jain contribution

Jaina Insights inTamil Classical Literary Tradition

Vincent Sekhar, S.J.

A brief historical noteJain history in Tamilnadu, India, begins with the migration of a Jain

population along with Chandragupta Maurya and the Jain monk Bhadrabahu,the last of the Sruta Kevalis. It had fruitful consequences in the south, both

to the people and to their language and literature. The events are narrated in

the Sravana Belagola (near Mysore) inscriptions, discovered by Lewis Rice.In inscription No. 1, we come to know that Swami Bhadrabahu “who by

virtue of severe penance had acquired the essence of knowledge, having by

his power of discerning the past, present and future, foretold in Ujjain, aperiod of dire calamity and famine, the whole of the Sangha living in the

northern regions took their way to the south.”2 The Rajavalikathe, a

compendium of Jain history, compiled by Deva Chandra of the Jainestablishment at Meleyur, gives a graphic account of the meeting of the

King Chandragupta and the Jain monk in the court of Pataliputra. The monk

seemed to have interpreted a dream of the King in which he had seen a 12-headed serpent approach as the approaching of 12-years of calamity and

famine. Chandragupta renounced his throne, took diksha and joined

Bhadrabahu to accompany a host of 12000 disciples towards the south.Knowing that they would die on the way, he halted the great exodus on “the

mountain of a populous country completely filled with the increase of people,

money, gold, grain, cow, buffalos and goats, called Katavapra.”3 Then heentrusted the task to one Vishakamuni, who accompanied the disciples further

south to the Chola, Pandya and other countries.

The story is that the King Chandragupta Maurya stayed with Swami

Bhadrabahu and died 12 years after his Guru. There are a number of evidences

to show the historical probability of these stories.4 The death of Bhadrabahuis ascribed to 297 B.C., i.e., 162 years after the death of Vardhamana Mahavira,

according to the Digambara Jain traditions, and 170 years according to the

Svethambaras.5 The Sravana Belagola inscriptions Nos. 47, 145, 108, and 54give the succession of Gurus after Chandragupta. Inscription No. 105 mentions

Yatindra Kunda, the first in the list, as someone who could move about

leaving a space of four inches between himself and the earth under his feet.Such was his prowess. Then follow Umasvami, the compiler of Tattvartha

Sutra, an important Jain text, Griddharapinchha, and his disciple

Balakapinchha. The same inscription mentions Samantabhadra, the ‘everfortunate’, “whose discourse lights up the palace of the three worlds filled

with the all meaning Syadvada.” Samantabhadra6 was a Digambara writer

The Rajavalikathe, a

compendium of Jain

history, compiled byDeva Chandra of the

Jain establishment at

Meleyur, gives a graphicaccount of the

meeting of the King

Chandragupta and theJain monk in the

court of Pataliputra

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 76

and missionary who spread Jain doctrines and morals and who came toprominence in the Rashtrakuta period. His work Apta MimamsaApta MimamsaApta MimamsaApta MimamsaApta Mimamsa is an

authoritative exposition of the Jain doctrine of Syadvada. He is assigned to

Saka 60 or 138 A.D. There had lived other eminent Jain scholars likeSimhanandi, Pujyapada, and Akalankadeva.

There are a number of epigraphical evidences, like the Bramhi inscriptionsfound around Madurai and Ramnad, to show that the Jains were living in

and around these places. Where such inscriptions are found there are also

the ruins of Jain temples, mutilated Jain Tirthankaras with their insignia suchas the serpent-hood, the triple umbrella, etc. Other than these, one has to

take recourse to the literature of the Tamils for a fuller view of the history of

the Jains in the Tamil country.7

Jaina Resources in the Tamil Literary Tradition8

The literary period is generally divided into three: 1. The Sangam or the

Academic Period, 2. The period of the Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava

Azhvars, and 3. The Modern Period. Tholkappiar, the first Tamil grammarian,

belonged to the first and second Sangam periods. This gives the starting

point for an account of the Jains in Tamilnadu. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (1995 Tamil

Chudar Manikal p. 19) suggests that Tholkappiyar could be a Jain by birth,

basing his argument on a reference made by his contemporary Paramparanar

on Tholkappiar: (pal pugazh niruttha padimaiyon). Padimaiyon is a Jain word

in Prakrit (pratima in Sanskrit), referring to Jain rules of conduct. Tholkappiyar

