Joel A. Bryan, Ph.D.Joel A. Bryan, Ph.D.Center for Mathematics and Science EducationCenter for Mathematics and Science Education

Texas A&M UniversityTexas A&M Universityjabryan@tamu.edu

SCIENCE is…SCIENCE is…

the search forthe search forrelationshipsrelationshipsthatthat explainexplainandand predictpredict thethebehavior ofbehavior ofthe universe.the universe.

Science has also been described as Science has also been described as the process the process of model buildingof model building, in which models serve to , in which models serve to simplify observed phenomena and relationships.simplify observed phenomena and relationships.

Scientific “models” may exist in several forms:

Physical (concrete; 3D objects)Gestural (kinesthetic; body movements)Verbal (spoken/written text; analogy; metaphor)Pictorial (visual diagrams; animations)Numerical (data table)Graphical (ordered pairs)Mathematical (formula)

PHYSICS is…PHYSICS is…

the sciencethe scienceconcerned withconcerned withrelationshipsrelationshipsbetweenbetween mattermatter,,energyenergy,, and itsand itstransformationstransformations..

TAKS Objective 1 – Grades 5, 8, and 10TAKS Objective 1 – Grades 5, 8, and 10““The student will demonstrate an The student will demonstrate an

understanding of the understanding of the nature of nature of sciencescience.”.”

Science for All Americans Science for All Americans (link)(link)

http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap1.htm

Benchmarks for Science Literacy Benchmarks for Science Literacy (link)(link)

http://www.project2061.org/tools/benchol/ch1/ch1.htm

TEKS Scientific Process Skills – All GradesTEKS Scientific Process Skills – All Gradeshttp://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter112/index.htmlhttp://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter112/index.html

K-5 TEKS; 6-8 TEKSK-5 TEKS; 6-8 TEKS

Scientific HypothesisScientific Hypothesis

Most people agree that a scientificMost people agree that a scientifichypothesis can be defined simply hypothesis can be defined simply

as as an educated guessan educated guess..

We should, however, stress that it isWe should, however, stress that it iseducatededucated, meaning that there are, meaning that there are

plausible reasons for that decision.plausible reasons for that decision.

Scientific TheoryScientific TheoryThere is much misunderstanding about There is much misunderstanding about

what constitutes a scientific theory.what constitutes a scientific theory.

““In science, a theory is a proposed description, In science, a theory is a proposed description, explanation, or explanation, or model of the manner of interaction of

a set of natural phenomena, capable of predicting future occurrences or observations of the same kind, and capable of being tested through experiment or otherwise falsified through empirical observation.”

Taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory.Taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory.

Scientific LawScientific Law

A scientific law has been described as a A scientific law has been described as a statement describing a natural eventstatement describing a natural event. .

In many cases, scientific laws serve to In many cases, scientific laws serve to DESCRIBEDESCRIBE an event, while scientific an event, while scientific theories seek to theories seek to EXPLAINEXPLAIN the event. the event.

It is It is NOTNOT a question of a question of TRUTHTRUTH..

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific MethodMany students of all ages are taught that “Many students of all ages are taught that “the the scientific methodscientific method” consists of steps such as:” consists of steps such as:

1)1) Make an observation Make an observation 2)2) Formulate a hypothesis Formulate a hypothesis 3)3) Test the hypothesisTest the hypothesis4)4) Evaluate the hypothesisEvaluate the hypothesis5)5) Change the hypothesis and/or make more testsChange the hypothesis and/or make more tests

It is important to note that scientific study It is important to note that scientific study involves involves a systematic process of a systematic process of experimentation and evaluationexperimentation and evaluation, whether you , whether you begin with a hypothesis or with “trial and error.”begin with a hypothesis or with “trial and error.”

““It is the year 2347. The Earth’sIt is the year 2347. The Earth’s natural resources are exhausted.natural resources are exhausted. Scientists have determined thatScientists have determined that the Earth will most likely explodethe Earth will most likely explode in a very short time.”in a very short time.”

Bang!!!Bang!!!

““The development of space travelThe development of space travel and other technological advancementsand other technological advancements have enabled scientists to prepare ahave enabled scientists to prepare a distant planet for human habitation.”distant planet for human habitation.”

““You and a few others are fortunate toYou and a few others are fortunate to have been selected as representativehave been selected as representative members of planet Earth who willmembers of planet Earth who will survive and populate this new distantsurvive and populate this new distant planet.”planet.”

““Upon arrival, you are relieved to findUpon arrival, you are relieved to find that the planet is indeed suitablythat the planet is indeed suitably prepared for human existence, justprepared for human existence, just as promised.”as promised.”

““Your joy soon turns toYour joy soon turns to frantic dismay when youfrantic dismay when you discover that the solediscover that the sole member of your team withmember of your team with knowledge of the voice-knowledge of the voice- activated oxygen producingactivated oxygen producing machine has taken deathlymachine has taken deathly ill and no longer remembersill and no longer remembers the voice activation code.”the voice activation code.”

““As your oxygen supply quickly depletes, As your oxygen supply quickly depletes, a close inspection of the voice-a close inspection of the voice- activated oxygen supply machineactivated oxygen supply machine reveals only a few vague instructions.”reveals only a few vague instructions.”

Oxygen

Speak here.

Instructions

“Oxygen is produced by spokennumerical code, of whichno number may be used

more than once.

Five consecutive invalid attemptswill cause this device tocompletely self-destruct.

Press here to begin, speakingloudly and clearly into the

microphone.”

Your task is to begin the processYour task is to begin the processof trying to determine the “code,”of trying to determine the “code,”or rule, that determines whetheror rule, that determines whetheror not a number is valid foror not a number is valid foroxygen production.oxygen production.

