and ended on the 36th DAS with cumulative germination of 96.70%. Likewise, for E2, germination began on the 18th DAS and was completed on the 29th DAS with cumulative germination of 73.30%. Also, for E3, Germination was noticed to have started on the 20th DAS and was completed on the 22nd DAS with cumulative germination of 10.00% recorded. In E4, germination began on the 18th DAS and was concluded on the 26th DAS with cumulative germination of 16.7% obtained (Table 1). Table 1: Mean germination percentage of C. albidum seeds subjected to different scarification intensities Scarification intensities

Germination percentage (%)

Germination began (DAS)

Germination ended (DAS)

E1 96.70 18 36 E2 73.30 18 29 E3 10.00 20 22 E4 16.70 18 26

Note: DAS = Days after sowing ANOVA result for germination rate of C. albidum seeds subjected to scarification intensities ANOVA result for germination rate of C. albidum seeds revealed that at 24 DAS, 26 DAS, 28 DAS, 30 DAS, 32 DAS, 34 DAS and 36 DAS, there were significant differences, except for those of 18 DAS, 20 DAS and 22 DAS which showed no significant differences among the different scarification intensities (Table 1).

However, when DMRT was used to separate mean germination rate values for the scarification intensities, it was observed that at 24 DAS, 26 DAS, 28 DAS, 30 DAS, 32 DAS and 34 DAS, E1 and E2 were not significantly different from each other but were significantly different from E3 and E4 while the latter were also not significantly different from each other. Whereas at 36 DAS, E1 and E2 were significantly different from each other and also differed from E3 and E4 which were not significantly different from each other (Table 2). Figure 1 shows the cumulative mean germination rate under the scarification intensities.


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Table 2: ANOVA results for germination rate C. albidum seeds subjected to different scarification intensities DAS DF MS F P 18 3 116.16 0.87 0.50 20 3 427.86 2.65 0.12 22 3 341.16 1.27 0.35 24 3 832.35 5.73 0.02* 26 3 1497.70 7.66 0.01* 28 3 1920.74 11.33 0.00* 30 3 2460.12 11.94 0.00* 32 3 2784.06 16.85 0.00* 34 3 2784.06 16.85 0.00* 36 3 3239.53 19.61 0.00*

*Indicates significance at p≤0.05 where DAS= Days after sowing, DF= Degree of freedom, MS= Mean square, F=F calculated, P=Probability levels Table 3: Differences in mean cumulative germination rate of C. albidum seeds under different scarification

intensities DAS EI E2 E3 E4 24 42.99a 47.01a 15.00b 17.71b

26 60.00a 50.94a 15.00b 19.92b

28 64.63a 57.00a 15.00b 19.92b

30 72.78a 59.22a 15.00b 19.92b

32 77.71a 59.22a 15.00b 19.92b

34 77.71a 59.22a 15.00b 19.92b

36 83.85a 59.22b 15.00c 19.92c

NOTE: Means with the same letter across rows are not significantly different α=0.05

Figure 1: Cumulative mean germination rate of C. albidum under scarification intensities

across assessment period

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36Cum

ulat

ive

Num

ber

of S

eedl

ings

Days after Sowing

E1 E2 E3 E4


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DISCUSSION Germination of C. albidum seeds under scarification intensities Many factors contribute to the timing and success of seedling emergence but that of hard seed coat is the most important of a series of components and processes that affect seedling emergence (Forcella et al., 2000). Moreover, seed treatment has been reported to enhance germination of recalcitrant seeds (Aduradola et al., 2005; Aduradola and Adejumo, 2005; Agbogidi et al., 2007) whereas C. albidum seeds are considered to be recalcitrant. Likewise, Asl and Sharivivash (2011) said that various chemical and mechanical treatments are used to overcome hard or impervious seed coats. Similarly, mechanical scarification gave the highest final germination percentage and rate in overcoming physical dormancy in Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) seeds (Koobonye et al., 2018). Nevertheless, reverse was the case in this study when C. albidum seeds were subjected to different intensities of scarification. It was observed that Control produced the highest germination percentage while the seeds subjected to 10 strokes of scarification ranked as the second best. However, germination percentages were poor in seeds subjected to both 15 strokes and 20 strokes. The result of this study corroborates what Orwa et al. (2009) earlier reported that seed pre-treatment is not necessary for C. albidum but a light cracking of the seed might improve germination. Although, light cracking of the seed in this study which can be compared to 10 strokes of scarification did not produce better germination than Control, the percentage produced was good. Furthermore, Asl and Sharivivash (2011) reported that seeds collected while they are slightly immature will have thinner seed coats and can often be germinated without any pretreatment. C. albidum seeds in this study could not be said to be slightly immature for the fruits from which they were extracted were already ripe but the fruits were freshly collected and seeds extracted from them without delay. This probably suggests that C. albidum seeds stored for longer period may respond to scarification above freshly collected ones. Schmidt (2000) opined that problems of seed coat dormancy have largely been overcome although pretreatments need adjustment for many species. This opinion holds true for many tropical tree seeds with hard seed coats as they may or may not require different pre-germination treatments.

CONCLUSION Results of the study showed C. albidum seeds may not require scarification or any pre-germination treatment at all when fruits are freshly harvested, de-pulped, seeds extracted and sown immediately. De-pulped seeds of C. albidum obtained from fresh ripe fruits can be sown directly without any form of pretreatment soon after harvesting to obtain good germination.

REFERENCES Adewusi, H.A. and Bada, S.O. (1997). Preliminary Information on the Ecology of

Chrysophyllum albidum in West and Central Africa. Proceedings of a National Workshop on the Potentials of the Star Apple in Nigeria. pp. 16-25.

Aduradola, A.M. and Adejumo, A. (2005). Effect of Some Pre-treatments on Germination of Erythrophleum suaveolens Seeds. In Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of FAN, November 7- 11, Kaduna, Nigeria. pp. 485- 489.

Aduradola, A.M., Adeola, B.F. and Adedire, M.O, 2005. Enhancing Germination in Seeds of African Star Apple, Chrysophyllum albidum (G. Don). J. Food Agric. Environ 3: 292-294.

Agbogidi, O.M., Bosah, B.O. and Eshegbeyi, O.F. (2007). Effect of Acid Pre-treatment on the Germination and Seedling Growth of African Pear (Dacryodes edulis G. Don). International Journal of Agricultural Research, 2(11): 952- 958.


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Akubugwo, I.E. and Ugbogu, A.E. (2007). Physicochemical Studies on Oils from Five Selected Nigerian Plant Seeds. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6: 75-78.

Amusa, N.A., Ashaya, O.A. and Oladapo, M.O. (2003). Biodeterioration of the African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) in Storage on its Food Value. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2(3): 56-59.

Asl, M.B. and Sharivivash, R. (2011). Effect of Different Treatments on Seed Germination of Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos). Modern Applied Science, 5(1): 200-204.

Beyranvand, H., Farnia, A., Nakhjavan, S.H. and Shaban, M. (2013). Response of Yield and Yield Components of Maize (Zea mayz L.) to Different Bio Fertilizers. International Journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research, 1(9): 1068-1077.

Burits, M. and Bucar, F. (2002). Antioxidant Activity of Chrysophyllum albidum Essential Oil. 14:323-328. Amusa, N.A., Ashaya, O.A. and Oladapo, M.O. (2003). Biodeterioration of the African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) in Storage on its Food Value Afr. J. Biotechnol, 2(3): 56-59.

FAO. (2014). The State of World’s Forest Genetic Resources. Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

Forcella, F., Arnold, R.L.B., Sanchez, R. and Ghersa, C.M. (2000). Seedling Emergence. Field Crops Research, 67: 123-139.

Idowu, T.O., Iwalewa, E.O., Aderogba, M.A., Akinpelu, B.A. and Ogundaini, A.O. (2006). Anticonceptive, Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Activities of Eleagnine: An Alkaloid isolated from Seed Cotyledon of C. albidum. J. Biological Sciences, 6(6): 1029-1034.

Kiani, M., Farnia, A. and Shaban, M. (2013). Changes of Seed Yield, Seed Protein and Seed Oil in Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) under Application of Different Bio fertilizers. International Journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research, 10(1): 1170-1178.

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SUSTAINABLE COWPEA TRADE IN WEST AFRICA REGION

*Sadiq, M. S.1, Singh, I.P.2, Yusuf, T.L.1, Sani, T.P.3 and Lawal, M.4 1Department of Agricultural Economics, FUT, Minna, Nigeria

2Department of Agricultural Economics, SKRAU, Bikaner, India 3Department of Agricultural Economics, IBBU, Lapai, Nigeria

4Department of Agricultural Education, Federal College of Education, Katsina, Nigeria Author correspondence address: Sadiq, Mohammed Sanusi, Department of Agricultural

Economics, FUT, P.M.B 65, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria Email: [email protected] (Tel: +2347037690123)

ABSTRACT

This research examined the sustainability of cowpea trade in the West Africa region due to the virulent oscillating price behaviour of the commodity in the region. Annual time series data of producer’s cowpea prices for Burkina-Faso, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal spanning from 1991-2015, sourced from FAO databank were used for the study. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results showed the presence of efficient spatial integration (tradability) in the prices of cowpea in the region as vividly justified by the existence of the law of one price (LOP). The price shocks in Mali and Senegal markets that induced deviations from their equilibrium levels would induce the traders in these markets to react to innovation in a way that the prices would converge towards their equilibrium values. The degree of market integration in the Nigerian cowpea market was undermined by autarkic and leverage effects. The cowpea price of Nigerian market dominated price determination in other markets as the effect of bad-news originating from Nigerian cowpea market will not die-out over-time in the selected cowpea markets in the region. However, the trade of cowpea in the region was found to be very useful as explosive volatility pattern in the market prices of cowpea was not observed. Therefore, strengthening of the physical market infrastructure, use of e-trading and development of well-defined and articulated transparent agricultural policy or market measures by the regional bloc organisation (ECOWAS/CEDAO) in the region will assist in the development of a single uniform economic market in West Africa in particular and Africa in general. Keywords: Price; Spatial integration and equilibrium; Cowpea; West Africa

INTRODUCTION In recent years, the study of market integration has gained lots of interest. Barrett and Li (2002) defined market integration as the tradability or contestability between markets. This definition encompasses the market clearance (spatial equilibrium) process in which supply, demand and transaction costs in distinct markets jointly determine the prices and trade flows, as well as the transmission of price innovations from one market to the other or both. Furthermore, Barrett (2008) defines tradability as the trade of commodity between two economies or it entails that market intermediaries are indifferent between exporting from one market to another. Therefore, tradability signals the transfer of excess demand from one market to another, as captured in actual or potential physical flows.

Agricultural market integration which is our focus has been a central issue to many contemporary debates on trade liberalization, price policy and reform of state trading agencies in the developing countries. This is because market integration is perceived as a pre-condition for effective market reforms in developing nations (Mukhtar and Javed, 2008). The persistent mismatch in the demand and supply of cowpea in the West Africa

Sadiq, M. S. et al. (2018). Cowpea Trade in West Africa Region. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 91-105.


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region has induced a continuous virulent volatility in the price of cowpea in the region for almost half a decade now. The uncertainty about the future prices of cowpea has been a source of concern to the producers and consumers. Price risk management (Ahuja, 2006) and price discovery (Thomas, 2003) still remains the two important functions performed for advance contracts. No doubt, a fairly good idea of prices at a future date would facilitate producers to make rational market decisions especially regarding the choice of markets and quantum of commodity to be supplied for profit maximization. This background review raises important questions about the nature of spatial market integration of the regional cowpea markets in which trade take place and the policy implications for food security in the region. Specific to food security, free trade is expected to increase food supply, reduce transaction costs in food marketing and ultimately minimize the average price of consumer food.

Against this backdrop, spatial price integration and price forecasting would help in stabilizing the prices of cowpea in the West Africa region by eliminating the market imperfections (monopsony, oligopolistic and oligopsony intermediaries) in order to achieve market efficiency in the region. Sequel to this, the broad objective of this research is to examine the tradability of cowpea in the West Africa region. The specific objectives were to determine the extent and degree of market integration; to predict the future prices of cowpea in the region and to determine the volatility of cowpea prices in the region.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The present research used cowpea producer’s annual price time series data for Burkina-Faso, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal. The data which spanned from 1991 to 2015 was sourced from FAO databank. The data analysis was performed using the descriptive and inferential statistics. The first and second objectives were achieved using the unit root tests, Johansen co-integration test and restricted Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model and the last objective was achieved using the GARCH model. Empirical model

1. Augmented Dickey Fuller test Following Sadiq et al. (2017) the autoregressive formulation of the ADF test with a trend term is given below: ∆� = � + � � + ∑ ��∆�� + � ………………… (1) Where, �� is the price in market i at the time t, � and ∆�� − � �� is the intercept or trend term.

2. Johansen’s co-integration test Following Johansen (1988) the multivariate formulation is specified below: � = �� + � .............................................................. (2) So that ∆� = �� − � � + � .................................................. (3) � = �� − 1�� + � ∆� = ∏ � � + � Where, � and � are �� × 1� vectors; � is an �� × �� matrix of parameters; I is an �� × �� identity matrix, and ∏ is the �� − 1� matrix. Using the estimates of the characteristic roots, the tests for the number of characteristic roots that are insignificantly different from unity were conducted using the following statistics: �� !" = −# ∑ $�%�� 1 − �� ............................................. (4)


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�& � = −# $��1 − �� + 1� .................................................. (5) Where, �� denotes the estimated values of the characteristic roots (Eigen-values) obtained from the estimated ∏ matrix, and T is the number of usable observations.

3. Granger causality test Following Granger (1969) the model used to check whether market �� Granger causes market �� or vice-versa is given below: � = � + ∑ �∅�� + (�� %�� + �� ............................ (7) A simple test of the joint significance of (� was used to check the Granger causality i.e. )� : = (� = (� = …….. (% = 0.

4. Vector error correction model (VECM) The VECM explains the difference in , and , � (i.e.∆,) and it is shown below (Sadiq et al., 2016a; Sadiq et al., 2016b) : ∆- = � + .�- � − �� + ∑ (�∆� �� + ∑ -�∆- �� …………. (8) It includes the lagged differences in both x and y, which have a more immediate impact on the value of ∆-.

5. Impulse response functions The generalized impulse response function (GIRF) in the case of an arbitrary current shock ((� and history �/ �� is specified below (Rahman and Shahbaz, 2013; Beag and Singla, 2014) : 01234�ℎ, (, / �� = 789 + ℎδ, / �; − 789 �/ �; ...................... (9)

6. Forecasting accuracy For measuring the accuracy in fitted time series model, mean absolute prediction error (MAPE), relative mean square prediction error (RMSPE), relative mean absolute prediction error (RMAPE) (Paul, 2014), Theil’s U statistic and R2 were computed using the following formulae: <��7 = 1 #⁄ ∑ �� − 3�>�� ................................................................... (10) 2<�?7 = 1 #⁄ ∑ �� − 3�� ⁄>�� ............................................................ (11) 2<��7 = 1 #⁄ ∑ �� − 3� �⁄>�� × 100 ................................................. (12)

@ = A∑ B CDEFGHCEFGIJCEKHGELG∑ �CEFGHCE�JCEKHGELG .............................................................................. (13)

2� = 1 − ∑ �MEN OEN�KNLG∑ �MEN�KNLG ................................................................................. (14)

Where, 2� = coefficient of multiple determination, � = Actual value, 3 = Future value and T = time period

7. GARCH model The representation of the GARCH (p, q) is given as:


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9 = � + ��9 � + ��9 � + �� (Autoregressive process)............................. (15) And the variance of random error is: P� = �� + ��. �� + ��P �� ........................................................................... (16) P� = / + ∑ ��P ��Q�� + ∑ �� R�� ............................................................. (17)

Where 9 is the price in the ST period of the ST market, p is the order of the GARCH term and q is the order of the ARCH term. The sum of ARCH and GARCH �� + �� gives the degree of persistence of volatility in the series. The closer is the sum to 1; the greater is the tendency of volatility to persist for a longer time. If the sum exceeds 1, it is indicative of an explosive series with a tendency to meander away from the mean value.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Summary of statistics of the cowpea prices in the region Table 1 showed the price of cowpea to be highest in the Senegal market (SNM) and lowest in the Mali market (MLM). The results showed low instability in the prices of cowpea across the markets in the region with the volatility been highest in Nigeria market (NGM) and lowest in MLM, though almost at tie with the fluctuation level in the SNM. It was further observed that the cowpea prices in Burkina-Faso market (BFM), MLM and NGM were positively skewed (the upper tail was thicker than the lower tail) with the first two former been platykurtic while the latter been leptokurtic. However, the cowpea price in the SNM was negatively skewed (left) and exhibited platykurtic behaviour. Based on these outcomes, it can be suggested that all the markets with the exception of SNM have inventories, that is, stored their cowpea. The reason for no inventory in the SNM may be attributed to the comparative advantage of the country in the exportation of the country which is induced by high demand for the commodity in the region.

Stigler (2011) as cited by Sukati (2017) reported that floor or minimum prices tend to introduce positive skewness while ceiling or maximum prices tend to promote negative skewness. He further showed that from a practical perspective, the presence of positive skewness can help policy design, in that positive price asymmetry means that one can be quite confident in establishing a minimum price level. Furthermore, it was observed that the markets in the region did not exhibit extreme price values as indicated by the Kurtosis values (< 3) which were not excess. Table 1: Summary for statistics of cowpea prices for the selected markets

Markets Mean Min Max SD CV Skewness Kurtosis BFM 323.28 180.10 484.40 90.12 0.28 0.44 -0.92 MLM 284.53 162.40 477.40 93.79 0.33 0.40 -1.00 NGM 524.13 178.00 1108.3 195.65 0.37 1.09 1.59 SNM 552.34 216.30 837.10 163.74 0.30 -0.05 -0.71

Lag length selection The appropriate length of lag for truncation was lag four as shown by the selection criteria viz. Akaike information criterion (AIC), Schwarz Bayesian information criterion (SBIC) and Hannan-Quinn information criterion (HQC) (Table 2). The inclusion of the chosen lag length will make the model residuals to be pure white noise and also give parsimonious interpretable results.