is dated to the Third Century B.C.9 Kural or Thirukkural stands next in merit

for its description of life, in its various aspects. Kural, known also as

Thamizhar Vedam, is attributed to Valluvar, claimed to belong to various

faiths. There are strong reasons to contend that the author of the Kural was

a Jain by birth, a follower of the Arhat. Certain references in the Kural like

“avisorindayiram vettalin onranuyir seguttunnamai nanru”, “Aadi Bagavan”,

“Malarmisai yeginaan”, “Venduthal Vendaamai Ilaan”, “Engunatthaan”,

“Porivayilaindavittan”, and “Aravali Andanan” may be sufficient to suggest

that Valluvar was a Jain.10 The commentator of Neelakesi, a Jaina work, quotes

from the Kural and refers to it as “emmottu”, meaning “our scripture” and

this could also be considered to support the belief that the Kural is a Jaina

work. Tradition points out that the author of the Kural was one Elacharya, a

great Jain muni, well-versed in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and vernacular Tamil and

who took to missionary work in the Tamil country about the First Century

A.D.11 A brief analysis of this important work indicates the code of conduct

of an ideal householder, an ideal ascetic, an ideal sovereign, an ideal statesman,

an ideal citizen, and an ideal lover.12

There are a number of

epigraphical evidences,like the Bramhi

inscriptions found

around Madurai andRamnad, to show

that the Jains were

living in and aroundthese places

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 77

It is well known that classical Tamil literature was mainly under the auspicesof the Jains. Ilangovadigal of Second Century A.D., who wrote Silappathikaram

the famous Tamil epic, was possibly a Jain.13 The work abounds in Samana

(Sramana) doctrines, particularly Jain doctrines and morals. Some scholarsare of the opinion that Ilangovadigal was not a Jain but tried to bring together

the three different religious trends of his time, the Jain, the Bauddha, and the

Hindu. Kannagi was a Hindu, Madhavi was Bauddha, and Kovalan was aSamana or Jain. The lessons this great epic wants to impart to the readers

are: Firstly, that death is imminent to those who commit grave mistakes in

politics. Secondly, that the noble and the learned give high reverence tovirtuous women. And, thirdly, Karma (fate) will have its course ultimately:14

Ü¬óCò™ H¬öˆ«î£˜‚° ÜøƒÃŸÁ ÝõÉà‹

à¬óê£™ ðˆFQ‚° àò˜‰«î£˜ ãˆî½‹

á›M¬ù à¼ˆ¶õ‰¶ á†´‹ â¡ðÉà‹

(CôŠðFè£ó‹ 55-57)

As one goes through the epic, one could guess the tremendous impact

the ideas of the epic had on the Dravidian Tamils, who were much associated

with the religion of the Arhat (Arugan). The author remembers his own cultof the Arhat15 as he speaks through Kaunti Adigal, a Jain nun, as she

accompanies Kovalan and Kannagi on their way to Madurai:

ÜPõ ùø«õ£ ùP¾õó‹ Hè‰«î£¡

ªêPõ¡ C«ù‰Fó¡ Cˆî¡ ðèõ¡

î¼ñ ºî™õ¡ ø¬ôõ¡ ø¼ñ¡

ªð£¼÷¡ ¹Qî¡ ¹ó£í¡ ¹ôõ¡

Cùõó¡ «øõ¡ CõèF ï£òè¡

ðóñ¡ °íõî¡ ðóˆF ªô£O«ò£¡

êˆ¶õ¡ ê£¶õ¡ ê£óí¡ è£óí¡

Cˆî¡ ªðKòõ¡ ªê‹ñ™ Fèªö£O

Þ¬øõ¡ °óõ¡ Þò™°í¡ âƒ«è£¡

°¬øM™ ¹è«ö£¡ °íŠªð¼ƒ «è£ñ£¡

êƒèó¡ ßê¡ êò‹¹ ê¶ºè¡

Üƒè‹ ðò‰«î£¡ Ü¼è¡ Ü¼œºQ

ð‡íõ¡ â‡°í¡ ð£ˆF™ ðö‹ªð£¼œ

M‡íõ¡ «õî ºî™õ¡ M÷ƒªè£O

(CôŠðFè£ó‹: ï£´è£‡ è£¬î 176-189)

Some of the characteristics of a Jain Tirthankara are described in the

above verse: One who is Omniscient, and Transcendent, one who is Victorious

over the 8 types of karma, one who is Dispassionate, one is a Vrati,16 one whois Siddhaparameshti,17 one who revealed the Angas18 (Jain scriptures), one

who is worthy (Arhat).

As one goes through

the epic, one couldguess the tremendous

impact the ideas of the

epic had on the Dravidian Tamils, who

were much associated

with the religion of theArhat (Arugan)

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 78

The morals sought to be inculcated by the epic are that life, youth, andriches are evanescent, and that men should take heed and make the best use

of their life in doing good deeds, which alone would be beneficial to after-

life:

ðK¾‹ Þ´‚èμ‹, ð£ƒ°ø cƒ°I¡;

ªîŒõ‹ ªîOI¡, ªîO‰«î£˜Š «ðμI¡;

ªð£Œ»¬ó Ü…²I¡; ¹ø…ªê£™ «ð£ŸÁI¡;

áÛ‡ ¶øI¡; àJ˜‚ªè£¬ô cƒ°I¡; ...