Works Doesn’t Work2,4,6, 1,3,5,

For example, these numbersFor example, these numbersmight suggest to some viewersmight suggest to some viewersthat even #’s work and oddthat even #’s work and odd#’s do not.#’s do not.

Participants should beginParticipants should beginwith a “trial and error” typewith a “trial and error” type

process that quickly leads themprocess that quickly leads themto form some kind of theoryto form some kind of theoryregarding what constitutesregarding what constitutes

““successful” numbers.successful” numbers.

Both successful and unsuccessfulBoth successful and unsuccessfulresponses should be recordedresponses should be recorded

for ease of evaluation.for ease of evaluation.

Participants must then go throughParticipants must then go througha “scientific” process of testing, a “scientific” process of testing,

evaluation, and modificationevaluation, and modificationof their theories.of their theories.

This process should illustrateThis process should illustratewhat is commonly referred towhat is commonly referred to

as the “scientific method,”as the “scientific method,”along with many attributesalong with many attributesof the “nature of science.”of the “nature of science.”

This activity provides opportunitiesThis activity provides opportunitiesduring the entire process to illustrateduring the entire process to illustrateaspects of the nature of science.aspects of the nature of science.

Additional time should be taken atAdditional time should be taken atthe end of the exercise to reflect onthe end of the exercise to reflect onthe nature of science as evidenced bythe nature of science as evidenced bythis activity.this activity.

The following is a brief discussion ofThe following is a brief discussion ofhow this activity illustrates somehow this activity illustrates someaspects of the nature of science.aspects of the nature of science.

Scientific conclusions dependScientific conclusions depend on the creative imaginationon the creative imagination

of the scientist.of the scientist.

aspects reinforced by this activityaspects reinforced by this activityinclude, but are not limited to:include, but are not limited to:

Nature of Nature of ScienceScience

Science is a social enterprise.Science is a social enterprise.

Scientific knowledge is dynamicScientific knowledge is dynamic and subject to change.and subject to change.

Absolute certainty of aAbsolute certainty of a scientific conclusion isscientific conclusion is

an impossibility.an impossibility.

Scientific conclusions dependScientific conclusions dependon the creative imaginationon the creative imagination

of the scientist.of the scientist.

• Participants were limited inParticipants were limited in their creativity by what theytheir creativity by what they had previously experiencedhad previously experienced with numbers.with numbers.

• Each participant looked at theEach participant looked at the exact same “evidence,” yetexact same “evidence,” yet depended on their own experiencesdepended on their own experiences and creative imagination toand creative imagination to determine the “reality” of whatdetermine the “reality” of what the numbers actually represented.the numbers actually represented.

This naturally led to differingThis naturally led to differing interpretations of the sameinterpretations of the same “ “reality.” reality.”

In what ways are the “creative”In what ways are the “creative”aspects of this activity similar toaspects of this activity similar to““creative” aspects of “real” science?creative” aspects of “real” science?

In what ways are they different?In what ways are they different?

How might prior experiencesHow might prior experiencesinfluence scientific interpretations?influence scientific interpretations?

Provide some possible examples.Provide some possible examples.

Science is a social enterprise.Science is a social enterprise.

• Because repeated failure wouldBecause repeated failure would be detrimental to the healthbe detrimental to the health of all, it was necessary forof all, it was necessary for participants to reach some typeparticipants to reach some type of consensus before attemptingof consensus before attempting a “trial.” a “trial.”

• Participants were forced toParticipants were forced to evaluate competing theoriesevaluate competing theories and determine the most plausible.and determine the most plausible.

• This decision may not have alwaysThis decision may not have always been made on the basis of meritbeen made on the basis of merit alone.alone.

In what ways are the social aspectsIn what ways are the social aspectsof this activity similar/different toof this activity similar/different tothe social aspects of “real” science?the social aspects of “real” science?

How are differences of opinionHow are differences of opinionsettled in scientific issues?settled in scientific issues?

Provide some possible examples.Provide some possible examples.

Scientific knowledge isScientific knowledge issubject to change.subject to change.

• A “theory” remains valid asA “theory” remains valid as long as it explains priorlong as it explains prior findings and is useful infindings and is useful in predicting new ones.predicting new ones.

• The “theories” were valid andThe “theories” were valid and useful until new “discoveries”useful until new “discoveries” proved them wrong.proved them wrong.

• Theories may undergo slightTheories may undergo slight change or total abandonmentchange or total abandonment when confronted withwhen confronted with discrepant evidence.discrepant evidence.

In what ways are the aspects of theoryIn what ways are the aspects of theorychange in this activity similar/differentchange in this activity similar/differentto the theory change aspects of “real”to the theory change aspects of “real”science?science?

How does one decide whether toHow does one decide whether toabandon or modify an existing theory?abandon or modify an existing theory?

Provide some possible examples.Provide some possible examples.

Absolute certainty of aAbsolute certainty of ascientific claim is not possible.scientific claim is not possible.

• No amount of trials could everNo amount of trials could ever prove one theory totally correct.prove one theory totally correct.

• Only one counterexample wasOnly one counterexample was needed to invalidate a theory.needed to invalidate a theory.

• No one will everNo one will ever know with absoluteknow with absolute certainty the truecertainty the true “ “rule” for therule” for the oxygen machineoxygen machine without seeingwithout seeing the “card.”the “card.”

In what ways are the uncertaintiesIn what ways are the uncertaintiesof this exercise similar/differentof this exercise similar/differentto that of “real” science?to that of “real” science?

What would “seeing the card” mean?What would “seeing the card” mean?

Will scientists ever “see the card?”Will scientists ever “see the card?”

Provide some possible examples.Provide some possible examples.