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Table 2: Lag selection criteria Lag(s) AIC BIC HQC 1 -0.737 0.258 -0.521 2 -0.184 1.607 0.205 3 -0.778 1.808 -0.217 4 -4.376* -0.994* -3.642*

Source: Computer print-out, 2018 Note: * denote lag length selected by a criterion Unit Root Test The results in Table 3 showed that all the price series at level were non-stationary but after first difference they became stationary as indicated by their respective ADF tau-statistics which were non-significant and significant at 5% probability level respectively. Furthermore, similar results were obtained from ADF-GLS test when applied to the entire price series, thus, indicating that the earlier results given by the ADF were robust and valid. Therefore, since the price series were integrated of the same order i.e. I (1), the co-integration test was applied. Table 3: Stationarity test Markets Stage ADF ADF-GLS BFM Level -1.812(0.366)NS -1.155(0.227)NS 1U∆ -4.522(1.7e-4)S -4.628(4.3e-6)S MLM Level -2.145(0.227)NS -1.909(0.054)NS 1U∆ -6.652(1.3e-5)S -2.043(0.039)S NGM Level -0.879(0.335)NS -1.510(0.123)NS 1U∆ -8.581(3.2e-8)S -7.579(5.9e-13)S SNM Level -2.068(0.258)NS -1.248(0.195)NS 1U∆ -4.562(1.5e-4)S -5.215(2.6e-7)S

Note: ∆, NS and S indicate first difference, non-stationary and stationary at the level or at first difference at 5% probability level. Extent of Market Integration The multivariate co-integration test results revealed that the cowpea market prices had long-run association as shown by the trace and max statistics which had two co-integrating vectors each (Table 4). Therefore, since the prices of the three markets out of the four selected markets were dependent on each other, it can be inferred that the regional cowpea markets were efficiently integrated as the flow of price information was perfect across the markets in the region. In addition, the law of one price (LOP) holds between these markets i.e. the price differential between markets is equal to the cost of marketing despite their geographical spatiality in the region. The presence of three markets sharing the same stochastic trend along with at best, one independent market implies the presence of pair-wise co-integration in the cowpea market prices in the region. Table 4: Multivariate horizontal-wise co-integration result H0 H1 Eigen value Trace test P-value Lmax test P-value r = 0 r ≥1 0.909 87.62** 0.000 50.35** 0.000 r ≤ 1 r ≥2 0.719 37.27** 0.001 26.67** 0.001 r ≤ 2 r ≥3 0.395 10.60 0.095 10.56 0.065 r ≤ 3 r =4 0.002 0.038 0.898 0.038 0.891

Note: **denotes rejection of the null hypothesis at 5 percent level of significance The pair-wise co-integration test results showed that the LOP exists between the market pairs: BFM-NGM and MLM-SNG, while LOP did not hold between the market pairs of


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BFM-MLM, BFM-SNM, MLM-NGM and NGM-SNM (Table 5). Therefore, it can be inferred that there is low flow of price information in almost all the market pairs. The reason for the poor flow of price communication between the BFM against the duo of MLM and SNM may be attributed to sharp market practices i.e. leverage effect (inventory holding) in the former market in an attempt to take the lead in the exportation of the commodity in the region given that the trio are the current major exporters of cowpea in the region. It is worthy to note that the presence of co-integration implies the likelihood of these market prices to establishing long-run equilibrium. Therefore, the linear symmetric price transmission was applied to test the degree of integration of the cowpea prices in the region. Table 5: Pair-wise horizontal co-integration Markets H0 H1 Trace test P-value Lmax test P-value CE BFM-MLM r = 0 r ≥1 7.892 0.247 7.888 0.186 None

r ≤ 1 r ≥2 0.005 0.972 0.005 0.969 BFM-NGM r = 0 r ≥1 20.55** 0.044 17.71** 0.023 1CE

r ≤ 1 r ≥2 2.844 0.618 2.844 0.616 BFM-SNM r = 0 r ≥1 9.489 0.143 9.478 0.101 None

r ≤ 1 r ≥2 0.011 0.953 0.011 0.948 MLM-NGM r = 0 r ≥1 23.97 0.006 18.70 0.027 None

r ≤ 1 r ≥2 5.261 0.022 5.261 0.022 MLM-SNM r = 0 r ≥1 15.26** 0.015 15.26** 0.008 1CE

r ≤ 1 r ≥2 0.009 0.957 0.009 0.953 NGM-SNM r = 0 r ≥1 25.91 0.003 18.45 0.030 None

r ≤ 1 r ≥2 7.463 0.006 7.463 0.006 Note: **denotes rejection of the null hypothesis at 5 percent level of significance CE- Co-integration equation Degree of Market Integration The multivariate VECM results showed market MLM and SNM to be the most efficient in respect of the degree of market integration as they have the mechanism of absorbing and restoring their equilibriums which might be distorted by any price shock/innovation be it good-news or bad-news that may arise from any of the short-run equilibrium. The attractor coefficients of the cowpea prices in MLM and SNM were different from zero at 10% probability level, implying that the cowpea prices in these markets were stable in the long-run and any deviation due to external shocks that occur in the short-run were well adjusted. The significant attractor coefficients of 0.517 and 0.878 for MLM and SNM markets respectively, indicate the ability of these markets to incorporate price shocks or available price news in the markets by adjusting annually their previous disequilibria from the equilibrium at the speed of 51.7% and 87.8%. The estimated time required for the MLM and SNM to re-established equilibrium due to any distortion from any of the short-runs would be approximately 6.2 and 10.5 months. The flow of information is more in the Mali market as evident by the magnitude of the coefficient. Hence, the Mali market is more efficient compared to Senegal market in terms of reaction to price news (Table 6).

A price shock that induces price deviations from equilibrium level induced traders in Mali and Senegal cowpea markets to respond to the shock in a way that prices would converge backward towards their equilibrium values. Furthermore, there was no delay in the short-run price transmission in the Senegal cowpea market as its respective coefficients of the lagged price differences were not different from zero at 10% risk level. However, delay in short-run price transmission occurred in the cowpea price in the Mali market as evident by the coefficients of its lagged price differences which were different from zero at 10% probability level. In addition, these markets have surplus supply for international cowpea markets in the region as they maximize their comparative advantage in the production and exportation of this commodity.


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However, further changes in the subsequent periods (ECT1-2) for Burkina Faso helped its cowpea price series to achieve equilibrium in the long-run. Therefore, autarkic market due to the presence of high transactional costs relative to the price differentials between markets; presence of entry barriers, risk aversion and information failures and leverage effect due to inventory accumulation are the likely factors that might have undermined the degree of market integration and generate discontinuities in the Nigerian cowpea price response to exogenous shocks. Some characteristics of agricultural production, commercialization and consumption, such as inappropriate transportation infrastructure, entry barriers and information failures, have created more friction in the arbitrage process of cowpea prices in Nigeria. Literature documented inventory accumulation as a source of discontinuity in the adjustment of prices between markets. This is so, because variations in prices send signals to inventory holders that make them to accumulate or reduce stocks. The expected increase in the dominant market’s price in the next period constitutes an incentive for traders to increase inventory holdings, thus buying large quantities of cowpea in the region.

The pair-wise degree of integration showed the presence of only unidirectional equilibrium between all the pair-wise co-integrated markets (Table 7). The price series with positive significant attractor coefficients diverge from the equilibrium while those with negative significant attractor coefficients converge towards the equilibrium. The decomposition analysis showed the former market in the pair of MLM-SNM and the later market in pair of BFM-NGM to have long-run equilibrium. Therefore, in pair-wise Nigerian cowpea market prices is found efficient in reacting to news on prices in the Burkina-Faso market. This is so because of the wide mismatch between the supply and demand in the consumption of cowpea in Nigeria which makes the producers to measure the market outlook at individual dimension rather than from its conglomerated status in the region. In addition, at pair-wise level Nigerian market is non-autarkic but at multivariate dimension it is an autarkic market. Furthermore, the effectiveness of Mali market to price response from Senegal market may be attributed to the competitiveness of the former to have lead advantage in the cowpea trading in the region given that both countries are the largest exporter of the commodity in the region. Table 7: Bivariate vertical-wise VECM Adj. coeff ∆BFM ∆NGM ∆MLM ∆SNM ECTt-1 -0.076(0.069) -0.566(0.116) -0.603(0.221) 0.319(0.266) t-stat 1.08NS 4.86*** 2.73** 1.20NS Speed of Adj. Unidirectional Unidirectional R2 0.051 0.518 0.245 0.06 D-W stat 1.88 2.07 2.245 2.18 Autocor. 0.041{0.84}NS 0.082{0.77}NS 1.127{0.29}NS 0.504{0.48}NS Arch effect 0.457{0.49}NS 1.882{0.17}NS 2.681{0.261}NS 4.041{0.31}NS Normality 9.435{0.051}** 2.840{0.59}NS Note: *** ** * implies significance at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively NS: Non-significant; and value in ( ) is the standard error Direction of Price Formation The granger causality shows the direction of price formation between market pair and related spatial arbitrage, i.e. physical movement of the commodity to adjust the prices difference. The granger causality results presented in the Table 8 showed that two of the selected markets viz. BFM and MLM had two of their Chi2 statistics significant (less than 5% probability) for the causality of cowpea prices against the other markets. However, NGM and SNM had one each of their Chi2 statistics been significant (less than 5%). The cowpea prices of the market pairs: BFM-MLM, BFM-NGM and MLM-SNM had bidirectional causality; while market pairs: BFM-SNM, MLM-NGM and NGM-SNM had


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no causal relationships. The implication of the market pairs with bidirectional causality means that the former market in each pair contains useful information which predicts the future prices of the later market likewise the later market also contain useful information that predict the future price of the former. In other words, it means there is synergy between the market pairs in the formation of their future prices. For the market pairs with no causality, it means that there is neither feed forward nor feed backward in the transmission of prices between the market pairs. Therefore, it can be inferred that the market pairs with bidirectional causality had strong endogeneity as internal price factor determine the direction and formation of cowpea prices; while the market pairs with non-causality had strong erogeneity as the cowpea prices were determined outside the system. However, the case of unidirectional causality was not observed in any of the market pairs.

The Wald test of the cowpea prices in the region signified that none of the market dominated in the price formation of cowpea in the region. Therefore, it can be concluded that cowpea prices adjust in the markets according to the supply and demand situation in the region. Table 8: Horizontal pair-wise Granger causality test results Null hypothesis VW P < 0.05 Granger cause Direction X3< ↔ <Z< 20.85 0.000** Yes Bidirectional

16.34 0.003** Yes X3< ↔ [0< 13.73 0.008** Yes Bidirectional 14.96 0.005** Yes X3< ↔ ?[< 4.488 0.344 No None 7.764 0.101 No <Z< ↔ [0< 4.123 0.390 No None 3.071 0.546 No <Z< ↔ ?[< 20.46 0.000** Yes Bidirectional 30.93 0.000** Yes [0< ↔ ?[< 8.774 0.067 No None 8.078 0.089 No \]^ → àa 29.42 0.003** Yes Multidirectional â^ → àa 62.79 0.000** Yes Multidirectional bc^ → àa 40.82 0.000** Yes Multidirectional db^ → àa 73.07 0.000** Yes Multidirectional

Note: ** denotes rejection of the H0 at 5% level of significance NS: Non-significant → ← fgh�i jklmhln h�n ohpqmhln nSlgprSk�i lgisgprStg$, Effect of Innovation on the Future Prices of Cowpea in the Region If there is co-integration, the estimation of impulse response function (IRF) is inconsistent at long horizon when determine using the unrestricted VAR, so the stable impulse response function was estimated from the restricted VAR. The IRF results diagrammatically depicted in Figure 1 showed how and to what extent an innovation (bad-news) in one market affects the current and future prices in all the integrated markets in the region over a time span of 10 years.

The graph indicated that unexpected shocks that are local to BFM will have permanent effects on the cowpea price in MLM, SNM and inclusive its own market and transitory effect on the cowpea prices in the NGM. Innovations (bad-news) that are local to the MLM will have permanent effects on the prices in BFM and its own market and transitory effects on the prices in the NGM and SNM. It was further observed that orthogonalized shocks to the cowpea prices in the NGM will have permanent effects on the cowpea prices in BFM, MLM and SN and a transitory effect on the prices of cowpea in its own market. However, unexpected bad-news on the cowpea prices in SNM has transitory


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effects on all the selected markets inclusive its own market. It is worth to note that in the case of permanent effect the shock does not die-out over-time while the reverse is the case for the transitory shock. Therefore, it can be concluded that NGM has dominance effect in determining the cowpea price in other markets in the region due to wide mismatch between supply and demand for the commodity in Nigeria. Unlike NGM, BFM and MLM, the SNM will be a relatively market follower and will not play a significant role in the cowpea markets of the region as indicated by the lesser effect in the transmission of its price to all the selected markets.

Figure 1: Impulse response of the cowpea prices to innovation International Price Forecast of Cowpea in the Region Diagnostic checking and validation The VECM was found to be appropriate in forecasting the cowpea prices of the selected markets as indicated by the multivariate horizontal VECM diagnostic test results which vindicated the noise variables from the problem of autocorrelation and residual auto-covariance as shown by the Ljung-Box Q-stats and Langrage multiplier tests respectively which were not different from zero at 10% degree of freedom (Table 6). Therefore, the

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

0 2 4 6 8 10

BF -> BF

-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8

10 12

0 2 4 6 8 10

Mali -> BF

0 5

10 15 20 25

0 2 4 6 8 10

Nigeria -> BF

-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8

10 12

0 2 4 6 8 10

senegal -> BF

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

0 2 4 6 8 10

BF -> Mali

-15-10-5 0 5

10 15 20

0 2 4 6 8 10

Mali -> Mali

0 5

10 15 20 25 30

0 2 4 6 8 10

Nigeria -> Mali

0 2 4 6 8

10 12

0 2 4 6 8 10

senegal -> Mali

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100

0 2 4 6 8 10

BF -> Nigeria

-40-30-20-10

0 10 20 30

0 2 4 6 8 10

Mali -> Nigeria

-10 0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

0 2 4 6 8 10

Nigeria -> Nigeria

-40-30-20-10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0 2 4 6 8 10

senegal -> Nigeria

30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 2 4 6 8 10

BF -> senegal

-10-5 0 5

10 15 20 25 30

0 2 4 6 8 10

Mali -> senegal

-5 0 5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

0 2 4 6 8 10

Nigeria -> senegal

-30-20-10

0 10 20 30 40 50

0 2 4 6 8 10

senegal -> senegal


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absence of random error means that the regional market prices of cowpea are predictable and it is good for policy making, consumer decision and consumption pattern. Validation (ex-post prediction power) Though price movement prediction is in contrast to the efficient marketing theory which postulated that for a market to operate efficiently, prices should be unpredictable, in that if they are stationary and predictable they will attract investors and their active participation will ultimately lead to the cancellation of the prediction. However, this deductive (theory) idea has little empirical extent as inductive (facts) knowledge showed that prediction of prices is very important in measuring market efficiency except that the prediction should not be too long. One-step-ahead forecast of the prices along with their corresponding standard errors using naive approach for the period 2011 to 2015 (total 5 data points) in respect of the VECM fitted model was computed to determine the predictive power of the estimated equation (Table 9a). This was done to examine how closely they could track the path of the actual observation. Table 9a: One step ahead forecast of prices Period BFM MLM NGM SNM

Actual Forecast Actual Forecast Actual Forecast Actual Forecast 2011 484.40 495.60 477.40 481.90 375.40 385.80 837.10 838.80 2012 442.60 438.50 343.80 340.20 381.50 361.20 755.40 750.60 2013 464.90 431.50 357.50 350.80 388.30 261.90 800.20 762.10 2014 463.70 484.20 352.80 364.10 392.80 488.20 790.30 864.60 2015 312.60 334.20 246.40 245.50 280.20 410.60 526.20 474.20

The price forecasting ability of the producers’ market prices of cowpea was measured using the mean absolute prediction error (MAPE), root mean square error (RMSE), Theil’s inequality coefficient (U) and the relative mean absolute prediction error (RMAPE) (Table 9b). The results indicated the accuracy of the forecasted price as shown by the respective market RMAPE and U which were less than 10% and less than 1 respectively. Therefore, these relatively low values indicate the consistency of the forecasted prices with the actual prices. Table 9b: Validation of models Market R 2 MAPE RMSPE RMAPE (%) Theil’s U BFM 0.98 3.16 1.01 1.11 0.29 MLM 0.99 0.92 0.12 0.17 0.09 NGM 0.99 17.9 25.27 7.15 0.71 SNM 0.99 3.78 2.79 1.14 0.06

Source: Authors computation, 2018 Price forecast of cowpea in West Africa Table 9c and Figure 2-5 are the computed one step ahead out of the sample forecast of the producer’s cowpea prices (dollars per ton) spanning from 2016-2025 for the selected markets. The short span prediction was made in order not to affect market efficiency as long prediction will attract investors which will result to the breakdown of the forecasted price. The results showed that the prices of cowpea in BFM will witness a downswing sharp decline with the ebb being 2022 and thereafter a very slight oscillating trend (upswing and downswing) till the end of the forecasted period. The prices in the MLM will exhibit a recession, depression, touch the ebb at year 2021 and thereafter set the stage of recovery. Furthermore, it was observed that the cowpea prices in NGM will first witness a short oscillating trend with 2016 and 2018 being the trough and year 2017 being the cycle peak; after which the price will maintained a steep increase till the end of the forecasted period. The cowpea prices in SNM will exhibit similar price behaviour that will play out in the


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MLM. The remunerative price behaviour in the NGM will not be due to pricing efficiency but induced by the wide mismatch between the supply and demand which will make the market participants to indulge in inventory accumulation (leverage effect), thus shooting the price upward. Therefore, onus lies on the regional organization to strengthen the production and marketing infrastructure to ensure allocative efficiency in the marketing of cowpea in the region so that neither the producers nor the middlemen nay the consumers are better-off or worse-off. Table 9c: Out of sample price forecast of the selected cowpea markets ($ per ton) Year BFM MLM

Forecast LCL UCL Forecast LCL UCL 2016 274.50 220.00 329.00 225.10 168.10 282.10 2017 296.40 207.60 385.30 179.80 105.00 254.60 2018 234.90 141.70 328.10 73.90 47.13 166.20 2019 212.10 98.30 325.90 56.40 55.70 188.50 2020 186.80 34.60 321.80 65.20 95.20 225.50 2021 117.80 69.00 270.20 17.60 15.5 192.80 2022 113.40 69.00 295.70 54.60 54.00 263.10 2023 136.90 69.20 342.90 95.60 34.20 325.50 2024 130.00 91.20 351.20 116.60 28.80 362.10 2025 155.70 85.30 396.80 179.20 81.90 440.30 Year NGM SNM

Forecast LCL UCL Forecast LCL UCL 2016 357.70 120.50 594.80 517.80 392.20 643.40 2017 520.50 235.80 805.10 412.40 258.50 566.30 2018 303.80 14.70 593.00 282.00 106.40 457.60 2019 343.80 11.40 675.50 270.40 115.68 497.10 2020 444.60 84.80 804.40 235.90 136.27 503.00 2021 453.70 74.30 833.20 166.60 138.20 471.40 2022 513.70 113.80 913.60 229.90 133.00 592.70 2023 671.20 240.60 1101.90 256.50 133.20 646.10 2024 661.90 226.40 1097.40 240.40 173.60 654.30 2025 681.60 236.30 1127.00 328.50 121.30 778.20

Price Volatility of Cowpea The price series of all the selected cowpea markets satisfied the pre-condition for volatility test as their respective residuals exhibited cluster volatility and indicate the presence of Arch effects. The results showed that all the selected cowpea markets exhibited persistence volatility in their respective prices as indicated by the estimated sum of the ARCH and GARCH terms which were close to “one” (Table 10). The implication is that the volatility in the cowpea prices has the tendency to persist for a while but will not meander away from the mean value.