î£ù‹ ªêŒ‹I¡; îõ‹ðô î£ƒ°I¡;

Üø«õ£˜ Ü¬õ‚è÷‹ Üèô£¶ Üμ°I¡ ...

ñ™ô¡ ñ£ë£ôˆ¶ õ£›i˜

(CôŠðFè£ó‹: õó‰î¼ è£¬î 186-202)

“Rise above pleasure and pain in accordance with the approved course

of conduct. Know God and serve those who have known him. Fear speaking

falsehood. Avoid tale-bearing. Refrain from meat-eating and abjure injury toany living being. Give gifts and perform the prescribed penances… you

cannot escape from the days allotted to you. Nor can you avoid what will

happen. So seek the best, lead to the land of your final destination.”19

Both SilappathikaramSilappathikaramSilappathikaramSilappathikaramSilappathikaram and ManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalai20, another great Tamil epic by

Seethalai Chattanaar, a staunch Buddhist, record the extent to which Jainand Buddhist cultures had taken deep roots in the south with royal

patronage.21 Manimegalai explains in a verse the type of causal forces (dharmaand adharma) functioning in a living organism for movement and rest,concepts, which are not available elsewhere other than in Jain philosophical

system:

î¼ñ£ˆF è£ò‹ î£ªùƒ°‹ à÷î£ŒŠ

ªð£¼œè¬÷ ïìˆ¶‹ ªð£¼‰î£ GˆFòñ£‹

ÜŠð®ˆ î£A Üî¡ñ£ˆF è£òº‹

âŠªð£¼œ è¬÷»‹ GÁˆî™ ÞòŸÁ‹

(ñE«ñè¬ô 27:187-190)

The Nirgrantha system is fairly represented in ManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalai through the

mouth of a Nirgrantha (homeless or wandering person) who speaks about

the Wheel of Law, Time, Ether, Soul, Atoms, Deeds, Passion, Rebirth, Release

and so on. Canto 27 portrays the discussion Manimegalai has with the

followers of other sects, a trend that was indicative of philosophical and

religious debates in those days. It mentions the different schools of

philosophy: Lokayata, Bauddha, Samkhya, Naiyayika, Vaisesika, Mimamsa,

Saiva, Brahma, Vaishnava, Vaidika, Ajivika, Nirgrantha, and Bhutavadi.22

Manimegalai explains

in a verse the type ofcausal forces (dharmaand adharma)

functioning in aliving organism for

movement and rest,

concepts, which are notavailable elsewhere

other than in Jain

philosophical system:

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 79

Digambara Darshana Sara,23 a Jain religious work by Vajranandi, a discipleof Pujyapada, gives important information about the establishment of a

separate Jain Sangha, called Dravida (Dramila) Sangha, in the year 526 of

Vikrama Saka, i.e. 470 A.D., at Madurai.24 Scholars are of the opinion that thisDramila Sangha is only a revival of the Jaina Moola Sangha, established by

Kundakundacarya around the First Century A.D. at a place called Patalika

identified with Tiruppatirippuliyur (present-day Cuddalore) in South Arcotdistrict, where a major Jain monastery existed perhaps from the First Century

B.C.25 Though the Tamil tradition refers to the Kalabhras’ time (a non-Aryan

tribe who ruled over the Tamil kingdom) as Dark Age, the latter embracedJainism, became their patrons, and supported their literary genius.26 Under

their rule, the Jains reached their zenith. It was during the period of the

Kalabhras27 that NaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyar was composed. NaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyar28 consists of didactic,moral sayings in quatrains, 400 in number in 40 chapters, each by one Jain

ascetic.29 The content makes a drastic change in attitude and perception of

life, a change from the earlier interest on war and love, to ethical matters andcontemplative content. Most of all, disciplining and controlling of senses is

of prime importance in a person’s life:

ªñŒõ£Œè‡ Í‚°„ ªêMâùŠ «ð˜ªðŸø

äõ£ò «õ†¬è Üõ£M¬ù - ¬èõ£Œ

èôƒè£ñ™ è£ˆ¶Œ‚°‹ ÝŸø™ à¬ìò£¡

Môƒè£¶ i´ ªðÁ‹. (ï£ô®ò£˜: ¶ø¾ 9)

Absence of discipline (avirati), which implies negligence (pramada) and

passion (kasaya), is one of the prime causes of bondage according to Jainphilosophy. And hence control of senses is highly important and beneficiary

in the path of liberation. What has been a code of conduct for a Jain monk or

nun is also taken to a householder’s life.30 There seems to be an attitudinalchange towards women. Women come to be regarded as submissive and

relenting, and not as brave mothers and ardent wives.31

Pazhamozhi NaanooruPazhamozhi NaanooruPazhamozhi NaanooruPazhamozhi NaanooruPazhamozhi Naanooru, a book of proverbs, is another didactic compilation

by a Jain King, Munrurai Araiyanar. It was in vogue at the time of the last

Sangam period. The last line of each of the 400 Venbas ends with a proverb:

¸í½‰î¡ õ£ò£Ÿ ªè´‹

The frog brings its own destruction by its croaking.