It was observed that the current volatility in the prices of cowpea in the BFM was influenced by the previous price volatility information as indicated by the significance of the estimated ARCH term. Furthermore, the current volatility in the prices of cowpea in the MLM was caused by speculation on the previous cowpea price in the market and the preceding purchasing power of cowpea price in its market. However, the current volatilities in the cowpea prices in both NGM and SNM were not influenced by the family shock but rather by the external or international shock. Therefore, it can be inferred that regional trading of cowpea is very useful as none of the market prices exhibited an explosive volatility pattern.

The autocorrelation test showed that the residuals of the model were not serial correlated as indicated by their respective Q-stats which were not different from zero at 10% probability level. With the exception of NGM, the residuals of all the remaining market prices were normally distributed as evidenced by their respective Chi2 values which were


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not different from zero at 10% degree of freedom. However, this is not a problem as Sadiq et al. (2017) reported that in most cases data are not normally distributed. Therefore, the GARCH (1, 1) model is the best fit for the specified volatility equations. Table 10: Price volatility of cowpea in the selected markets Items BFM MLM NGM SNM

Arch effect (Pre-condition) Arch Eff. 8.12{0.008}*** 7.16{0.005}*** 9.15{0.009}*** 7.63{0 .007}***

Price volatility Constant 279.3(20.3)[0.000]*** 234.9(23.6)[0.000]*** 526.6(42.2)[0.000]*** 553.9(48.7)[0.000]*** Alpha (1) 0.762(0.4420[1.72]NS 0.588(0.214)[2.74]*** 0.102(0.122)[0.83]NS 0.352(0.266)[1.32]NS Beta (1) 0.104(0.326)[0.31]NS 0.388(0.164)[2.37]** 0.333(0.439)[0.76]NS 0.311(0.281)[1.11]NS α + β 0.866 0.976 0.435 0.663 GARCH fit 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 Normality 3.14{0.21}NS 3.22{0.19}NS 5.83{0.054}* 0.06{0.97}NS Autocor. 0.286{0.59} 1.277{0.53} 1.821{0.61} 2.59{0.63} Note: *** ** * implies significance at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively NS: Non-significant; and values in ( ); [ ] and {} are standard errors, t-statistics and probability values

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the research showed that the LOP existed in the regional cowpea markets as price changes in almost all the markets were efficiently transmitted to the other markets either instantaneously (short-run integration) or over a number of lags (long-run integration), following an adjustment process towards the long-run equilibrium relationship between the market prices. In the multivariate perspective of the degree of market integration, Nigeria cowpea market was found poorly efficient due to autarkic and leverage effects which undermines its degree of market integration, hence generate discontinuities in its cowpea price responses to external shocks. However, the Nigeria cowpea market has dominance in the price determination of other markets as bad-news from the market is transmitted to a large extent to all the selected markets in the region due wide mismatch between supply and demand in his market. Furthermore, the results showed that cowpea trade in the region is very useful as the price volatility behaviour in all the markets was persistent one. Therefore, the study recommended the need to strengthen the linkages and interconnectedness of the cowpea markets in the region for faster price transmission and management of the commodity from the surplus area to deficit area through enhanced market infrastructure development, e-trading for goods, processing, transportation and other back-end supply chain of cowpea. This will definitely assist in the development of a single integrated market in the region.

REFERENCES Ahuja, N.L. (2006). Community derivatives market in India: Development, regulation and

futures prospects. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 2:153-62.

Barrett, C.B. and Li, J.R. (2002). Distinguishing between equilibrium and integration in spatial price analysis. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 84:292-307.

Barrett, C.B. (2008). Spatial market integration. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, second ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Beag, F.A. and Singla, N. (2014). Cointegration, causality and impulse response analysis in major Apple markets of India. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 27(2):289-298.

Granger, C.W.J. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 37(1):424-438.


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Johansen, S. (1988). Statistical analysis of co-integration vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 12(2-3): 231-254.

Mukhtar, T. and Javed, M.T. (2008). Market integration in wholesale maize markets in Pakistan. Regional and Sectoral Economic Studies, 8(2):85-98

Paul, R.K. (2014).Forecasting wholesale price of pigeon pea using long memory time-series models. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 27(2): 167-176.

Rahman, M.M. and Shahbaz, M. (2013). Do imports and foreign capital inflows lead economic growth? cointegration and causality analysis in Pakistan. South Asia Economic Journal, 14(1): 59-81.

Sadiq, M S., Singh, I.P., Aminu, S. and Grema, I. J. (2017).Volatility and price discovery of palm oil in international markets under different trade regime. Journal of Agricultural Economics, Environment and Social Sciences, 3(1): 33–50

Sadiq, M S., Singh, I.P., Suleiman, Aminu, Umar, S.M., Grema, I.J., Usman, B.I., Isah, M.A. and Lawal, A. T (2016a).Extent, pattern and degree of integration among some selected cocoa markets in West Africa: An innovative information delivery system. Journal of Progressive Agriculture, 7(2): 22-39

Sadiq, M.S., Singh, I.P., Suleiman Aminu, Umar, S.M., Grema, I.J., Usman, B.I., Isah, M.A. and Lawal, A.T.(2016b).Price transmission, volatility and discovery of gram in some selected markets in Rajasthan State, India. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 1(1):74-89.

Stigler, M.(2011). Commodity prices: theoretical and empirical properties. FAO Report on safeguarding food security in volatile global markets chapter 2:27-43.

Sukati, M. (2017). Analysis of maize price volatility and price pass-through in Swaziland: Implications for price stabilization policies. Journal of Economics and International Business Management, 5(1):1-13

Thomas, S. (2003). Agricultural Commodity Market in India. Indira Gandhi Institute for Development Research (IGIDR), Mumbai.


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Table 6: Multivariate horizontal-wise VECM Variable

∆BFM ∆MLM ∆NGM ∆SNM Influencing

∆BFMt-1 -0.199(0.248)[0.80]NS -0.081(0.377)[0.22]NS -0.777(1.243)[0.63]NS 0.470(0.621)[0.78]NS - ∆BFMt-2 -0.215(0.178)[1.21]NS -0.709(0.271)[2.62]** -0.042(0.894)[0.05]NS -0.174(0.447)[0.30]NS 1 ∆BFMt-3 -0.716(0.212)[3.39]** -0.400(0.321)[1.25]NS -0.905(1.061)[0.85]NS -0.724(0.530)[1.37]NS 1 ∆MLM t-1 -1.164(0.284)[4.10]*** -1.144(0.432)[2.65]** 1.159(1.424)[0.81]NS -0.926(0.712)[1.30]NS 2 ∆MLM t-2 -0.875(0.245)[3.57]** -0.194(0.373)[0.52]NS 0.430(1.231)[0.35]NS -0.099(0.615)[0.16]NS 1 ∆MLM t-3 0.166(0.206)[0.80]NS 0.492(0.314)[1.57]NS 0.503(1.035)[0.49]NS 1.147(0.517)[2.22]* 1 ∆NGMt-1 0.002(0.081)[0.03]NS -0.155(0.122)[1.27]NS -0.497(0.404)[1.23]NS -0.119(0.202)[0.59]NS - ∆NGMt-2 -0.195(0.096)[2.03]* -0.291(0.146)[1.99]* -0.554(0.481)[1.15]NS -0.453(0.241)[1.89]NS 2 ∆NGMt-3 0.045(0.064)[0.69]NS 0.008(0.098)[0.07]NS -0.139(0.322)[0.43]NS -0.227(0.161)[1.41]NS - ∆SNMt-1 1.222(0.284)[4.31]*** 1.261(0.431)[2.93]** 0.006(1.422)[0.0004]NS 0.726(0.711)[1.02]NS 2 ∆SNMt-2 0.679(0.216)[3.14]** 1.065(0.329)[3.24]** -0.660(1.0840[0.61]NS 0.579(0.542)[0.54]NS 2 ∆SNMt-3 0.679(0.214)[4.26]*** 0.792(0.325)[2.44]* 0.567(1.072)[0.53]NS 0.861(0.536)[1.61]NS 2 ECTt-1 0.046(0.154)[0.29]NS 0.517(0.235)[2.21]* 0.471(0.774)[0.61]NS 0.878(0.387)[2.27]* 2 ECTt-2 1.093(0.322)[3.39]** 0.291(0.490)[0.59]NS -1.376(1.616)[0.85]NS -0.104(0.808)[0.13]NS 1 Influenced 7 6 - - R2 0.921 0.863 0.695 0.778 D-W stat 2.651 2.51 2.114 2.233 Autocor 2.689{0.10}NS 1.749{0.19}NS 0.281{0.60}NS 0.735{0.39}NS Arch effect 3.9E-4{0.98}NS 0.004{0.95}NS 0.647{0.42}NS 1.152{0.28}NS Normality 3.450{0.90}NS

Note: *** ** * means significant at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively Values in ( ); [ ] and { } are standard error, t-statistic and probability value


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Figure 2: Price forecast of cowpea in Burkina-Faso Figure 3: Price forecast of cowpea in Mali market market

Figure 4: Price forecast of cowpea in Nigeria market Figure 5: Price forecast of cowpea in Senegal market

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Figure 4: Price forecast of Cowpea in Nigeria

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Figure 4:5 Price forecast of Cowpea in Senegal

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VARIATION IN SOIL ORGANIC CARBON SEQUESTRATION ON S ELECTED FOREST PLANTATIONS IN IMO STATE NIGERIA

1Umeojiakor, A. O., 1Egbuche, C. T., 1Uluocha, O.B., 2Onwudike, S.U. 1Department of Forestry and Wildlife Technology

2Department of Soil Science Technology Federal University of Technology,

P.M.B 1526, Owerri, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Phone: +2348036136172

ABSTRACT The study was conducted to investigate the ability to sequester carbon on the range of topsoil (0-15cm) and subsoil (15-30cm) across four different tree species, Tectona grandis Linn (Teak), Gmelina arborea Roxb (Gmelina), Hevea brasiliensis Mull. Arg, (Rubber plant) and Dialium guineense Wild (Black velvet). Soil samples were collected and prepared for routine soil analysis by air-drying under room temperature and sieving with 2mm sieve. Soil organic carbon sequestration was calculated and relationships between soil organic carbon sequestration and soil properties were obtained by simple correlation. The results showed that T. grandis carbon sequestration value of 154.1 and 116.8 at topsoil and subsoil provided the best option for maximizing carbon sequestration in the soil, followed by H. brasiliensis (147.4 and 91.1), G. arborea (134.1 and 81.1) and the least was in D. guineense (108.1 and 60.1) at all depth. Base saturation, Calcium, Organic carbon, Total nitrogen had strong correlation with r-values of 0.77, 0.74, 0.98 and 0.97 with soil organic carbon sequestration at (P = 0.01). Soil pH, Clay fraction and Potassium had negative correlation with r-values of -0.37, -0.68 and -0.54 with soil organic carbon sequestration at (P = 0.05). The study showed that soil organic carbon sequestration decreases with decreasing depths and were greatly affected by tree species, soil properties and management practices. Keywords: Soil, carbon Sequestration, tree species, base Saturation, management

practices.

INTRODUCTION Soil especially the forest soil is one of the main sinks of carbon on earth. It contains twice the amount of carbon in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) and thrice the amount in global vegetation (Smith, 2004). Carbon exists in many forms, predominantly as plant biomass, soil organic matter and as the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon movement is been controlled by two processes namely photosynthesis and respiration. Through the process of photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce carbohydrate. Plants and animals effectively burn these carbohydrate and other products derived from them through the process of respiration. Respiration releases the energy contained in carbohydrate for use in metabolism and renders the carbohydrate back to carbon dioxide.

The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere steadily increases as a consequence of changes in green house gas emissions generally are linked to natural and human activities. The concern is that the mean global level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing to a level that can trigger serious climate change in air, temperature and violent weather cycles. It has been propounded that one method to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is to increase the global storage of carbon in soils, (Umeojiakor et al., 2015).

Umeojiakor, A. O. et al. (2018). Variation in Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration on Selected Forest Plantations in Imo State Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 106-115.


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Thus understanding the mechanisms and factors of soil organic carbon dynamics in forest soils is important to identify and enhance natural sinks for carbon sequestration to mitigate the climate change.

Soil organic carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the long lived pools (soil) through plant residues and other organic solids, and in a form that is not immediately remitted (Miller et al., 2004). In other word, soil carbon sequestration involves the transfer of atmospheric carbon dioxide into soil organic carbon pool (Powlson et al., 2011). This sequestering of carbon helps to off-set emissions from fossil fuel combustion and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term agronomic productivity.

The role of soil carbon pools for mitigation of greenhouse gases has encouraged the need for more knowledge on the tree species effects on soil organic carbon. Forest management, including a change in tree species, has been accepted as a measure of mitigating atmospheric carbon dioxide in National greenhouse budgets (Larsen and Nielsen, 2007). Hence, carbon sequestration by forest plantations has being proposed as one method that could positively affect the balance of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels (Barson and Gifford, 1989; Adger and brown, 1994). The most effective activities to improve soil carbon sequestration is by choosing suitable forest tree species, but there is limited information about this idea (Vesterdal et al., 2008). This study was aimed at determining the variation in soil organic carbon sequestration across different forest plantations and as well as estimate the plantation which provides the best option for maximizing carbon sequestration in the soil.


The study was carried out in three different locations of four different forest plantations in Imo State. Imo state is located within the latitude 4o45′ and 5o50′N and longitude 6o35′ and 7o30′E. The three locations of the plantations were Ohuba, Umudike – II, both in Ohaji/Egbema Local Government Area and Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO) in Owerri West Local Government Area in Imo state. It has a humid tropical climate, characterized by bimodal rainfall pattern with mean annual rainfall ranging from 1800 to 2500mm and mean annual temperature ranging from 26oC to 31oC (Onweremadu et al., 2011). According to Ofomata (1975) the underlying geological materials are coastal plain sand (Benin Formation) and the Bende-Ameki formation. It consists of mainly friable sands with minor intercalations of clay. Selection of the Study Forest Plantations The study area consists of four forest plantations and they are as follows: i) Gmelina arborea Forest Plantation: Gmelina arborea forest plantation site was established in 2004. It covers 5 hectares of land. The site was originally a fallow land, which was cleared through manual bush clearing followed by burning. After which, the seedlings of G. arborea collected from Ohaji/Egbema Forest Reserve were introduced to the site. There is no special management practice such as beaten up, fertilization, pruning, etc. given to the growing seedlings except clearing of the weeds/bushes. Fuel-wood harvesting and hunting were observed in the plantation. Presently, the trees have attained appreciable height and have a lot of plant debris on the floor. ii) Tectona grandis Forest Plantation: Tectona grandis forest plantation site was established on the same land area with G. arborea in 2004. It was subjected to same management practices with G. arborea. iii) Hevea brasiliensis Forest Plantation: Hevea brasiliensis forest plantation site was established in 1965 and was registered with the government in 1968. The land mass is 6


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hectares. The site was originally used for the cultivation of yam, before it was converted to a plantation. Hevea brasiliensis seedlings were collected from Federal Government and planted. Planted seedlings were raised with NPK fertilizer and other locally made compost, weeding, beaten-up were also carried out. Presently, the stands are matured with fruits/seeds which falls and germinate thus alters the original spacing. Pruning, thinning and bush clearing are often carried out in the plantation. Tapping of latex and fetching of fuel-wood were observed in the site. iv) Dialium guineense Forest Plantation: Dialium guineense is a dominant tree species in a secondary forest beside River Otamiri in Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO). The area is characterized by plant species, arranged in storey, with close canopies. Soil Sampling Techniques The soil samples were randomly collected at 5 different spots in each plantation at varying depth of 0 – 15cm and 15 – 30cm. A total of 40 soil samples were collected with the help of soil auger of approximately 1.5m in height. The collected soil samples were properly bagged in polythene bags and carefully labeled according to the plantation type, replicate number and depth. Core samples were also used to collect soils at each plantation in 2 varying depths for bulk density determination. A total of 8 undisturbed core soil samples were carefully packaged and labeled accordingly. Laboratory Analysis The soil samples were air-dried at room temperature for a period of 5 days, crushed and sieved using 2mm sieve. The composite soil samples were subjected to laboratory analysis for determination of physical and chemical properties. Particles size analysis was determined by Bouyoucos hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Bulk density was measured using core sampler method (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Soil textural class was determined using the textural triangle (soil survey staff, 2006).

Soil pH was measured using pH meter at the soil liquid ratio of 1:2.5 (Thomas, 1996). Total Nitrogen was determined by micro-kjedahl digestion method (Bremner and Mulvancy, 1982). Soil organic carbon was determined by the Walkley and Black method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Soil organic matter was derived by multiplying the value of soil organic carbon by Bemmelen’s factor of 1.724. Available phosphorous was determined using Bray II method (Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable bases were extracted by reacting with ammonium acetate while potassium and sodium were determined using a flame photometer. Calcium and magnesium were read using an atomic absorption spectrometer (Jackson, 1959). Exchangeable acidity was evaluated titrimetrically (Melean, 1982). Effective cation exchange capacity and percentage base saturation were determined by calculation.

Data Analysis Date collected were statistically analyzed using Genstat Discovery (3rd Edition). The relationship between soil organic carbon sequestration and soil properties were determined using pearson linear correlation (P ≤ 0.05) and (P ≤ 0.01). Soil organic carbon sequestration was determined according to Batjes (1996) Soil organic sequestration (SOCS) = BD (g/cm3) x SOC (g/kg) x soil depth (cm). Where: BD = Bulk Density, SOC = Soil Organic Carbon

RESULTS The results of the physical properties of the soils in 4 forest plantations were shown in Table 1. The soils were generally sandy sand at the soil (0 – 15cm) depth except for D. guineense


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which was sandy loam. At the sub soil (15 – 30cm) depth, soils of T. grandis and D. guineense were sandy loam with sand value of 784g/kg and 824g/kg and clay value of 156g/kg. G. arborea is sandy clay loam with sand value of 704g/kg and clay value of 276g/kg. H. brasiliensis is loamy sand with sand value of 844g/kg and clay value of 136g/kg. The predominant sandy texture of the soil indicated that they were prone to excessive leaching and loss of nutrients due to their loose texture. However, Davidson et al (1998) stated that soil texture affect soil carbon sequestration due to its influence on soil microbial community and soil respiration. Table 1: Soil Physical Properties of the Study Locations

Plantation Site Depth (cm)

Sand (g/kg)

Silt (g/kg)

Clay (g/kg)

Textural Class Bulk Density (g/cm3)

Gmelina arborea 0–15 844 60 96 Sandy Sand 0.868 Hevea brasiliensis 0–15 884 20 96 Sandy Sand 0.936 Tectona grandis 0–15 864 40 96 Sandy Sand 0.849 Dialium guineense 0–15 804 40 156 Sandy Loam 0.775 Mean 849 40 111 Sandy Sand 0.857 Gmelina arborea 15-30 740 20 276 Sandy Clay Loam 0.858 Hevea brasiliensis 15-30 844 20 136 Loamy Sand 0.832 Tectona grandis 15-30 784 60 156 Sandy Loam 0.916 Dialium guineense 15-30 824 20 156 Sandy Loam 0.761 Mean 789 30 181 Sandy Clay Loam 0.84175


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Table 2: Soil Chemical Properties of the Study Locations Plantation Depth

(cm) pH

(H2O) pH

(kcl) Org.

Carbon (g/kg)

Org. Matter (g/kg)

Total N

(g/kg)

C/N Avail. P (mg/kg)

Ca Mg K Cmol/kg

Na H Al CEC BS %

Gmelina arborea

0–15 5.03 4.05 10.3 17 0.8 12.9 6.36 3.2 1.6 0.19 0.11 0.1 0.4 5.6 91

Hevea brasiliensis

0–15 4.47 3.64 10.5 18.2 0.9 11.7 3.61 2.4 1.6 0.24 0.14 0.3 0.4 5.08 86.2

Tectona grandis

0–15 5.05 4.05 12.1 21 1 12.1 2.75 3.2 1.6 0.09 0.26 0.4 0.2 5.75 89.5

Dialium guineense

0–15 5 4.1 9.3 16.2 0.8 11.6 0.95 2 1.2 0.16 0.07 0.3 0.8 4.53 75.7

Mean 4.89 3.96 10.55 18.1 0.88 12.08 3.42 2.7 1.5 0.17 0.15 0.28 0.45 5.24 85.6

Gmelina arborea

15-30 5.58 3.97 6.3 11.0 0.55 11.5 7.61 2.6 2 0.2 0.09 0.1 1 6 81.6

Hevea brasiliensis

15-30 4.36 3.76 7.3 12.7 0.6 12.2 6.82 2 1.2 0.29 0.11 0.2 0.7 4.5 80

Tectona grandis

15-30 4.63 3.8 8.5 14.8 0.7 12.1 5.42 2 1.2 0.12 0.23 0.2 0.8 4.55 78

Dialium guineense

15-30 5.25 4.38 5.3 9.3 0.4 13.3 0.86 1.2 0.8 0.26 0.12 0.5 0.3 3.18 74.8

Mean 4.96 3.98 6.85 9.48 0.56 12.28 5.18 1.9 1.3 0.28 0.14 0.25 0.7 4.56 78.6


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The bulk density of the soils differed among the 4 forest plantations. The highest value of bulk density at 0 – 15cm depth recorded on soil of H. brasiliensis was (0.94g/cm3) and then least value was on D. guineense (0.78g/cm3). At 15 – 30cm depth, the highest value of bulk density was recorded on soils of T. grandis (0.92g/cm3) while the least value was on D. guineense (0.76g/cm3).

Table 2 showed the results of the chemical properties of the soil in the 4 forest plantations. The soils were acidic with pH value ranging from 4.36 – 5.58. It was observed that H. brasiliensis plantation was more acidic compared to the other 3 plantations both in the topsoil (4.47) and subsoil (4.36). This may be attributed to the management practice in the H. brasiliensis plantation such as application of fertilizer. Unambra-oparah (1985) observed that continuous application of fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 and Urea to improve soil fertility without lime decrease the pH of the soil. The organic matter content of the soils ranging from (9.3- 21g/kg). T. grandis plantation recorded the highest values in the topsoil (21g/kg) and subsoil (14.8 g/kg). D. guineense has the least value both in the topsoil (16.2g/kg) and subsoil (9.3g/kg). However, the higher organic matter level is very important in tropical countries because it is the benchmark upon which forest soil properties depends. It also plays important role in soil quality and enhances agricultural productivity and sustainability. The percentage base saturation of the soils was between (74.8 – 91%). G. arborea plantation recorded the highest values both in the topsoil (91%) and subsoil (81.6%). D. guineense had the lowest values both in the topsoil (75.7%) and subsoil (74.8%). The higher percentage base saturation recorded in G. arborea plantation may be attributed to higher clay percentage composition of the G. arborea plantation. Table 3: Soil Organic carbon sequestrations among the Plantations at Different Depths

Plantation Site Age of Plantation Depth Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration (g2/cm2/kg)

Gmelina arborea 11 0–15 134.1 Hevea brasiliensis 50 0–15 147.4 Tectona grandis 11 0–15 154.1 Dialium guineense 33 0–15 108.1 Mean 135.93 Gmelina arborea 11 15-30 81.1 Hevea brasiliensis 50 15-30 91.1 Tectona grandis 11 15-30 116.8 Dialium guineense 33 15-30 60.5 Mean 87.375

Table 4: Correlation between Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration and Soil Properties Soil properties R Level of Significance Available Phosphorus -0.00576 NS Bulk Density 0.62044 * Cation exchange Capacity 0.57173 * Base Saturation 0.76891 ** C/N ration -0.27130 NS Exch. Calcium 0.73675 ** Clay Fraction -0.67718 * Exch. Hydrogen -0.0870 NS Exch. Potassium -0.54498 * Exch. Magnesium 0.42487 NS Organic Carbon 0.97556 ** pH (H2O) -0.37404 NS Sand Fraction 0.57081 * Total Nitrogen 0.96684 **

* and ** = significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels respectively, NS = non significant


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DISCUSSION Soil organic carbon sequestrations among the plantations at different depths are shown in Table 3 above. The result shows that the mean value of soil organic carbon sequestration was highest (135.93) at the topsoil (0-15) with T. grandis plantation exhibiting the highest value (154.1) followed by H. brasiliensis plantation (147.4), G. arborea plantation (134.1) and least was in D. guineense of secondary forest (108.1). Within the subsoil (15 - 30), the mean value of soil organic carbon sequestration was (87.38) with T. grandis value reduces to (116.8), followed by H. bransiliensis plantation (91.1), G. arborea plantation (81.1) and the least was in D. guineense of secondary forest (60.5). Hence, the soil organic carbon sequestration decreased with depth at all the study sites. This is in agreement with previous findings of Banaticla (2003).

The results indicated that the age of the plantation has no relationship with its soil organic carbon sequestrations. Since T. grandis plantation of 11 years, being the youngest plantation had the highest value (154.1) of soil organic carbon sequestration, H. brasiliensis plantation was 50 years with value of (147.4), G. arborea plantation was 11 years with value of (134.1) and D. guineense in secondary forest was 33 years, had the least value of (108.1). This is in accordance with the findings by Polglase et al, (2000), where carbon change of the soil sampled below a depth of 10cm in an afforested area, had no significant relationship with stand age. Furthermore, the results indicated that tree species affected soil properties as well as soil organic carbon sequestration. Not only natural and anthropogenic factors as documented by Larionova et al, (2002). It was observed in G. arborea and T. grandis plantations that were established on the same land area, with the same climatic factors, given the same management practices, in the same year, yet they sequestered carbon differently with T. grandis (154.1) and G. arborea (134.1). This is in support with the findings reported by different researchers. According to Vesterdal et al (2008) the most effective activities to improve soil carbon sequestration is by choosing suitable forest tree species. The selection of tree species is one of the factors to be considered in the mitigation of carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere through forest management. (Johnson 1992; De Wit and Kvindesland 1999; Eriksson, 2007). Forest management including a change in tree species, has been accepted as a measure for mitigation of atmospheric carbon dioxide in national greenhouse gas budgets. (Larsen and Nielsen, 2007).

Moreover, the results of simple correlation analysis are shown in Table 4, its indicated strong positive correlation between soil organic carbon sequestration and base saturation (r = 0.76891, P = 0.01). This implies that soil organic carbon sequestration increases with increasing base saturation. In the chemical properties of the soils shown in Table 2, the least value of the base saturation was found in D. guineense of secondary forest (75.7% and 74.8%) at 0 – 15cm and 15 – 30cm depth respectively. D. guineense recorded the least value of soil organic carbon sequestration both in topsoil and subsoil. Again, the results indicated strong positive correlation between soil organic carbon sequestration and total Nitrogen (r = 0.96684, p = 0.01) implying that soil organic carbon sequestration increases with increasing total Nitrogen. This was seen in the chemical properties of the soils, were T. grandis plantation had the highest value of total Nitrogen (1.0g/kg) as well as soil organic carbon sequestration of (154.1) at 0 – 15cm depth. D. guineense in secondary forest with least value of soil organic carbon sequestration (108.1) and also has least value of total Nitrogen (0.08g/kg) at the same depth. At 15 – 30cm depth, T. grandis plantation had also the highest value of soil organic carbon sequestration (116.8) and total Nitrogen (0.07g/kg), while D. guineense in secondary forest had least value of soil organic carbon sequestration (60.5) and the least value of total nitrogen (0.04g/kg). However, the results indicated negative correlation between soil organic carbon sequestration and exchangeable potassium (r = -0.54498, p = 0.05) implying that soil organic carbon


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sequestration decreases with increasing exchangeable potassium. That is the higher the value of soil organic carbon sequestration the lower its exchangeable potassium as indicated in the results of the chemical properties in Table 2, while T. grandis plantation with the highest value of soil organic carbon sequestration (154.1 and 116.8), had the least value of exchangeable potassium (0.09 and 0.12cmol/kg) at 0 – 15cm and 15 – 30cm depth respectively.

CONCLUSION

Soil organic carbon sequestration varied among the 4 plantations studied with maximum concentration in the Tectona grandis plantation, followed by Hevea brasiliensis, Gmelina arborea plantation and the least concentration was found in Dialium guineense of secondary forest. It was ascertained that individual tree species had influence on the rates of soil organic carbon sequestration. Hence, T. grandis tree species provided the best option for maximizing carbon sequestration in the soil. It was observed that soil organic carbon sequestration decreased with decreasing soil depths. The highest concentration was found within the topsoil as compared to subsoil in all the plantations, due to high concentration of humus at the topsoil layers, as a result of large amount of plant litter deposit at the topsoil surfaces. Furthermore, the age of individual plantations did not affect its soil organic carbon sequestration concentration. T. grandis plantation had the highest soil organic carbon sequestration concentration, followed by H. brasiliensis, G. arborea and least was D. guineense. Latex tapping in H. brasiliensis plantation affected soil organic carbon sequestration (Yang et al 2005). The carbon sequestration decreased significantly at early stages of latex tapping which stabilizing during the continuous harvesting and finally increased when latex harvest ceased.

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EFFECT OF LIFT ABOVE POVERTY ORGANIZATION MICROCRED IT ON ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF CASSAVA FARMERS IN EDO STATE NIGERIA

Ogieriakhi, M. O. and Emokaro, C. O.

[email protected]; [email protected] Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension Services, Faculty of Agriculture,

University of Benin, P.M.B. 1154, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT The study was conducted to assess the effect of Lift above Poverty (LAPO) microcredit on economic efficiency of cassava farmers in Edo State, Nigeria. Economic efficiency indices (technical, allocative and cost efficiencies) were compared between users of LAPO microcredit and nonusers. The data used in this study were obtained from a cross-sectional survey of cassava farmers. Two groups of respondents (cassava farmers that make used of microcredit loans) and the control (cassava farmer that did not make use of microcredit loans) were selected for the study. For the treatment group, 93 users of microcredit were selected using simple random sampling (SRS) from the list provided by LAPO microfinance bank and for the control, 93 nonusers of microcredit were identified using SRS with a total sample size of 186 respondents. The Cobb-Douglas stochastic production and cost functions were used to predict the farm level technical and allocative efficiencies. The results showed that both users and nonusers of microcredit had similar socio-economic characteristics as both groups had mean household size of 7, mean ages of users and nonusers of microcredit were 45 and 48, farming experience were 19 and 21 years and both groups cultivated less than 2 hectares which indicated that they were operating on a small scale. Mean economic efficiency level of users was 0.510 and 0.501 for nonusers. Farmers must recognize that availability of cash alone does not guarantee efficiency. Farmers must learn the best way to allocate and combine limited resources that will yield the greatest efficiency level. Keywords: Economic Efficiency, LAPO, Microcredit, Stochastic Frontier Production

Function

INTRODUCTION Microcredit is the extension of very small loans (microloans) to the poor with little or no collateral and a verifiable credit history, provided by legally registered institutions. It was established so that poor people are also bankable without the conventional collateral. Microcredit is primarily targeted towards the poor groups. Hence, it is expected to have a great impact on the economic performance of farmers since most of the poor are involved in one form of agricultural enterprise or the other. Interestingly, Cassava is the dominant staple crop in Nigeria, consumed by most households. Because of its economic potential and foreign exchange value, it is sometimes termed ‘the White Gold’ (Erhabor, Azaiki, and Ingawa, 2007). Hence, an increased and efficient production of this staple crop could oil the wheels of agriculture in the economy, driving it to achieve its full potential.

Some indices of farm level economic efficiency include technical efficiency, allocative efficiency and cost efficiency. These measures are intrinsically related as productivity is reduced in the presence of inefficiency while on the other hand the more efficient a firm is, the higher the productivity (Erhabor and Emokaro, 2007).

One way of increasing the production of cassava by farmers can be by increasing their efficiency in the farm. Though, money is needed to purchase sufficient farm inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and improved cassava varieties. Finance has a huge role to play in the purchase or hire of fixed inputs or equipment and the scale of production can

Ogieriakhi, M. O. and Emokaro, C. O. (2018). Effect of Lift above Poverty Organization Microcredit on Economic Efficiency of Cassava Farmers in Edo State Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 116-125.


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subsequently be increased to any desirable level. Therefore, the assistant of cassava farmers in the form of providing microcredit could be the panacea to low agricultural performances in the country. One source of such loan provider in Nigeria is the renowned Lift above Poverty Organization (LAPO) Microfinance Institution. LAPO is a non-governmental organization in Nigeria whose aim is to provide microcredits to poor farmers. The goal of LAPO is to be a sustainable microfinance bank that supports her partners to become proactive participants in positively impacting the environment and society through sustainable practices, meeting the economic and social needs of its clients while fulfilling the expectations of its stakeholders (LAPO, 2013). This goal certainly includes cassava farmers who patronize LAPO.

Despite the increase provision of agricultural microloans to farmers, there seems to be no noticeable effect on the farmer’s efficiency. It is therefore necessary to make empirical comparisons between microcredit users and non-users to know if microcredit delivery has achieved its set goal with regards to the economic efficiency of cassava farmers in Edo State. This research sought to answer the following questions: what are the socio-economic characteristics of users and non-users of Lift above Poverty microcredit in Edo State? What is the level of technical efficiency of users of microcredit in relation to non-users? Is the allocative efficiency of users of microcredit greater compared to non-users? What is the overall economic efficiency level of both groups of farmers?


The study was carried out in Edo State. It has boundaries with Kogi in the North, Delta in the South and East, and Ondo in the West. The State has a tropical climate with two seasons, the wet and dry seasons having mean annual temperatures of 25°C and 28°C respectively. The State has 18 Local Government Areas and the popular ethic groups include Benin, Esan, Afemai, Ora, Akoko Edo, and Ibibio.

This study targeted only cassava farmers in Edo State who received microcredit from LAPO microfinance bank. The Non-users of microcredit to cultivate cassava were included for the purpose of comparison. The data provided by the institution formed the sampling frame upon which this study was carried out. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary data was elicited from cassava farmers through the use of interview schedules.