ÝJóƒ è£‚¬è‚«è£˜ è™

A single shot suffices to disperse a thousand crows.

°óƒA¡ ¬è‚ªè£œO ªè£´ˆ¶ Mì™

Like putting a torch into a monkey’s hand.32

The content makes adrastic change in

attitude and perception

of life, a change fromthe earlier interest on

war and love, to ethical

matters andcontemplative content.

Most of all, disciplining

and controlling ofsenses is of prime

importance in a

person’s life

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 80

Some of the topics treated in them are beauty, learning, great men,perseverance, royalty and household life.33 Similarly, AranericharamAranericharamAranericharamAranericharamAranericharam, by

Tirumunaippadiyar, enunciates the five major rules of conduct, known as the

Pancavratas (ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacarya and aparigraha), commonto the Jain ascetics as well as the householders.

Siru PanchamoolamSiru PanchamoolamSiru PanchamoolamSiru PanchamoolamSiru Panchamoolam by a Jain Mamoolanar, one of the last Sangam poets,is a collection of “five-fold analogies”. Ahimsa, the panacea of all ills, is

described here in a subtle manner, typical of the Jains:

ªè£¡ø£¡; ªè£¬ô¬ò àì¡ð†ì£¡; «è£ì£¶

ªè£¡øî¬ù‚ ªè£‡ì£¡; ªè£N‚°ƒè£™ ªè£¡î¬ù

Ü†ì£¡; Þì¾‡ì£¡- äõKÂ‹ Ý°ªñù‚

è†ªìP‰î ð£õ‹ è¼¶ (CÁð…êÍô‹ 70)

“How sinful it is to kill a living being! One who kills, one who caused

another to kill, one who sells meat, one who coos meat, and the one who eats– all (the five) will not escape the wrath of sin.”34

EladiEladiEladiEladiEladi, one of the “Eighteen Lesser Classics” and a moral didactic poem of

81 verses by Kanimethaviyar, a disciple of Makayanar, one of the scholars ofthe Madurai Sangam, combines, compares, and illustrates in each quatrain

five or six points of practical wisdom:

ê£õ¶ âO¶; ÜK¶ ê£¡ø£‡¬ñ; ï™ô¶

«ñõ™ âO¶; ÜK¶ ªñŒ «ð£Ÿø™; Ýõî¡è‡

«êø™ âO¶; G¬ô ÜK¶; ªîœOò˜ ÝŒ

«õø™ âO¶; ÜK¶ ªê£™. (ãô£F 40)

“To die is easy; to attain perfection hard. To desire good is easy; to put

on truth hard. To set out in pursuit of the right is easy; to be steadfast hard.To gain triumphs as accomplished scholars is easy; hard to reach heaven.”

Þ÷¬ñ èN»‹ HE, ÍŠ¹, Þ¬ò»‹;

õ÷¬ñ, õL, Þ¬õ õ£´‹; - à÷ ï£÷£™

ð£«ì ¹Kò£¶, - ð£™«ð£½‹ ªê£™Lù£Œ!

i«ì ¹Kî™ MF (ãô£F 22)

“Youth passes swiftly away; disease and old draw nigh; bright flowers of

wealth and strength fade fast. While life is thine, desire thou not earth’s

gifts. Thou whose words are as sweet as milk, desire release – The Law isthis.”35 In later years, there have been compositions modeled after NaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyar

and EladiEladiEladiEladiEladi in style and content such as NaanmaniNaanmaniNaanmaniNaanmaniNaanmani KadikaiKadikaiKadikaiKadikaiKadikai, a “Salver of Four

Gems”,36 TTTTTirikadugamirikadugamirikadugamirikadugamirikadugam37 of 100 verses, composed by Nallathanar, AcharaAcharaAcharaAcharaAchara

KovaiKovaiKovaiKovaiKovai of 100 verses on rules of conduct and etiquette by Peruvayin Mulliyar,”38