Two groups of respondents were selected for the study; the Treatment Group and the Control. The Treatment group consisted of only cassava farmers who had been using microcredit for at least a year while the Control referred to those not using microcredit at all. To get the Treatment sample, 93 users of microcredit were selected using simple random sampling technique from the list of cassava farmers provided by LAPO Microfinance Bank. From the second group – the control, 93 respondents were selected from identified non-users of microcredit from the same communities where users of microcredit reside, using simple random sampling technique. This gave a total sample size of 186 respondents. The control group was used as a baseline measure because it gives an estimate of what would have happened if users of microcredit did not receive any credit. Data Analysis The socio-economic characteristics of users and non-users of LAPO microcredit were profiled using descriptive statistics such as means, frequency counts and percentages. Estimation of technical and allocative efficiencies of users and non-users of microcredit was achieved using the stochastic frontier production cost functions. The technical, allocative and cost efficiency scores of both groups were then compared using the t-statistic to know whether


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there were significant differences between them. According to Kothari and Garg, (2014) t-statistic was given as

………………………………….. (1)

Where ��vvv = average efficiency level of users of microcredit ��vvv = average efficiency level of non-users of microcredit S1

2 is the variance of users of microcredit S2

2 = variance of nonusers of microcredit N1 and N2 is the sample size for both users and non-users of microcredit.

Use of Stochastic Frontier Production Function The generalized form for the stochastic frontier production model was given as Yi = β� + Xβy + Vy − Uy…………………………. (2) While technical efficiency is given by

|}~��~ �~|}~��~ ………………………………………... (3)

The linearized Cobb-Douglas form of the stochastic production frontier was used and explicitly expressed as; ln Y = β0 + β1lnX1 + β2lnX2+β3lnX3+ β4lnX4+β5lnX5 + (Vi – Ui)…………………… (4) Where Y is observed output of cassava (kg) ln = natural logarithm β0, β1 … β5 = unknown parameters to be estimated. X1 = farm size (ha) X2= labour (man-days) X3 = agrochemicals used (litres) X4 = cassava cuttings (metres) X5 = fertilizer used (kg), V i and Ui stands for the error components. Vi is a normally distributed sampling error term which accounts for stochastic noise. Such error is inevitable. Ui on the other hand is the measure of inefficiency of the farm which is assumed to follow a half normal distribution The technical efficiency was estimated for both users and non-users of microcredit. It is defined as the ratio of the observed output to the corresponding frontier output given the available technology. Hence, technical efficiency was given as TE = }�� }G��|G� }J��|J� }��|�� }��|��}��|�� }�� }G��|G� }J��|J� }��|�� }��|��}��|�� − − − �9�…………………….. (5)

(Coelli, Prasada, O’Donnell, & Battese, 2005) Where TE is Technical efficiency. Technical efficiency lies between 0 and 1. If it is zero, it shows that the farmer is not efficient at all. If it is one, it shows that the farmer is on the frontier relative to other farmers given the available technology. If it is greater than zero but less than one (0<TE<1), it shows there is presence of inefficiency. The gamma coefficient γ is given by Pv

2/Pv2+Pu

2 and is bounded between zero and one. It measures the deviation of the output from the frontier due to inefficiency. If γ = 0, then all deviations from the frontier are due to noise. A value greater than zero imply that there are technical inefficiency effects. Use of Stochastic Frontier Cost Function

This is used for estimating cost, allocative and economic efficiencies of a farm. The implicit model was given as


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Ci = a� + ayk + Vy + Uy……………………………………………. (6) The linearized Cobb-Douglas form of this function was explicitly given by ln C = ao + a1lnK1 + a2lnK2+ a3lnK3 + a4lnK4 + a5lnK5 + a6lnK6 + a7lnK7 +a8lnK8+ (Vi + Ui) …………… (7) Where C represents the total production cost a0, a2 … a8 = parameters of the cost function K1 = output produced (kg); K2 = cost of labour (naira) K3 = land rent (naira); K4 = cost of cassava cuttings (naira) K5 = cost of agrochemicals (naira); K6 = cost of fertilizer (naira) K7 = total fixed costs (naira); K8 = cost of transportation The cost efficiency of a farmer CE is defined as the ratio of the actual production cost (C) to the minimum observed total production cost (C*) for a set of farmers given available technology. �7 = �� >��> � �� y� �y� �� >��> � �� y � …………… (8)

Economic efficiency = �� y�y�� ………………………………. (9)

Allocative efficiency = �� y� ��y�y��¡��¢�y�� y�y�� …………………. (10)

(Coelli, Prasada, O’Donnell, & Battese, 2005) These measures were estimated for both users and non-users of microcredit.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents Results presented in Table 1 shows that socio-economic characteristics of users and non-users of microcredit were highly comparable. Table 1: Socio-economic Characteristics of Cassava Farmers (Users and Non-users of Microcredit) Variable Frequency

(Non-Users) Percentage

(Non-Users) Frequency

(Users) Percentage

(Users) Age 23.0 and below 0 0.0 1 1.1

24.0 - 38.0 25 25.5 26 27.7 39.0 - 53.0 46 46.9 45 47.9 54 and above 27 27.5 22 23.4 Mean = 48 Mean =44.52 Sex Male 56 57.1 48 51.6 Female 42 42.9 45 48.4 Farm Nature Full time 67 68.4 58 62.4

Part time 31 31.6 35 37.6 Farm Experience 10.0 and below 30 30.6 25 26.6

11.0 - 20.0 27 27.6 33 35.1 21.0 - 30.0 22 22.4 20 21.3 31.0 - 40.0 10 10.2 14 14.9 41 and above 9 9.1 2 2.1

Mean = 20.9 Mean= 19.22 Number of Years of Formal Education

5.0 and below 13 13.3 10 10.8

6.0 - 11.0 53 54.1 39 41.9 12.0 and above 32 32.7 44 47.3 Mean = 8.3 Mean =9.46


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Variety Planted Local variety 94 95.9 83 89.2 Improved variety 4 4.1 10 10.8

Farm Size 1.00 and below 22 22.4 7 7.4

1.01 - 5.00 59 60.2 68 72.3 5.01 - 9.00 10 10.2 9 9.6 9.01 - 13.00 5 5.1 6 6.4 13.01 and above 2 2.0 4 4.3

Mean = 3.48 Mean = 4.89 Mean ages for users and nonusers of microcredit were 45 and 48 respectively, indicating that cassava production was dominated by active middle-aged farmers. Their mean age was similar to the mean age of cassava farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria which was reported to be 47 years (Ogunniyi, 2015). However, their mean age was gradually tending towards the declining productivity class of greater than 50 years of age. This implies that except young and able bodied farmers are trained to take over cassava production in the next decade, cassava farmers can decline to the level which could adversely affect productivity and efficiency of cassava production.

This study showed that males and females were highly involved in cassava production for both users (52%, 48%) and non-users (57%, 43%) of microcredit loans. Further examination of the results in Table 1 indicated that 62% of users and 68% of non-users of microcredit practiced agriculture on a full time basis and the mean farming experience for both groups were 21 and 19 years. This compared favourably with the findings of Ogunniyi, 2015, who reported that the average years of farming experience was 21 years for cassava farmers in Oyo State. On the average, nonusers spent 8 years to gain formal education while users of microcredit spent 9 years. The adoption of improved varieties by cassava farmers in the study area was low. Only 11% of the users and 4% of nonusers of microcredit planted improved varieties of cassava. This suggested that their modest educational attainment may have had little or no effect on their choices of cassava varieties. One serious challenge facing farmers today is traditionalism. That is, still holding on to the type of agriculture that was practiced by their forefathers. They refused to adoption the recent innovations introduced into modern agricultural practice. The mean farm size for users of microcredit was 4.89 acres (1.9 hectare) and nonusers was 3.48 acres (1.4 hectare). This is suggesting that most of the respondents were small scale cassava farmers. This certainly may have a negative impact on their production capacity. Stochastic Frontier Production Function, Cost Function and Efficiency Measures A. Production Function Estimates Maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters of the stochastic frontier production function showed that most of the coefficients of the variables conformed to apriori expectations (Table 4). Estimated coefficients of farm size were 1.07 and 1.19 for users and nonusers of microcredit respectively. This implies that when one extra acre of land was cultivated, current output increased by 1.07 and 1.19 times. These coefficients were significant at 1% level showing that an increase in farm size certainly increased farmers output. This finding was consistent with of the findings of Ogunniyi (2015) where farm size significantly affected output positively.

Coefficients of labour were 0.12 and 0.03 for both users and nonusers of microcredit and significantly affected output (p < 0.05). However, cost implications of extra labour merit should be given serious consideration as more emphasis is now directed towards use of farm machinery which can be more efficient and cheaper compared to human labour, if used on a cooperative basis by farmer groups.


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For nonusers, agrochemicals used were significant and negative. This may be as a result of wrong application of such chemicals on crops. On the other hand, fertilizer usage did not significantly affect yield for both users and nonusers of microcredit. The parameter for cassava cuttings was significant and negative for users of microcredit. This could be as a result of overcrowding of plant stands which negatively affected yield. This is in disagreement with the findings of Ogunniyi, 2015 and Ogundari and Ojo, 2006. They asserted that increase in stem cuttings led to increase in output in their studies. This is true because when a farmer is at stage two of production wherein the capacity of his fixed asset (Land) is not exceeded. But in stage three wherein the fixed asset has been over-utilized, an addition of any variable input will lead to a decline in output. The maximum likelihood estimates are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Maximum Likelihood Estimates of the Cobb-Douglas Frontier

Production Function for Users and Nonusers of Microcredit Users

Coefficient t-ratio Non-users

Coefficient t-ratio Constant 12.11 17.07 9.97 22.39 Farm Size 1.07 12.45** 1.19 12.31** Labour 0.12 2.01* 0.029 2.05* Agrochemicals 0.01 1.19 -0.147 -4.55** Cassava cuttings -0.19 -2.29* 0.018 0.27 Fertilizer 0.007 0.53 0.037 0.83 Farm Tools 0.107 1.42 0.055 50.40 sigma-squared 4.96 0.75 4.108 2.42 gamma 0.99 90.00** 0.999 1352.57**

** significant at 1% * significant at 5% B. Cost Function Estimates The results showed that all the explanatory variables conformed to apriori expectation as the estimated coefficients gave positive values and were significant (Table 3). This indicates that as these factors increased, total cost of production increased. Output coefficient was significant at 5% while the other parameters were significant at 1% except for fertilizer cost which was not significant at all.

Specifically, for users and non-users, the coefficients of labour cost (0.77, 0.70), depreciation of farm tools (0.08, 0.11), and cassava stems (0.06; 0.06) were quite similar to the findings of Audu, Otitolaiye and Ibitoye, (2013) and Anyaegbunam et al. (2009), wherein the coefficients for labour cost, price of planting materials, price of agrochemicals and price of farm tools were all positive and significant at 1% level of probability. Labour cost was by far the most significant indicating that there will be a high potential for profitability, if alternative forms of cheap labour, or use of machinery is employed. Moreover, constant terms were 1.67 and 1.63 for users and non-users of microcredit and were both significant at 1%. This is in agreement with Audu et al. (2013) who obtained coefficients of 1.29 and 3.65 for the constant term. This is because the expenses on fixed factors of production such as land, farm machineries and tools, buildings, farm roads and other permanent structures would keep running whether or not production takes place. The results of the maximum likelihood estimates are given in Table 4.


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Table 3 Maximum Likelihood Estimates of the Cobb-Douglas Frontier Cost Function for Users and Nonusers of Microcredit:

Users Non-Users Coefficient t-ratio Coefficient t-ratio

Constant 1.67 8.386 1.631 9.289 Output 0.02 2.742* 0.024 2.454* Labour Cost 0.776 52.732** 0.703 41.23** Cassava Cuttings Cost 0.0590 7.304** 0.060 9.513** Agrochemicals Cost 0.0028 0.944 0.010 3.759** Fertilizer Cost 0.0039 1.527 0.003 1.283 Depreciation 0.0806 5.950** 0.116 4.541** Rent 0.014 6.52** 0.094 54.15** sigma-squared 0.03333 4.444** 0.893 0.858 gamma 0.99999 8167.39** 0.998 644.97 ** significant at 1% * significant at 5% Efficiency Measures Technical Efficiency Analysis Technical efficiency analysis in cassava production showed that technical inefficiency existed as confirmed by the gamma value of 0.99 for both users and nonusers of microcredit and was significant at 1% level. This implies that 99% of the variation in output was attributed to differences in their technical efficiencies. The predicted technical efficiency ranged between 0.04 and 0.93 for users, and 0.03 to 0.98 for nonusers with a mean of 0.57 and 0.61 respectively as shown in Table 4, indicating that on an average cassava farm, the observed output were 43% and 39% less than the maximum output which can potentially be achieved from the existing level of inputs. This is in line with Ogunniyi, Ajetomobi and Fabiyi, (2013) whose finding showed a mean technical efficiency of 0.54 was achieved by cassava-based farmers in Oyo State.

If the average farmer is to achieve the technical efficiency of its most efficient counterpart, then both users and nonusers of microcredit would realize cost saving of 38%. ({[1- (0.57/0.93)] x100} and {[1- (0.61/0.98)] x 100}. A similar calculation for the most technically inefficient farmer showed a cost saving of 96% {[1- (0.04/0.93)] x 100} and 97% {1- (0.03/0.98) x 100} for users and nonusers of microcredit.

In order to give a better representation, a frequency distribution of the technical efficiencies of all the farmers is given in Table 4. The technical efficiency in decile range indicates that 46% of users and 50% of nonusers had technical efficiency values of 0.7 and above. This shows that half of the farmers were fairly efficient, but the others were still contending with gross inefficiency. Table 4 Distribution of Respondents by Technical and Economic Efficiency Scores

Efficiency Level

Technical Efficiency (Users)

Technical Efficiency (Nonusers)

Allocative efficiency (Users)

Allocative Efficiency (Nonusers)

Economic Efficiency

(Users)

Economic Efficiency (Nonusers)

0.00 -0 .09 6.5% 5.1% 0 0 1.1% 2.0% 0.10 - 0.19 6.5% 12.2% 0 1 3.1% 2.8% 0.20 - 0.29 9.7% 5.1% 3.6 7.1 3.5% 1.7% 0.30 - 0.39 8.6% 7.1% 4.3 7.1 4.9% 5.9% 0.40 - 0.49 5.4% 4.1% 4.3 6.0 31.6% 11.2% 0.50 - 0.59 4.3% 5.1% 9.3 5.1 33.9% 21.5% 0.60 - 0.69 12.9% 11.2% 12.2 11.5 12.1% 29.1% 0.70 - 0.79 22.6% 9.2% 15.9 13.4 4.0 15.2 0.80 - 0.89 21.5% 25.5% 28.2 27.4 5.8 10.6

≥ 0.90 2.2% 15.3% 22.2 21.4 0 0


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Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Mean 0.57 0.61 0.89 0.83\ 0.51 0.507

Minimum 0.04 0.03 0.23 0.19 0.09 0.08 Maximum 0.93 0.98 0.95 0.97\ 0.85 0.88

Economic Efficiency Analysis The predicted economic efficiency estimates computed as the inverse of cost efficiency differed among the farmers ranging from 0.09 – 0.85 with a mean of 0.51 for users and 0.08 – 0.88 with a mean of 0.51 for nonusers. This implies that there is the potential for increasing the economic efficiency of the farmers by 49%, if they are to operate on the frontier. If the average farmer who use microcredit were to reach the economic efficiency level of its most efficient counterpart, he could experience a cost saving of 40% {[1 – (0.51/0.85)] x 100}. Likewise, the most economically inefficient farmer could experience cost saving of 89% {[1 – (0.09/0.85)] x 100}. The frequency distribution of the economic efficiency shows that only 6% of users and 11% of nonusers had economic efficiency of over 0.80, indicating that the farmers overall performance was quite low for a given level of technology. Allocative Efficiency Analysis Allocative efficiency reflects the ability of a firm to use its inputs in optimal proportions given their respective prices and production technology. Table 4 indicates that about 50% of users and nonusers of microcredit had allocative scores of 0.80 and above indicating that they were allocative efficient. On the average, users of microcredit had an efficiency score of 0.89 while nonusers had a score of 0.83. This shows that the farmers were fairly efficient in selecting the mix of inputs that produced a given quantity of output at minimum cost. Comparison of Technical, Allocative and Economic Efficiencies between Users and Nonusers of Microcredit. The efficiency levels for both users and nonusers of microcredit were compared. A student t-test was employed to test for the equality of means for both variables. As shown in Table 5, technical efficiency for users and nonusers of microcredit were 0.57 and 0.61. There was no significant difference between both mean scores. The observed differences were by chance. This finding is in contrast with that of Islam (2011) and Abdul (2013). They reported that Bangladesh farmers with access to microfinance were significantly more efficient compared to their non-borrowing counterparts.

Similarly, Table 5 showed that allocative efficiencies for users and nonusers were 0.89 and 0.83 respectively. The t-test again indicated that there was no significant difference between both groups. The overall economic efficiency was also compared with efficiency score of 0.51 for users against 0.51 for nonusers and there was no significant difference. The summary of Table 5 is that the use of credit from Lift above Poverty Microcredit Scheme had no statistically significant effect on the efficiency level of the borrowers at least for now. This could be as a result of the short repayment period implemented by LAPO. The farmers are expected to start paying back just after two months of collecting the loan. This alongside the high interest rates of 25 – 30% charged per annum can negatively affect the performance of cassava farmers who hope to make sales only at the end of the production cycle. This could be called ‘the loan paradox” as the farmers would focus on redeeming their loans while relegating their farms to neglect and jeopardy. The microcredit sector therefore has to be revolutionized in order to meet the nation’s goal of stimulating agricultural development and maximizing food security.


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Table 5: T-Test for Equality of Means for Technical, Allocative and Economic Efficiencies of Users and Nonusers of Credit

Status N Mean T Sig (2 tailed) Technical Efficiency Users 93 .57 -.895 .372

Nonusers 98 .61

Allocative Efficiency Users 93 0.89 -0.039 0.969 Nonusers 98 0.83 Economic Efficiency Users 93 0.51 0.365 0.716 Nonusers 98 0.507

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded from this study that agricultural loans obtained from Lift Above Poverty Microcredit Scheme has not significantly impacted on technical and allocative and cost efficiencies of microcredit users. The efficiency levels of both users and non-users of credit where statistically similar.

These results are contrary to apriori expectations and is significant considering the fact that microcredit has garnered worldwide appeal. Further research should therefore be directed into this field of study in Nigeria in order to identify the reasons behind the deviations from the expected results, so that prompt solutions can be proffered.

RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are made from the findings of this study: 1. The availability of cash alone is not a guarantee for high efficiency. Cassava farmers

are advised to master the technique of best input combination that can yield the highest returns.

2. Lift above Poverty Microcredit Bank should review their loan structure for agriculture. For example, the annual interest rates charge should be put at lower rates suitable for agricultural production.

3. Farmers that produce crops like cassava which gestation period is 12 months should be asked to pay back their loans at the end of the production cycle after they have harvested and sold their products, and not when the farmers are still in the process of production.

4. Microfinance banks should stimulate vigorous passion for agricultural development in the minds of the farmers by helping the farmers to form cooperatives which enables them pool resources together and buy farm machinery such as tractors, harvesters, and ploughs.

REFERENCES Abdul, W. (2013).Impact of Microcredit on Agricultural Farm Performance and Food

Security in Bangladesh.Working Paper Number 14, Institute of Microfinance (InM). pp. 6-7

Anyaegbunam, H.N.; Okoye, B.C.; Asumugha, G.N. and Madu, T. (2009). A translog stochastic frontier analysis of plot size and cost inefficiency among small holder cassava farmers in South-East agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. Nigerian Agricultural Journal. 40 (1 & 2): 23 – 28.

Audu, S. I., Otitolaiye, J.O. and Ibitoye, S.J. (2013). A Stochastic Frontier Approach to Measurement of Cost Efficiency in Small Scale Cassava Production in Kogi State, Nigeria.European Scientific Journal. 9(9): 1857 – 7881


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Coelli, T.J., Prasada, R., O’Donnell, C.J., and Battese, G.E. (2005).An Introduction to Efficiency and Productivity Analysis, Second Edition, Springer.pp53-56.

Emokaro, C.O., and Ekunwe, P.A. (2009).Efficiency of Resource-Use and Elasticity of Production among Catfish Farmers in Kaduna, Nigeria.African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(25): 7249-7252.

Erhabor, P.O., and Emokaro, C.O. (2007).Relative Technical Efficiency of Cassava Farmers in the Three Agro-Ecological Zones of Edo State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences,7(19): 2818-2823.

Erhabor, P.O., Azaiki S.S., Ingawa, S.A. (2007). Forward in Cassava: The White Gold. pg v Islam, K.M.Z., (2011). Microfinance, Efficiency and Agricultural Production in

Bangladesh.Agricultural Economics Unit, Department of Economics and Management. University of Helsinki, Finland. pp 16, 18.

Lift above Poverty (LAPO) Sustainability Report, 2016. www.lapo-nigeria.org/images/reports/ LAPOMFB2013sustainabilityreport(1) 1-60

Kothari, C.R, and Garg, G., (2014). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Third Edition.New Age International Publishers.p 213.

Ogunniyi, L.T., Ajetomobi, J.O. and Fabiyi, Y.L. (2013).Technical Efficiency of Cassava - Based Cropping in Oyo State of Nigeria. Agris on-line Papers in Economics and Informatics .5(1): 51-59


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EFFECTS OF LEUCAENA BIOCHAR AND COWDUNG ON SOIL NUT RIENTS AND WATER RETENTION OF TYPIC PLINTHUSTALF IN MINNA, NIGERIA.

Afolabi, S. G.* and Azubuogu, O. J.

Department of Soil Science and Land Management. School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Federal University of Technology,

P.M.B. 65, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. *Corresponding Author e-mail: [email protected] :

[email protected] +2348035014309

ABSTRACT

Pot experiment was conducted at Screen house of Federal University of Technology Minna, to determine the effects of leucaena biochar and cow dung on soil nutrient and water retention. The experiment consists of four levels of leucaena biochar (10, 20, 30 and 40 t ha-

1), four levels of cow dung (10, 20, 30 and 40 t ha-1) and three replicates in control. The data collected were organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium and water retention. The results showed that biochar and cow dung at 30 and 40 t ha-1 were significant at (P ≤ 0.05) higher soil organic carbon. Cation exchange capacity of biochar at 20, 30 and 40 t ha-1 were significantly higher (p≤ 0.05) compared to cow dung and control. Cow dung at 30 t ha-1 recorded higher available phosphorus. Total nitrogen and exchangeable potassium had no significant effect on biochar and cow dung. Most of the water was retained at 10 and 20 t ha-1 of biochar and 30 t ha-1 of cow dung. Water loss at 30 and 40 t ha-1 of biochar and 10 and 20 t ha-1 of cow dung were higher with regards to control. The incorporation of 30 t ha-1 of biochar and cow dung improved most of the parameters measured. Keywords: Leucaena biochar, soil nutrients, water retention and Typic plinthustalf

INTRODUCTION

Soil remains a major basis for food production in agriculture and therefore should be maintained to reduce all the negative impacts that will lead to food insecurity (Akinrinde, 2006). The difficulty in tropical soil is the failure of the soil to maintain annual food crops unchanged for several years. Every activity involved in agriculture directly or indirectly depends on the soil (Akinrinde, 2006). Soil organic matter has the potential in of decreasing soil compaction (Mamman et al., 2007). Adequate soil organic matter can balance soil structure, decreases bulk density, resistant to degradation and soil strength (Carter, 2002). Organic materials enhance soil quality and provide nutrients to crops, rates of decomposition, pattern and nutrient rates. (Kumar and Goh, 2002). Soil organic matter is an important component of soil quality which determines many soil characteristics such as nutrient retention and mineralization, aggregate stability and water retention. Organic matter not only increases the water holding capacity of the soil but, the portion of water available for plant growth and improves the physical properties of soil (Bolan et al., 2004). Several researchers reported that organic manure (cow dung, green manure and poultry manure) can improve soil physical properties (Li and Zhang 2007; Ludwig et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2009). Ewulo, (2005) reported that addition of cattle and poultry manure to soil lead to increase in soil chemical properties, but their rate of decomposition is high, so there is the need to employ organic amendment that will be resistant to decomposition. Biochar is a carbonized solid by-product of bio-energy production through high temperature degasification of organic material under limited oxygen conditions (Lehmann

Afolabi, S.G. and Azubuogu, O. J. (2018). Effects of Leucaena Biochar and Cowdung on Soil Nutrients and Water Retention of Typic Plinthustalf in Minna, Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 126-133.


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et al., 2006; Van Zweiten, et al., 2010). In the Sub-Saharan Africa, the use of biochar improves the uptake of nutrients and could be efficient where chemical fertilizers are unaffordable by most farmers. More so, neutral plant growth or negative responses have been observed on soils amended with sole biochar (Blackwell et al., 2009; Gaskin et al., 2010).

The application of composts and organic manures to soil have been used to retain inorganic fertilizer and increase nutrient availability in the soil. However, in sandy soils organic amendments face the limitation of constant turnover, because organic manures are usually mineralized within shot cropping seasons and the rate of decomposition is high. Thus, organic amendments have to be applied regularly to sustain sandy soil productivity. In light of this, biochar could be an alternative to organic manures which decompose easily. As a stable organic material, it can sustain sandy soil environment. Furthermore, harsh agro climatic condition such as high temperature due to increase in human population and their anthropogenic activities (production of food) results to rapid decomposition of organic amendments that served as soil conditional, thus leads to the degradation of soil.

Recent study reported that the application of biochip to the soil improves cation exchange capacity (CEC) as well as boost the fertility of the soil, attracting more microbes and beneficial fungi, improve soil quality through the rise of the soil pH, retain more nutrients and increase moisture holding capacity in the soil (Lehmann et al., 2006). There is the need for further studies on how the quantity and quality variation of biochar can influence some of the restraining factors of agricultural production in sandy soils. Previous studies on the application of biochar in soil were focused on conventional arable soils with few studies focusing on dry lands, mainly sandy soils. Hence, the objective of this study is to determine the effects of Leucaena biochar and cow dung on soil nutrients and water retention in Minna.


Study Area This study was conducted in the Screen house, School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna. It lies between latitude 9º 37’ N and 6º 33’ E and 256m above the sea level in Southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Minna has a tropical wet and savanna climate and the mean maximum temperature of about 33.5oC throughout March and June. The mean annual rainfall is 1284mm and a distinct dry season occurring from November to March (Ojanuga, 2006). The topography of Minna is lightly undulating high plains developed on basement complex rocks made up of gneisses, migmatites, schists and granites. Inselbergs of “Older Granites” and schists of low hills rise obviously above the plains. The deeply weathered bedrock beneath the plains constitutes the major soil parent materials (Ojanuga, 2006). The soil was classified as typic plinthustalf (Lawal et al., 2012) Soil sampling and preparation Soil samples were collected from the depth 0-15cm from the Teaching and Research Farm, Federal University of Technology, Minna along diagonal transect. The soil samples was bulked together to make a composite sample. The samples were air-dried after which the air-dried samples were sieved using a 2mm sieve and 2kg of soil was weighed and poured into the poly pots and representative samples were collected for particle size analysis and the chemical properties of the soil were analysed using the method described by Agbenin (1995).


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Treatments and experimental design The Leucaena biochar was sourced from Bowen University, Iwo, Osun State and the cow dung was sourced from Animal Production Teaching and Research Farm, Federal University of Technology, Minna. A 2kg of soil was weighed and placed in a perforated bucket to drain water. The cow dung and biochar were mixed thoroughly with soil. The soil in the buckets was arranged and the upper buckets were covered with their lids. The experiment was prepared in a completely randomized design (CRD) with four levels of biochar, (10, 20, 30 and 40 ton/ha), levels of cow dung (10, 20, 30 and 40 ton/ha) and a control replicated three times. Determination of water retention The 2kg of soil was measured into a measuring cylinder to give 1370 ml, half of 1370 ml (685ml) was used to saturate the soil. The experiment was saturated every week by adding 685ml of water. The drainage water was collected 24 hours after saturation and measured using measuring cylinder. Water balance equation The drained water was subtracted from the total amount of water used for wetting to give the water storage as shown in equation (1) according to Kang et al. (2012). ∆£ = 1 − 2 − ¤ − 7……………………………………………………. (1) Where ∆W is soil water storage change, I is applied water, R is runoff, D is drainage and E is evaporation. Determination of soil nutrients At 8 weeks the soil sample was collected from each pots to determine the following analysis; Organic carbon using Walkley-Black oxidation method, cation exchange capacity (CEC) was extracted with neutral 1N NH4OAC and determined by flame photometry, total nitrogen using macro Kjeldahl method, available phosphorus using Bray P1 method and exchangeable potassium was extracted with neutral 1N NH4OAC and determined by flame photometry. Statistical Analysis Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means was separated using Student Newman Keuls (SNK) at 5% level of probability.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Some physical and chemical properties The results of the physical and chemical properties of the soil are shown in Table 1. According rating by Esu (1991), the results showed that the textural class of the soil was sandy loam. The soil was slightly acidic in water (pH 6.5). The organic carbon was low (1.25 g kg-1), the exchangeable potassium was low (0.12cmol kg-1) and low phosphorus (9 mg kg-1). Effects of leucaena biochar and cow dung on organic carbon, total nitrogen, potassium and cation exchange capacity. The effects of leucaena biochar and cow dung on soil organic carbons were significant (Table 2). Application of biochar and cow dung at 30 and 40 ton ha-1 recorded high organic carbon content (3.26 and 3.10 g kg-1) compared to the control (0.78 g kg-1). The application of 10 and 20 ton ha-1 of biochar (1.42 and 2.06 g kg-1) and 10 ton ha-1 of cow dung (1.26g kg-1) were similar to the control. Application of biochar at 20, 30 and 40 ton ha-1 had significantly higher cation exchange capacity than the cow dung applied pots and control. There was no significant different between the treatment and control on total nitrogen and potassium.

Figure 1 shows the effect of biochar and cow dung on available phosphorus. The application of 30 ton ha-1of cow dung had the highest available phosphorus (20 mg kg-1)


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and the lowest was observed in the control but are similar to 20 ton ha-1 of cow dung (Figure 1). The 10 and 20 ton ha-1 of biochar and 30 ton ha-1 of cow dung retain more water compared to other treatments (Figure 2). Water was loss when 30 and 40 ton ha-1 of biochar as well as 10 and 20 ton ha-1 of cow dung was applied, but the highest water loss was recorded in the control (Figure 3). Table 1. Some physical and chemical properties of soil, biochar and cow dung before the experiment. Properties Soil Biochar Cowdung Sand (g kg-1) 780 Silt (g kg-1) 89 Clay (g kg-1) 131 Textural class pH in water

Sandy loam 6.5

Nitrogen (g kg-1) 0.02 1.2 1.40 Phosphorus (mg kg-1) 9 1.07 60 Potassium (cmol kg-1) 0.12 0.36 138 Organic carbon (g kg-1) 1.25

Table 2: Effects of leucaena biochar and cow dung on organic carbon, total nitrogen, potassium and cation exchange capacity Treatments Organic carbon

(g kg-1) Available Nitrogen

(g kg-1) Potassium (cmol kg-1)

Cation Exchange Capacity

(cmol kg-1) Control 0.78d 0.01a 0.11a 1.48b

Biochar (10 tons ha-1) 1.42bcd 0.06a 0.12a 4.88ab

Biochar (20 tons ha-1) 2.06abcd 0.07a 0.32a 9.97a

Biochar (30 tons ha-1) 3.26a 0.08a 0.24a 10.11a

Biochar (40 tons ha-1) 3.10a 0.07a 0.14a 9.42a

Cow dung (10 tons ha-1) 1.26cd 0.09a 0.13a 3.12b

Cow dung (20 tons ha-1) 2.86ab 0.09a 0.31a 2.75b

Cow dung (30 tons ha-1) 2.74abc 0.09a 0.22a 2.34b

Cow dung (40 tons ha-1) 2.74abc 0.09a 0.08a 1.48b

SE± 0.192 0.028 0.277 0.762

Means with the same letters are not significantly different at p≥0.05


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Figure 1: Effect of biochar and cow dung on available phosphorus.

Figure 2: Effect of biochar and cow dung on soil water storage

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Figure 3: Effect of biochar and cow dung on drainage The results showed increased in soil organic carbon with increasing cow dung with the highest organic carbon observed in biochar. The soil organic carbon content of biochar and cow dung amended soils were higher than the control soil. Ewulo, (2005) reported that addition of poultry and cattle manure to the soil could increase the soil chemical properties, but their rate of decomposition maybe high. Therefore, there is the need to employ organic amendment that can be resistant to decomposition. Application of manure has significant effect on the organic matter due to increased chemical properties of soil (Masto et al. 2007; Schoenau, 2006). Sohi et al. (2010) revealed that increased root-derived carbon inputs after biochar application and higher subterranean net primary production will bring increase in soil organic carbon.

Biochar is said to be a porous substance enriched with carbon having high specific surface area and has been proved to have the capability of increasing soil nutrients and water retention (Verheijen et al., 2010). The macrospore structure and pore size distribution of biochar was reported to influence water retention and adsorption capacity (Ogawa and Okimori, 2010). According to Jeffrey et al, (2011) biochar benefits could be noticed in sandy soil, depleted and soils with low organic matter. Many field trials have been carried out in depleted and acidic tropical soils to show the yield impacts of biochar.

CONCLUSION From the result of this study incorporation of 30 ton ha-1 biochar and cow dung improved the organic carbon, available phosphorus, cation exchange capacity and water retention. It can be used as good soil amendment in Typic plinthustalf.

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Data Analysis). Published by Agbenin. 140pp. Akinrinde, A.E. (2006). Soils: Nature, Fertility Conservation and Management, Agronomy

Department, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. AMS publishing Inc Australia. pp. 1-122.

Blackwell, P., Reithmuller, G., and Collins, M., (2009). Biochar application to soil. In: J. Lehmannand S. Joseph (Editors), Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology Earthscan. pp. 207-226

Carter, M.R. (2002). Soil quality for sustainable land management: Organic matter and aggregation interactions that maintain soil functions. Agronomy Journal. 94: 38-47.

Esu, I.E. (1991). Detailed soil survey of NIHORT Farm at Bunkure, Kano State, Nigeria. Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. pp 72.

Ewulo, B.S. (2005) Effect of Poultry and Cattle Manure on Sandy Clay Loam Soil. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences. 4: 839-841.

Gaskin, J.W., Steiner, C., Harris, K., Das, K.C., and Bibens, B. (2008). Effect of low-temperaturepyrolysis conditions on biochar for agricultural use. Trans ASABE 51: 2061–2069.

Jeffery, S., F.G.A. Verheijen, M. van der Velde., and Bastos A.C (2011). “A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using met- analysis.” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. pp 144:175-187

Kang, Y.H., Wang, R.S., Wan, S.Q., Hu, W., Jiang, S.F. and Liu, S.P. (2012). Effects of different water levels on cotton growth and water use through drip irrigation in an arid region with saline ground water of North-West China. Agriculture Water Manage. 109:117-126.

Kumar, K., and Goh, K.M. (2002). Crop residues and management practices: effects on soil quality, soil nitrogen dynamics, crop yields and nitrogen recovery. Advances in Agronmy. 68:197-317.

Lawal, B.A., Adeboye, M.K.A., Tsado, P.A. Elebiyo, M.G. and Nwajoku, C.R. (2012). Properties, classification and agricultural potential of lateritic soils of Minna in sub-humid agroecological zone, Nigeria. International Journal of Development and Sustainability, 1(3): 903-911.

Lehmann, J., Gaunt, J. and Rondon, M. (2006). Biochar sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems - A review. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11:403-427.