How sinful it is to kill aliving being! One who

kills, one who caused

another to kill, one whosells meat, one who coos

meat, and the one who

eats – all (the five) willnot escape the wrath of

sin

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 81

and MudumozhiMudumozhiMudumozhiMudumozhiMudumozhi KanchiKanchiKanchiKanchiKanchi, a collection of wise precepts in the form of finemaxims by Koodaloor Kizhar.39

Of the five great Tamil epics, Civaka ChinatamaniCivaka ChinatamaniCivaka ChinatamaniCivaka ChinatamaniCivaka Chinatamani, written byThiruttakkathevar, a Jain monk, brings out the chief tenets of Jain faith and

the way to liberation. For instance, ChintamaniChintamaniChintamaniChintamaniChintamani explains the essence of

Liberation as Perfect Knowledge, Perfect Vision or Faith, and Perfect Conduct(Samyag Jnana, Samyag Darsana, and Samyag Caritra):40

ªñŒõ¬è ªîKî™ ë£ù‹; M÷ƒAò ªð£¼œèœ î‹¬ñŠ

ªð£Œõ¬è Þ¡Pˆ «îø™ è£†C; ä‹ ªð£P»‹ õ£†®

àŒõ¬è àJ¬óˆ «îò£ ªî£°î™ å¿‚è‹; Í¡Á‹

Þšõ¬è G¬ø‰î «ð£›«î Þ¼M¬ù èN»‹ â¡ø£¡

(YõèC‰î£ñE: «èñêKò£˜ Þô‹ðè‹ 25)

It also points out to the Five Great Vows of the Jains (pancamahavrata) as a

way to liberation:41

äõ¬èŠ ªð£P»‹ õ£†® Ý¬ñJ¡ ÜìƒA ä‰F¡

ªñŒõ¬è ªîK»… C‰¬î M÷‚°‹ G¡ªøKò M†´Š

ªð£Œ, ªè£¬ô, è÷¾, è£ñ‹, Üõ£, Þ¼œ ¹è£¶ «ð£ŸP„

ªêŒîõ‹ ¸Qˆî Yô‚ è¬ùèF˜ˆ Fƒèœ åŠð£˜

(C‰î£ñE ºˆF Þô‹ðè‹ 226)

The various incidents connected with the life of the hero Jivakan lay

stress on the following morals: sad results of hastiness of action, ruin to

those in company of women, rich reward for those who listen to thepreceptor’s words, of conquering one’s enemies, relieving the distress of

others, non-injury to life, service to others, attainment of mental equilibrium,

showing mercy and tenderness to animals, etc. The ChintamaniChintamaniChintamaniChintamaniChintamani has beenpraised as one of the choicest masterpieces of Tamil literature.42

NariviruttamNariviruttamNariviruttamNariviruttamNariviruttam, by the same author, is a small work consisting of 50 stanzas,

the story seemingly based on the Sanskrit HitopadesaHitopadesaHitopadesaHitopadesaHitopadesa, illustrates thetransitory nature of human wishes and the instability of wealth and enjoyment.

It is the story of the brave hunter, who, while killing a wild elephant, was

bitten by a cobra. The hunter kills the cobra. A jackal, watching the threedead bodies, exclaims “What a huge body of food for me!” The jackal bites

the strings of the hunter’s bow unaware, and the force of the straightening

bow strikes its body killing the jackal.

Among the Tamil minor epics, YYYYYasodara Kavyamasodara Kavyamasodara Kavyamasodara Kavyamasodara Kavyam, an unknown work of

probably a Jain sage, preaches the typical Jain precepts of Panca Mahavrata:Nonviolence to living beings under no circumstances, Refraining from lying

Civaka Chinatamani,

written by

Thiruttakkathevar, aJain monk, brings

out the chief tenets of

Jain faith and theway to liberation

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 82

and deception, Not indulging in stealing, Abstaining from adultery, and

Contentment with what one has. NagakumaraNagakumaraNagakumaraNagakumaraNagakumara KavyamKavyamKavyamKavyamKavyam, a Jain work, is wrapped

in obscurity. ChoolamaniChoolamaniChoolamaniChoolamaniChoolamani or Coronal Gem, a work in 12 Cantos containing

2131 quatrains, was composed by Thola-moli-thevar, a Jain poet. Its inspiration

is the MahapuranaMahapuranaMahapuranaMahapuranaMahapurana, its style resembling and even excelling CivakaCivakaCivakaCivakaCivaka

ChintamaniChintamaniChintamaniChintamaniChintamani. The story deals with Tivittan, a puranic figure considered by

the Jains as one of the 9 Vasudevas. The poem depicts the then prevailing

customs in the land like soothsaying, bride’s choice of husband, polygamy,

etc. PerungathaiPerungathaiPerungathaiPerungathaiPerungathai or UdayananUdayananUdayananUdayananUdayanan KathaiKathaiKathaiKathaiKathai, a Fifth or Sixth Century Jain work

believed to be by Konguvel, seems to be a translation of BrhatkathaBrhatkathaBrhatkathaBrhatkathaBrhatkatha of

Gunadya, the original written in Paisacha language, treating extensively the

story of King Udayana.