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ASSESSMENT OF CONSUMPTION PATTERNS OF PRO-VITAMIN A BIO-FORTIFIED CASSAVA AMONG FARM FAMILIES IN ABAK LOCAL

GOVERNMENT AREA. AKWA IBOM STATE, NIGERIA

Etuk, U. R., Ekereke, B. I. and Akpabio, A. D. Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Uyo, P M B 1017,

Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT The study assessed the consumption patterns of Pro-vitamin A bio-fortified Cassava farm families in Abak Local Government Area. The study focused on the following specific objectives: assess the consumption patterns and preferences of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava and finally to identify the major factors affecting the consumption of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava in the study area. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select one hundred and eight (108) respondents for the study. Data were collected and analysed using descriptive statistics and factor analyses. Findings revealed that Garri made from pro-vitamin A cassava was the most frequently consumed with a mean of (�̅5.0) while pro-vitamin A cassava flour (�̅2.8) was the least consumed and fresh root (�̅1.9) was the least preferred pattern. The fifteen (15) factors variables subjected to factor analysis produced major dimensions or factors which are named as: Socio-economic and Inadequate information factors which contributed 23.65% to the total % of variance of 72.45% and by this was the most important factor, proper extension and risk related factor with 14.61% of variance, Product cost and product characteristic factor contributing 11.315% to the total % of variance, Unfamiliarity with the product with 8.434% of variance, Colour of the cassava products with 7.931% of variance and perceived health benefits from consuming it over others contributing 7.099% to the total % of variance based on the findings, it was recommended that there should be increase extension services in areas with low consumption Key words: Consumption patterns, Pro-vitamin A bio-fortified Cassava, and farm

families

INTRODUCTION In Africa, Nigeria is one of the world largest producers of cassava and produces over 40 million metric tons annually (Central Bank of Nigeria, CBN, 2004). Cassava is referred to as a food security crop because it has a special capacity to bridge the gap in food security (supply and demand gap), poverty alleviation and environmental protection while being available at all times of adequate world supply and does not have fluctuation in production and prices and it is socially acceptable. (Clair and Etukudo 2000). Being a food security crop, it is one the most important staple and an important component in the diets of more than 800 million around the world. (Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO, 2007). It is consumed as garri (toasted granules), chips, flour, fermented pastes (fufu) or fresh root which account to the dietary calories equivalent of per capital consumption of cassava in Nigeria amounts to about 238kcal (Verhoef, 2010). Food provides not only essential nutrients needed for life but also other bioactive components for promotion and maintenance of health while preventing diseases. While cassava roots are rich in energy, containing mainly starch and soluble carbohydrates, its general nutritive value is low and white cassava is particularly low in vitamin A and its precursors (Verhoef, 2010). Micro-nutrient deficiency is a major public health problem among vulnerable groups of young children and pregnant women in low income countries.

Etuk, U. R. et al. (2018). Assessment of Consumption Patterns of Pro-vitamin a Bio-fortified Cassava among Farm Families in Abak Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Nigeria. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1): 134-141.


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More than 800 million people suffer from micro-nutrient malnutrition in developing countries with Africa accounting to almost 50% of children who are clinically or sub-clinically deficient in vitamin A particularly under five years of Ages (FAO, 2010). Cassava being one of the most important staples in the world is an important component in the diets of more than 800 million people globally and over 250 million people in Africa. Cassava as a good source of energy, containing mainly starch and soluble carbohydrate is deficient in micro nutrient such as vitamin A.

Vitamin A deficiency is a pronouns problem in the world and in tropical Africa. A severity in Vitamin A deficiency can lead to child morbidity and mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease, preventable condition of blindness in children and Xerophthalmia. With more than 800 million people suffering from micronutrient (Vitamin A) malnutrition in developing countries in the world (FAO, 2010), the ratio of people consuming cassava to people suffering from micro-nutrient deficiency is proportionate, that is, 1:1 and this possess a very serious problem. For this reason, people needs a diverse diet including vegetable and fruits rich in biologically active phytochemicals such as carotenoids which are precursors of vitamin A, animal sourced foods and fortified staple foods at low cost to combat the deficiency problems.

Akwa Ibom State is a vitamin A deficiency susceptible population following the predominance of white cassava and in effort to prevent some chronic diseases among deficient children and women bio-fortification program came as a very promising first-line intervention (Verhoef, 2010). Etuk and Umoh, (2014) and Asa and Obinaju, (2016) have assessed the level of adoption of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava varieties by farmers in rural areas of Akwa Ibom State. However, little is known on the consumption pattern of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava among farm families in Abak L. G. A. it was against this background that this study was conducted to address the following research questions.What are the consumption patterns and preferences of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava products by respondents in the study area? And what are the major factors affecting the consumption of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava in the study area?


The study was conducted in Abak Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used for the study. The first stage involved stratification of the study area based on ADP blocks. Abak has the total of six (6) blocks. 2 cells were randomly selected from each block giving the total of 12 cells. The next stage involved random sampling of 2 villages from each cell which gave the total of 48 villages. The last stage involved random sampling of 9 farm households from each village which gave a total of 108 farm households for the study. Sets of structured questionnaire were used to generate data for the study. The first objective was analyzed using frequency count, percentages. Mean and rank. Factor analysis was applied to determine the major factors affecting the consumption of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava in the study area.

RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS Consumption patterns of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava Results from Table 1 presents the distribution of the respondents based on their frequency of consumption of different pattern of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava. Table 1 reveals that 50% of the respondents consumes pro-vitamin A garri daily, 13.9% weekly, 25% twice a week, 10.2% thrice a week while 0.9% do not consume pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava. The table also reveals that 10% the respondents consumes fufu made from pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava on a daily basis 34.3% weekly, 24.1% twice a week 22.2% thrice a week, 7.4% once a month while 1.9% don’t consume. 11.1% of the respondents


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consumes pro-vitamin A cassava flour daily 11.1% weekly, 13% twice a week,8.3% thrice a week, 23.1% monthly and 33.3% don’t consume.

Pro-vitamin A cassava porridge is also consumed by 1.9% of the respondents on a daily bases, 27.8% weekly, 11.1% twice a week, 23.1% thrice a week, 25% monthly while 11.1 do not consume. Akara made from pro-vitamin A cassava is consumed by 17.6% of the respondents daily 13% weekly, 15.7% twice a week, 14.8% thrice a week, 29.6% once a month while 9.3% do not consume. 17.6% of the respondents consume pro-vitamin A starch daily, 10.3% weekly, 12% twice a week, 8.3% thrice a week, 25% monthly while 26.9% of the respondents don’t consume it.

Ekpang from pro-vitamin A cassava is consume by 2.8% of the respondents daily, 21.3% weekly, 16.7% twice a week, 5.6 thrice a week 25% once a month and 28.7% don’t consume it. Pro-vitamin cassava fresh root is consumed by 2.8% of the respondents daily, 16.7% weekly, 13.9% twice a week, 13% thrice a week, 12% once a month, while majority (41.7%) of the respondents don’t consume the fresh root. 3.7% of the respondents consumes pro-vitamin A Tapioca daily, 13.9% weekly 15.7% twice a week, 18.5% thrice a week, 31.5% once a month while 16.7% do not consume Tapioca from it. Lastly, bread produced from Pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava is consumed by 26.9% of the respondents daily, 13.9% weekly, 11.1% twice a week, 13.9% three time a week, 14.5% monthly while 19.4% don’t consume the bread.

Based on the mean score, Garri is ranked 1st which means that it is the most frequently consumed pattern with the mean score of 5.0 followed by fufu ( =4.1) and third by cassava bread ( =3.7). The study also revealed that there was low consumption of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava flour ( =2.8) followed by Ekpang, fresh root and tapioca, all having the same mean score of 2.9.


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Table 1 Consumption patterns of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava

S/N

Patterns Daily F %

Weekly F %

Twice a week F %

thrice a week F %

Once a month F %

Don't consume F %

Mean Rank Remark

1 Garri 54 50 15 13.9 27 25 11 10.2 - 1 0.9 5 1 HC

2 Fufu (fermented paste) 11 10 37 34.3 26 24.1 24 22.2 8 7.4 2 1.9 4.1 2 HC

3 Cassava flour 12 11.1 12 11.1 14 13 9 8.3 25 23.1 36 33.3 2.8 10 LC

4 Cassava porridge 2 1.9 30 27.8 12 11.1 25 23.1 27 25 12 11.1 3.3 5 LC

5 Akara 19 17.6 14 13 17 15.7 16 14.8 32 29.6 10 9.3 3.5 4 HC

6 Starch 19 17.6 11 10.3 13 12 9 8.3 27 25 29 26.9 3.1 6 LC

7 African envelop (Ekpang) 3 2.8 23 21.3 18 16.7 6 5.6 27 25 31 28.7 2.9 7 LC

8 Fresh root 3 2.8 18 16.7 15 13.9 14 13 13 12 45 41.7 2.9 7 LC

9 Tapioca 4 3.7 15 13.9 17 15.7 20 18.5 34 31.5 18 16.7 2.9 7 LC

10 Cassava bread 29 26.9 15 13.9 12 11.1 15 13.9 16 14.8 21 19.4 3.7 3 HC

Mean≥3.5=High Consumption (HC); Mean≤3.49=Low Consumption (LC)


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Summary Statistics of Level of Consumption of Pro-Vitamin A Bio-Fortified Cassava Result from Table 2 revealed that 58.3% of the respondents had low consumption of pro-vitamin a bio fortified cassava while 41.1% of the respondents had high level of consumption. The implication is that majority of the respondents do not consume pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava frequently in the study area Table 2: Level of Consumption of Pro-Vitamin A Bio-Fortified Cassava Consumption index Interpretation of

range Frequency Percentage

0.00-3.49 Low consumption 63 58.3 3.50-6.00 High consumption 45 41.7

Consumption Preference of Pro-Vitamin A Bio-Fortified Cassava Analysis was conducted in order to establish know the patterns mostly preferred by adopters and consumers of pro vitamin A bio-fortified cassava, the means scores of the preferences were calculated and ranked (Table 3). Any patterns that have a mean score of 2.5 and above were regarded as preferred and vice versa if mean score is below 2.5 since the maximum response score for each of the preferences was 4 and minimum was 1. As revealed on Table 3, Pro-vitamin A garri was the highest preferred pattern since it had the highest means (3.46) this was followed by fufu (fermented paste) ( = 3.31) followed by Akara ( = 2.72) and forthly pro-vitamin A cassava bread. Other patterns such as cassava porridge ( =2.44), starch ( = 2.31) cassava flour ( =2.31), Ekpang ( = 2.4) Topioca ( = 2.35) and Pro-vitamin A cassava fresh root ( = 1.92) where not preferred. Table 3: Consumption Preference of Pro-Vitamin A Bio-Fortified Cassava S/N Preferences HP P FP NP Mean Rank Remark

F % F % F % F %

1 Garri 57 52.8 46 42.6 3 2.8 2 1.9 3.5 1 P

2

Fufu (fermented paste) 46 42.6 50 46.3 11 10.0 1 0.9 3.3

2

P

3 Cassava flour 19 17.6 35 32.4 15 14.0 39 36.1 2.3 8 NP

4 Cassava porridge 12 11.1 46 42.6 27 25.0 23 21.3 2.4

5 NP

5 Akara 34 31.5 32 29.6 20 19.0 22 20.4 2.7 3 P

6 Starch 14 13.0 35 32.4 30 28.0 29 26.9 2.3 8 NP

7

African envelop (Ekpang) 22 20.4 29 26.9 27 25.0 30 27.8 2.4

5

NP

8 Fresh root 7 6.5 27 25.0 24 22.0 50 46.3 1.9 10 NP

9 Tapioca 12 11.1 40 37.0 30 28.0 26 24.1 2.4 5 NP

10 Cassava bread 24 22.2 46 42.6 20 19.0 18 16.7 2.7 3 P

Mean≥2.50=Preferred (P); Mean ≤2.49=Not Preferred (NP) Factors Affecting the Consumption of Pro-vitamin a bio-fortified Cassava using Factor Analysis From Table 4, the factor analysis procedure with verimax rotation applied to the data yielded a six dimensional solution. The communalities, which indicate the importance of the variables in the analysis, were generally high (above 50). This shows that the variables selected for this study were appropriate and relevant. The six factors which altogether


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accounted for 72.45% of total variance in the 15 original variables may be regarded as composite factors affecting the consumption of Pro-vitamin A bio fortified cassava in the study area. The major dimensions were named as follows: Factor 1: Socio-economic and inadequate information factor Factor 1 accounted for 23.07% of the total variance and is the most important factor of the fifteen (15) variables in the analysis, six (6) of the (1 – 6) loaded positively and significantly on this factor. The variables included membership of farmers’ organization (.643), early maturity of the cassava (.520), numbers of children in the house (.600), Accessibility of the product (.749), lack of adequate information (.697) and cultural acceptability (.541). These variables loaded positively and highly on variables associated with socio-economic and inadequate information, this factor was named Socio-economic and inadequate information factor. Factor 2: lack of proper Extension Services and risk related factor. Factor 2 accounted for 14.61% of the total variance. Associated with this factor were three (3) variables which loaded positively and significantly. These were availability of the product (0.677), risk and unforeseen circumstances (0.710) and lack of proper extension services (0.502). This factor was predominately dominated by extension and risk related variables, hence this factor was named lack of proper extension and risk related factor.

Factor 3: Product cost and product characteristic factor Factor 3 accounted for 11.32% of the total variance. High cost of products processed from the cassava (0.523), Taste of the cassava products (0.547) and never eaten it before were the variables that loaded positively and significantly under this factor. This factor was identified as product cost and product characteristic factor because it associated with high cost of products processed from the cassava and taste of the cassava products Factor 4: Unfamiliarity with the Product Factor 4 was found to account to 8.42% of the total variance and was predominantly dominated by variable which had to do with unfamiliarity with the product. This factor tends to define a gap existing between the people and the product and the need to fill the gap. Factor 5: Colour of the cassava Products Factor 5 was predominantly dominated by colour of the cassava product and account for 7.93% of the total variance with an eigenvalue of 1.19. Factor 6: Perceived health benefits from consuming it over others Factor 6 the last factor, was found to load highly on the variable associated with health benefit from the consumption of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava. This factor had the least eigenvalue of 1.07 indicating that this factor did not receive adequate attention.


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Table 4: Related factor matrix for the factors affecting the consumption of pro-vitamin A bio fortified cassava in Abak L.G.A of Akwa Ibom State

Factors factors loading communalities

1 2 3 4 5 6

Membership of an organization 0.643 0.769

Early maturity of the cassava 0.52 0.51

Numbers of children in the house 0.6 0.705

Accessibility of the product 0.749 0.738

Lack of adequate information 0.697 0.704

Cultural acceptability 0.541 0.716

availability of the product 0.677 0.811

Risk and unforeseen circumstances 0.71 0.852

Lack of proper extension agent on it -0.502 0.729

Taste of the cassava products 0.547 0.696

High cost of products processed from it 0.523 0.65

Never eaten it before 0.595 0.775

Unfamiliarity with the product 0.542 0.766

Colour of the cassava products 0.632 0.768 perceived health benefits from consuming it over others 0.532 0.677

Eigen Values 3.46 2.192 1.697 1.264 1.19 1.065

% of variance 23.065 14.61 11.315 8.424 7.931 7.099

Cumulative Variance 32.065 37.68 48.994 57.42 65.348 72.45

CONCLUSION The study found that majority of the respondents did not consume pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava frequently in the study area. Garri and fufu (fermented paste) made from Pro-vitamin A cassava were the most preferred products consumed by respondents in the study area, Socio-economic and Inadequate information factors, lack of proper extension and risk related factors, Product cost and product characteristic factors, Unfamiliarity with the product and perceived health benefits from consuming the product were most significant factors affecting the consumption pattern of pro-vitamin A bio-fortified cassava in the study area. It was recommended that there should be increase extension services in areas with low consumption

REFERENCES Asa, U.A., Obinaju L.C., (2016). Factors Influencing Adoption of Provitamin A Cassava

Varieties By Farmers In Rural Areas of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Economics and Sustainable Development. Photon 105: 212-218.

CBN (Central Bank of Nigeria) (2004). Annual Report and Statement of Account for the year ended 31st December, 2004. 145-168. In: Nworgu, F. C. 2006. Prospects and Pitfalls of Agricultural Production in Nigeria. Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Clair, A. W. and Etukudo, O. J. (2000). Food security and Nigeria agriculture; A Paper presented in Food Security Conference in Lokoja. Nigeria


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Etuk U.R., Umoh I.U., (2014). Adoption pattern of provitamin A technology among farmers in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment, 10(4): 135 – 138.

Food and Agriculture Organization, (2010). Statistical databases & data-sets. Production. November, 2016. Rome

Food and Agriculture Organization, (2007). Agriculture toward 2015/30. Technical Interim Report, April, 2000, Rome.

Verhoef, H. (2010). Effects of Pro-vitamin A Biofortified Cassava on Vitamin A Status of Primary School Children In Kenya.


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LEVELS OF MERCURY, CADMIUM AND ZINC IN GUTTER SEDIM ENT IN SELECTED ROADS IN UYO METROPOLIS

Simeon, S. D., Esien, E. and Effiong, G. S.*

Department of Soil Science and Land Resources Management

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria Correspondence Author: 08034357674

ABSTRACT

A study was carried out to determine the levels of three chemical elements in gutter sediment in selected roads in Uyo Metropolis. Ten bulk sediment gutter sample were taken and studied for levels of mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd) and Zinc (Zn) in selected major roads in Uyo metropolis. Result of total Hg ranged from 0.05mgkg-1 in Calabar-Itu Road to 0.675mgkg-1 in Edet Akpan Avenue. Total Cd varied from 0.60mgkg-1 in Calabar Itu Road to 1.90mgkg-1, while Zn ranged from 3.75mgkg-1 to 6.17mgkg-1 in the studied area. Available Hg concentration was low (0.008mgkg-1 to 0.05mgkg-1), but value was within the permissible limit. Available Cd ranged from 0.035mgkg-1 to 0.100mgkg-1 with a mean of 6.24mgkg-1 while available Zn (0.335 to 1.503mgkg-1) was highest in Cal-Itu Road gutter sediment. On the average, Edet Akpan Avenue had the highest while Calabar-Itu Road had the least concentrations of the studied elements. The wide variability of the elemental concentrations across the studied area is attributed to greater variability of input concentration sources from where they are transported to respective locations. Key words: Levels of mercury, zinc, gutter sediment, roads, Uyo Metropolis

INTRODUCTION Gutter sediment within urban roads represents a collection of multiplied contributing source of pollution including automobile emission, urban infrastructure, degradation and erosion, and other particulate non-point sources from short and long-range atmospheric deposition (Vermelte, et al, 1987; Sutherland 2003). Harmful substances emitted by exhaust and wear from vehicles are deposited and accumulated daily on road gutters and surrounding soils together with primary and secondary particles from other anthropogenic (demolitions/ construction industrial activities etc) and natural sources (short and long range transport of suspended sediments). These dispositions on roads are commonly referred to as road/gutter deposited sediments (RDS/GDS) San-Miguel, et al, 2002).