MerumandiraMerumandiraMerumandiraMerumandiraMerumandira PuranamPuranamPuranamPuranamPuranam, in 12 Cantos containing 1406 verses, is a work

of Vaamanachariyar, a work full of Jain beliefs and morals. For instance, it

describes the 9 fundamental principles of Jain philosophy and householder’smorality:43

àJ¼‹àJ ó™ô¶‹, ¹‡Eò‹, ð£õ‹, áŸÁ‹

ªêJ˜b˜ ªêPŠ¹‹, àF˜Š¹‹, è†´‹, i´‹, àŸø

¶ò˜b˜‚°‹ Éò ªïP»‹²¼‚ è£Œ»¬óŠð¡;

ñò™b˜‰î è£†C »¬ì«ò£Œ! Þ¶ «è‡ñFˆ«î

ªðKòªè£¬ô, ªð£Œ, è÷¾, Hø˜ñ¬ùJ ªô£¼õ™

ªð£¼œõ¬óî™ ñˆî‹ñ¶ ¹¬ô²íL¡ cƒè™

ªð£pòF¬ê î‡ìI¼ «ð£è‹ õ¬ó‰î£ì™

ñ£PÞòC‚¬è ï£¡°I¬õ ñ¬ùòøˆî£˜ Yô‹

(«ñ¼ñ‰îó ¹ó£í‹)

There are several stotras composed by the Jains like ThirukalambagamThirukalambagamThirukalambagamThirukalambagamThirukalambagam

and ThirunoorandadiThirunoorandadiThirunoorandadiThirunoorandadiThirunoorandadi. That the author of ThirukalambagamThirukalambagamThirukalambagamThirukalambagamThirukalambagam was Nambiandar

Nambi, a Jain, is clear from his account of the state of the Jains during the

times of the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Azhvars, and from his

description of the householder’s morality. Jains believe that only morality

and penance would lead to liberation, and every individual has to adhere to

the moral path on their own (Jainism is the religion of Self-help):44

ò£ù£‹ å¼õ«ù ò™ô¶ âù‚° ñŸ(Á)

ã«ù£˜ ¶¬íò™ôõ˜ â¡øPI¡

In a reply to the Chola king Abayan, the poet says that he is fromDeepangudi, where they (the Jains householders) practice the moral codes

such as these:45

Merumandira Puranam,in 12 Cantos containing

1406 verses, is a work of

Vaamanachariyar, a workfull of Jain beliefs and

morals

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 83

ªêŒ»‹ M¬ù»‹ Þ¼œ; à‡ð¶¾‹

«îÂ‹, ïø¾‹, áÂ‹; è÷¾‹,

ªð£Œ»‹, ªè£¬ô»‹, ñøº‹ îMóŠ

ªð£Œb˜ ÜøË™ ªêŒî£˜ îñÉ˜

¬è»‹ ºèº‹ Þî¿‹ MN»‹

è£ôº‹ Gøº‹ «ð£½‹ èñôƒ

ªè£Œ»‹ ñìõ£˜ è‡õ£Œ Üîóƒ

«è£ðƒ è®»‰ bðƒ °®«ò (bðƒ°®Š ðˆ¶ 3)

Choodamani NiganduChoodamani NiganduChoodamani NiganduChoodamani NiganduChoodamani Nigandu46 is a Tamil lexicon, composed by a Jain, ViramandalaPurushar, a disciple of Acarya Gunabhadra of Thirunarunkonrai. Among the

grammatical treatises, NannoolNannoolNannoolNannoolNannool of the celebrated Pavanandi Muni,

YYYYYapparungalakarigaiapparungalakarigaiapparungalakarigaiapparungalakarigaiapparungalakarigai by Amrtasagara Muni, NeminathamNeminathamNeminathamNeminathamNeminatham by GunaviraPandita, and ChoodamaniChoodamaniChoodamaniChoodamaniChoodamani NiganduNiganduNiganduNiganduNigandu are the best known. SripuranamSripuranamSripuranamSripuranamSripuranam in prose

and MerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranam in verse are expository of Jain religion and

theology. The above list is not exhaustive.47 A large number of manuscriptslie buried and unpublished in the archives of Mathas or monastries.

A note on Neelakesi, a least known Jain text onphilosophical debate

The reason for treating NeelakesiNeelakesiNeelakesiNeelakesiNeelakesi in a separate section is that it is a Jainwork in the Tamil Classical tradition, acknowledged as one of the minor epics

of its literature, and that it deals with Tarka Sastra, the philosophical debate

in Indian tradition. Neelakesi is a minor Kayva, a treatise on logic. The authoris unknown. The poem, also known as Neelakesi-thirattuNeelakesi-thirattuNeelakesi-thirattuNeelakesi-thirattuNeelakesi-thirattu, is an imaginary

construction in 10 chapters. Samaya Divakara Vamanamuni,48 a great Jain

sage of 14th Century A.D. and the author of MerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranamMerumandirapuranam, haswritten a good commentary on NeelakesiNeelakesiNeelakesiNeelakesiNeelakesi, known as Samyadivakara Samyadivakara Samyadivakara Samyadivakara Samyadivakara VVVVVrittirittirittirittiritti.

The essence of the story is that Munichandra, a Jain sage, tries to stopan animal sacrifice at a cremation ground. The priest invokes the help of

Kalidevi Neeli to chase the sage from the ground. As Neeli fails in her efforts,

she surrenders to the Muni, learns the doctrines of his religion and becomesa famous debater. This heroine, Neelakesi, journeys to different places, meets

with the important masters of Buddhist tradition—like Kundalakesi, Arka,

Mokkala, Buddha—and reputed teachers of other sects and philosophicaltraditions—Purana of Ajivika, Parasara of Samkhya, Lokajit of Vaiseshika,

Bhutika of Veda, Pisachaka of Bhuta— refutes all their arguments in a dialogue

form, and finally establishes the supremacy of the Jain system.

The arguments and counterarguments are aplenty in minute details,

dealing with almost every technical aspect of a particular philosophy. For

instance, in Kundalakesivada, the arguments rest on the nature of Buddha

The essence of the

story is that

Munichandra, a Jainsage, tries to stop an

animal sacrifice at a

cremation ground.The priest invokes the

help of Kalidevi Neeli

to chase the sage fromthe ground

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 84

as the Perfect being and as Bodhisattva in his previous birth, his doctrine ofnon-soul (anatta), asatkaryavada theory implied in the doctrine of skandha

and ksanikavada, and so on. Similarly, while arguing with Arkachandra,

another Buddhist teacher, Neelakesi points out several corrupt practicesand instances of indecent behaviour in the Buddhist Sangha, their worship

of Buddha, meat-eating, building of monasteries and temples, incompatible

with their preaching on mercy and love, impermanence, sunya, etc.

The chapter on Mokkalavada49 unearths what was lost in KundalakesiKundalakesiKundalakesiKundalakesiKundalakesi, a

Tamil major epic, particularly the various Jaina categories such as Jiva, Dharma,Adharma, Pudgala, Akasa, Kala, Papa and Punya. The arguments are back

and forth on several topics such as atta-anatta, chetana-achetana, nitya-

anitya, asti-nasti, dravya-guna-parinama, bheda-abheda, satkarya-asatkarya,vaktavya-avaktavya, ksanika-anekanta, karma-samsara-moksa, tapas,

sallekhana, non-killing (its causal factors) and meat-eating. One could see

the various types of right and erroneous logic involved in these arguments.The arguments continue in the same vein throughout the other chapters,

Buddhavada, Ajivikavada, Samkhyavada, Vaiseshikavada, Vedavada, and

Bhutavada.

It is surprising to see contemporary reading in these texts: For instance,

against the Buddhist thinkers who reject the doctrine that plants are living

organisms, Neelakesi establishes the Jaina attitude towards the vegetablekingdom. Technically known as the Ekendriya Jiva, life with one-sense, the

plant world shares with the animal world in disease and its cure, cycle of life,

behaviour, reaction, adjustments, sensitiveness, etc., as found in any moderntreatment on plant biology. It is interesting to note that these ideas are

already contained in this Tamil classic.

Relating to certain facts about physical phenomena, like sound and light,

the text gives a modern explanation to sensation and sense stimulus. While

all the other systems consider sound as a characteristic of space or Akasa, it

is the Jains who have come nearer to the modern interpretation to say that

sound is the result of concussion of atmospheric molecules with one another.

Buddhist thinkers club sense stimulus and sound together with visual

stimulus. Neelakesi refutes their argument by differentiating the two. She

states that while light is almost instantaneous with the opening of eyes,

sound stimulus proceeding from the same object as light, lags behind because

of the time taken by the perceiving agent, obstruction and reflection on the

way by solid objects, characteristic variation in the two ears revealing the

distance and the direction of the sound. These facts are rare and are to be to

be found only in scientific textbooks relating to sound and light.