The natural fraction of gutter deposited sediments consists of plant materials and atmospheric depositions (Rogge, et al, 1993). The anthropogenic fraction contains high concentrations of heavy metals originating from brake linings, the combustion of fuels and the wear and tear of pavement’s as well as tyres and vehicle body (San-Miguel, et al, 2002) and also industrial activities, municipal solid waste incineration and metal smelting. Interest in heavy metal pollution in gutter deposited sediments (GDS) has been rapidly increasing probably as a consequence of high level contamination measured in a number of cities and the potential health risks associated with them. Gutter sediments that accumulate along pavements in urban environments have the potential to provide considerable loading of heavy metals to receiving water body (Yisa, 2010). Rain water carries gutter deposited sediment horizontally as well as vertically and the toxic components of gutter deposited sediment pollute the surface water as well as ground water (Droppo, et al, 2002). Excess amount of any metal has toxic effects on plant, aquatic, animals and human beings. Humans

Simeon, S. D. et al. (2018). Levels of Mercury, Cadmium and Zinc in Gutter Sediment in Selected Roads in Uyo Metropolis. Journal of Forestry, Environment and Sustainable Development, 4(1):142-150.


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can become exposed to heavy metals in dust or sediments through several routes which include in ingestion and inhalation (Miguel, et al, 1999) and dermal contact.

This study was aimed at evaluating the levels of heavy metals (Hg, Cd and Zn) in gutter sediment in selected roads in Uyo Metropolis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Field studies Sediment samples were taken from some major road gutters in Uyo metropolis, including Ikpa road, Itu road, Calabar Itu road, Atiku Abubakar way and Edet Akpan Avenue gutters. Spade was used to collect a total of ten gutter sediment samples, two samples from each road. The samples were placed in properly labelled polyethylene bags and transported to the laboratory for preparation and analyses. Laboratory analysis The samples were sundried, roots, pebbles were removed, crushed and sieved to obtain particles less than 2mm; the samples were relabelled and stored for the following analyses: Particle size distribution was determined using Bouyoucos hydrometer method (Klute, 1986), sodium hexametaphoshate (calgon) was used as dispersing agent. Soil pH was determined in 1:2.5 soil/water ratio using glass electrode pH meter as described in Sparks, (1996). Electrical conductivity was determined using conductivity bridge (Rhoades 1982). Organic carbon content was determined by wet oxidation dichromate method of Walkley and Black (Nelson and Sommers, 1996). Total Nitrogen was determined by microkjeldahl digestion and distillation method as described by Udo et al. (2009). Available phosphorus was extracted by Bray P-1 method of Bray and Kurtz as described by Kuo (1996). Phosphorus in the extract was measured by the blue colour method of Murphy and Riley (1962). Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) were extracted using IM ammonuim acetate solution; potassium and Na in the extract were measured by flame photo analyzer, while Ca and Mg were obtained by EDTA (ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid) titration method. Exchangeable acidity (Al3+ and H+) was extracted by IMKCL solution and determined by titration with NaOH. Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) was obtained by calculation method. Sum of the total exchangeable bases and exchange acidity (TEB +EA), Where TEB = Total exchangeable bases, EA = Exchange acidity. Percentage base saturation (PBS) was obtained by calculation; P.B.S = Total exchangeable bases x 100 Effective cation exchange capacity 1 Determination of Total Heavy Metals 1g of 2mm sieved gutter sediment was digested in a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid plus Nitric acid (3:1) by heating on a water bath in a fume cupboard to dryness and the residue redissolved in 5ml HNO3 acid for the determination of total heavy metals (Hg, Cd and Zn). Available Heavy Metals Available or extractable heavy metals were extracted using 0.IMHCl. The concentrations of total and available heavy metals were measured using Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) (UNICAM 939/959 Model).


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Statistical Analysis Simple descriptive statistics, including the range, minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation, median and coefficient of variation (CV) were used to analyze the data. Correlation coefficients were also calculated to assess the relationship between heavy metal contents in gutter sediments and some sediment properties. Differences between means that were significant were separated by least significant difference (LSD) method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Some Physico-Chemical Properties of Gutter Sediments in Uyo Metropolis Particle size distribution in gutter sediments studied in Uyo metropolis is presented in Table 1. Sand fraction ranged from 472 in Itu Road to 892gkg-1 in Edet Akpan Avenue, with a mean of 696gkg-1 ± 208gkg-1 and CV of 29.82% was moderately variable. Silt ranged from 52 in Edet Akpan Avenue to 473gkg-1 in Itu Road, with a mean of 239± 209.9 gkg-1 and CV of 88.62% being highly variable. Itu Road had the least clay content of 55gkg1 while Atiku Abubakar had the highest clay content of 96gkg-1 with a mean of 66± 17.5 gkg-1 and CV of 26.4%described as least variable. Particle size distribution did not follow any definite pattern but varied depending on the sources of the sediment. Sheridan and Noske (2005) found that proportions of various types of soil particles varied between road type owing to the sources of sediment.

Table 1: Particle Size distribution of Gutter Sediments from Different Roads Location Sand Silt clay

gkg-1 Itu Road 472 473 55 Ikpa Road 852 92 56 Cal-Itu Road 472 460 68 Atiku 792 112 96 EAA 892 52 56 Min 472.00 52.00 55.00 Max 892.00 473.00 96.00 Range 420.00 421.00 41.00 Mean 696.00 237.80 66.20 Median 792.00 112.00 56.00 Sd(±) 207.56 209.94 17.50 Cv(%) 29.82 88.28 26.43

EAA = Edet Akpan Avenue Some chemical properties of sediments from different locations are presented in Table 2. Soil pH value ranged from 6.21 in EAA to 6.28 in Itu Road with a mean of 6.24± 0.03 and CV of 0.44%. Soil pH had a very low variability across the studied locations fall within the range obtained by Udo et al. (2009) for high fertility in tropical soils. Since the gutter sediment are derived/transported by air and water, it can therefore be said that lands adjourning these locations are of low pH. Electrical Conductivity value ranged from 0.17 to 0.34dsm-1 with a mean of 0.23±0.06 dsm-1 and 28.10% moderately across the studied area. Soil EC is an indication of the salinity status of the soil and is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors. These and values of EC are very low and indicate that the gutter sediments as well as the soils and other sources from where they were transported have little or no salt. Organic carbon (OC) content ranged from 40.25 to 57.79 gkg-1 with a relatively low variability (CV= 13.94) across the study locations. Mean value was 46.84 ± 6.53 gkg-1


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and median of 45.41 gkg-1. The mean value indicates a very high Organic Carbon content for the studied locations and may be attributed to the waste obtained mostly from top soil and organic debris deposited by erosion. Total nitrogen content in the sediment was very low and its level ranged from 0. 96 to 1.38 with a mean value of 1.12± 0.16 gkg-1 with least variability of 13.93% across the studied locations. Phosphorus value ranged from low to high 9.79 to 32.20 mgkg-1 with a mean of 26.41± 9.51mgkg-1 and was highly varied (36%). Exchangeable K was low while Ca was high, with mean values of 0.34 ± 0.004 cmolkg-1 for K and 18.91cmolkg Ca, respectively. Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) was correspondingly high and ranged from 23.51 to 29.58cmolkg-1 with a mean value of 26.56±9.37 cmolkg-1. The mean value was greater than 15-25 cmolkg-1 in the sediments recommended by Kamoni and Wanjogu (2006). Base saturation (BS) was also very high, having a mean value of 93.81± 0.86% and a very low variability (CV = 0.70%) across the five locations.


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Table 2: Some Chemical Properties of Gutter Sediment in different Roads in Uyo Metropolis Locations pH EC OC TN P Ca Mg K Na EA ECEC B.S dSm-1 gkg-1 mgkg-1 cmol/kg %

Itu Road 6.28 0.172 45.41 1.08 32.2 16.8 5.76 0.074 0.07 1.6 23.51 93.29 Ikpa Road 6.25 0.339 44.72 1.07 31.26 21.12 6.24 0.073 0.07 1.6 29.58 94.66 Cal.Itu Road 6.22 0.230 57.79 1.38 27.06 21.6 4.8 0.507 0.08 1.6 28.59 94.40 Atiku Abubakar 6.23 0.191 40.25 0.96 31.73 18.24 4.8 0.515 0.07 1.6 25.22 93.66 EAA 6.21 0.222 46.01 1.11 9.79 16.8 6.72 0.538 0.07 1.76 25.89 93.20 Min 6.21 0.17 40.25 0.96 9.79 16.80 4.80 0.07 0.07 1.60 23.51 93.19 Max 6.28 0.34 57.79 1.38 32.20 21.60 6.72 0.54 0.08 1.76 29.58 94.59 Range 0.07 0.17 17.54 0.42 22.41 4.80 1.92 0.47 0.01 0.16 6.07 1.40 Mean 6.24 0.23 46.84 1.12 26.41 18.91 5.66 0.34 0.07 1.63 26.56 93.81 Median 6.23 0.22 45.41 1.08 31.26 18.24 5.76 0.51 0.07 1.60 25.89 93.66 Sd (±) 0.03 0.06 6.53 0.16 9.51 2.32 0.86 0.24 0.004 0.07 2.49 0.66 CV (%) 0.44 28.10 13.94 13.93 36.02 12.25 15.16 71.71 5.21 4.38 9.37 0.70 EC – Electrical conductivity, OC – Organic Carbon, TN – Total Nitrogen, EA – Exchange Acidity, ECEC – Effective Cation Exchange Capacity, BS – Base Saturation


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Total and Available Hg, Cd and Zn in Selected Roadside Gutters Total and available Hg, Cd and Zn concentrations are presented on Table 3. Total Hg level was highest in the Edet Akpan Avenue gutter (0.675mgkg-1). The concentration of total Hg in Atiku (0.420mgkg-1) and Itu Road gutter (0.325gkg-1) were statistically similar and higher than those obtained for Ikpa and Calabar-Itu Roads (p>0.05) and lower than that obtained for the Edet Akpan Avenue.

Total Cd concentration in EAA (1.900mgkg-1) and Atiku (1.550mgkg-1) were not significantly (p>0.05) different from each other but were statistically higher (p>0.05) than value obtained for Itu (1.325mgkg-1), Ikpa (0.675mgkg-1) and Calabar-Itu Roads gutter (0.600mgkg-1) respectively.

Total Zn concentration like Hg and Cd was highest in the Edet Akpan Avenue (6.170mgkg-1) and value was statistically higher than those found for other roads studied. Meanwhile, Zn level was similar in Itu, Ikpa and Calabar-Itu Roads gutters.

The distribution of available Hg follows similar pattern, as total Hg with the Edet Akpan Avenue having the highest concentration, likewise Cd. However, Zn level was highest in Calabar Itu Road. Concentration of Zn in Cal-Itu and Ikpa Roads was not statistically different (P≤ 0.05) but significantly different from value obtained for Itu Road (Table 3).

The wide variability of the elemental concentrations across the studied locations was attributed to greater variability of input concentration from a variety of sources where they are transported to the respective locations. Fostner (1990) listed these sources to include water transported material from surrounding soils and slopes, dry and wet atmospheric depositions, biological inputs, road surface wear, road paint degradation, vehicle wear (tires, body, brake linings, etc.), vehicle fluid and particulate emissions, and inputs from the wear of side walks and buildings. Table 3: Mean Level of Total and Available Hg, Cd and Zn in five locations. Total Heavy Metal Concentration

Available Heavy Metal Concentration

Location Hg Cd Zn Hg Cd Zn mgkg-1 mgkg-1

Itu Road 0.325b 1325b 3.750b 0.010c 0.060bc 0.9451b Ikpa Road 0.200bc 0.675c 4.7005b 0.008c 0.035c 1.425ab Cal-Itu Road Atiku Abubakar

0.050c 0.420b

0.600c 1.550ab

3.725b 4.725b

0.030ab 0.013bc

0.055c 0.100a

1.503a 0.335b

EAA 0.675a 1.900a 6.190a 0.035a 0.090ab 0.405ab Min 0.050 0.600 3.725 0.008 0.035 0.335 Max 0.675 1.900 6.170 0.035 0.100 1.503 Range 0.625 1.300 2.445 0.028 0.065 1.168 Overall mean 0.334 1.210 4.614 0.019 0.068 0.923 Median 0.325 1.325 4.700 0.013 0.060 0.945 Sd(±) 0.236 0.562 0.997 0.013 0.027 0.548 Cv 70.593 46.444 21.63 66.183 39.116 59.432

Means with same letter along the column are not significantly (p> 0.05) different from each other. EAA – Edet Akpan Avenue


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Table 4: Correlation matrix of soil properties

T.Hg T.Cd T.Zn Av.Zn Av.Cd Av.Hg pH EC OC TN P Ca Mg K Na EA ECEC BS Sand Silt Clay

Clay Cl 1000 Silt 0.959** 1.000 Sand 0.834 0.673 1.000 BS 0.288 0.256 0.430 1.000 ECEC 0.735 0.848 0.503 0.343 1.000 EA -0.858* -0.955* -0.623 -0.151 -0.934* 1.000 Na -0.272 -0.203 -0.576 -0.805* -0.464 0.258 1.000 K -0.330 -0.575 0.165 -0.178 -0.650 0.566 -0.082 1.000 Mg -0.595 -0.581 -0.411 0.565 -0.418 0.667 -0.285 0.068 1.000 Ca -0.570 -0.564 -0.376 0.591 -0.407 0.655 -0.312 0.079 0.999** 1.000 P -0.680 -0.560 -0.802 -0.540 -0.405 0.403 0.675 0.048 -0.132 -0.167 1.000 TN -0.832 -0.912* -0.404 -0.048 -0.645 0.809 -0.179 0.676 0.561 0.554 0.360 1.000 OC 0.560 0.344 0.666 0.126 -0.142 -0.132 0.040 0.370 -0.268 -0.242 -0.593 -0.365 1.000 EC 0.318 0.375 0.395 0.765 0.719 -0.463 -0.895* -0.348 0.228 0.245 -0.546 -0.051 -0.316 1.000 pH -0.880* -0.830 -0.794 0.034 -0.718 0.885* 0.229 0.134 0.840 0.822 0.377 0.641 -0.364 -0.248 1.000 Av.Hg 0.808 0.686 0.872 0.712 0.462 -0.528 -0.554 -0.076 -0.071 -0.036 -0.977** -0.510 0.688 0.449 -0.532 1.000 Av.Cd -0.552 -0.737 -0.010 0.112 -0.601 0.688 -0.358 0.873 0.454 0.462 0.025 0.905* 0.017 -0.010 0.401 -0.150 1.000 Av.Zn -0.785 -0.893* -0.339 -0.163 -0.669 0.781 -0.122 0.771 0.421 0.415 0.395 0.984** -0.279 -0.144 0.542 -0.515 0.924* 1.000 T.Zn 0.612 0.419 0.872 0.008 0.314 -0.471 -0.424 0.458 -0.601 -0.574 -0.435 -0.137 0.541 0.178 -0.800 0.528 0.213 -0.013 1.000 T.Cd -0.605 -0.427 -0.855 -0.028 -0.361 0.502 0.444 -0.425 0.618 0.592 0.403 0.131 -0.473 -0.220 0.816 -0.495 -0.199 0.010 0.997** 1.000 T.Hg 0.002 0.157 -0.077 -0.126 0.608 -0.431 -0.298 -0.340 -0.286 -0.297 0.323 0.046 -0.749 0.537 -0.305 -0.326 -0.149 0.035 0.095 -0.177 1.000

T.Hg = Total Mercury, T.Cd = Total Cadmium, T.Zn = Total Zinc, Av.Zn = Available zinc, Av.Cd = Available cadmium, Av.Hg = Available Mercury, EC = Electrical Conductivity, OC = Organic carbon, TN = Total nitrogen, P = Phosphorus, Ca = Calcium, Mg = magnesium, K = Potassium, Na = Sodium, EA = Exchange acidity, ECEC = Effective cation exchange capacity, BS = Base saturation.


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Relationship among Some Soil Variables Some sediment properties had significant correlations with each other. Total Hg correlated highly significantly with total Cd (0.959**), and negatively with available Zn (-0.888*) and Na (-0.880*). The positive correlation between total Hg and Cd indicates that a kind of synergic relationship probably exist between their contents. On the other hand, available Zn and exchangeable Na decreased as Hg level increased creating a sort of antagonistic relationship. Total Cd correlated negatively and weakly with available Zn (r= -0.955*), Ca (-0.912*) and PBS (-0.893*).

Available Zn and P were found to correlate significantly with Na (0.885*). Available Cd also had a significant correlation with available Zn (-0.934*).

Soil pH correlated negatively with K (-0.895*), indicating that K content increases as soil pH decreases. Organic carbon content correlated significantly, with Total Nitrogen (TN) (0.999**), showing that organic carbon is a major source of N in the sediment samples. Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) correlated significantly with PBS (r=0.924**) while sand negatively related with silt (-0.997**).

CONCLUSION Levels of total and available forms of mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd) and Zinc (Zn) varied widely across gutter sediments of the studied roads as a result of the variability of the sources of an element in the watershed area which a particular study point belongs.

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