One could see the

various types of

right and erroneous logic involved in

these arguments

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 85

On another occasion, while contesting the materialism of the BhutavadaSchool, Neelakesi convincingly argues that consciousness (vijnana skandha)

cannot be a derivative of any physical or chemical phenomena, and

establishes the reality and existence of the human personality as a hiddenobject of a disembodied nature, which survives after death. Besides such

philosophical queries, the central message of the doctrine of Ahimsa and its

corollary of avoiding meat-eating,50 the real intention of the author ofNeelakesi, is not lost sight of. Buddhists, while preaching Ahimsa, have not

given up meat-eating, a major contention in Neelakesi’s argument against

the Buddhists. In the same uncompromising wavelength, Neelakesi arguesagainst the religious ritual of the Vedavadins, involving animal sacrifice, and

wins over them.

Animosity between Religious TraditionsWe cannot close our eyes to the considerable animosity that had

developed between the Jains and the Brahmins in the Fourth and the early

Fifth Century A.D.,51 finally making way to the extirpation of the Buddhistand Jain hegemony from the Tamil land. ManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalai refers to such

animosities expressed during debates:

å†®ò êñòˆ ¶Áªð£¼œ õ£Fèœ

ð†® ñ‡ìðˆ¶Š ð£ƒèP‰ «îÁI¡

ðŸø£ ñ£‚èœ î‹ºì ù£JÂ‹

ªêŸøºƒ èô£º‹ ªêŒò£ îè½I¡

(ñE«ñè¬ô: Mö£õ¬ø è£¬î 60-63)

There are other references to a similar trend seen in the poems of Saiva

Nayanars and Vaishnava Azhvars:52

ªõÁŠ«ð£´ êñí˜ º‡ì˜ MFJ™ ê£‚Aò˜èœ G¡ð£™

ªð£ÁŠðK òùèœ«ðCŠ «ð£õ«î «ï£òî£A‚

°PŠªðù‚ è¬ì»ñ£A™ Ã´«ñ™ î¬ô¬ò Ýƒ«è

ÜÁŠð«î è¼ñƒ è‡ì£Œ Üóƒèñ£ ïè¼÷£«ù!

(ªî£‡ìó®Šªð£®ò£›õ£˜, F¼ñ£¬ô: 8)

There are references in Periya Puranam to the destruction andappropriation of Jain lands and buildings around Thiruvarur Tank by Saiva

Nayanars:53

ªêƒè‡ M¬ìò£˜ F¼‚«è£J™ °ìð£™ b˜ˆî‚ °÷ˆF¡ ð£ƒ°

âƒ°‹ Üñí˜ ð£Nè÷£Œ Þìˆî£™ °¬øð£ ªìŒ¶îô£™

Üƒè‰ G¬ô¬ñ î¬ùˆî‡® ò®èœ ÜP‰«î Ýîóõ£™

Þƒ° ï£Q‚ °÷‹ªð¼è‚ è™ô «õ‡´‹ â¡ªø¿‰î£˜

(ªðKò ¹ó£í‹: î‡®ò®èœ ¹ó£í‹ 4)

Besides such

philosophical queries,

the central messageof the doctrine of

Ahimsa and its

corollary of avoidingmeat-eating

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 86

Ü¡ù õ‡í‹ ÝÏK™ Üñí˜ èô‚è‹ è‡ìõ˜î£‹

ªê£¡ù õ‡í «ñÜõ¬ó æìˆ ªî£ì˜¶ ¶ó‰îîŸH¡

ð¡Â‹ ð£NŠ ðœOèÀ‹ ðPˆ¶‚ °÷…Å› è¬óð´ˆ¶

ñ¡ù ùõÂ‹ ñùñA›‰¶ õ‰¶ ªî£‡ì˜ Ü®ðE‰î£¡

(ªðKò ¹ó£í‹: î‡®ò®èœ ¹ó£í‹ 24)

Generally, Tamil Saiva literature depicts the kind of interaction betweenJains and non-Jains. A person, text, or community can adopt different

strategies of relationships towards the other. It can be inclusive to say that

the other is correct but incomplete or has partial truth. Or it can be exclusiveto say that the other is totally wrong. Such strategies had been adopted by

both the Jains as well as non-Jains. Haribhadra’s boiling his defeated Buddhist

opponents in oil, or the Saivas impaling 8000 Jains at Madurai are some ofthe illustrations.54 Jains are generally portrayed as hated “others” in Tamil

Saiva Literature from the Sixth Century onwards. In the hymn collection

known as the TTTTTevaramevaramevaramevaramevaram, Tirunavukkaracar alias Appar and Tirunanacampantaror Campantar, the saint-poets known as “Nayanars” (leader, master) who led

the Tamil Saiva bhakti movement in the Sixth and SeventhCenturies,

energetically condemned Jains and Buddhists for their doctrines andpractices.55

It seems inevitable that religious traditions survived and gained life

wherever there had been royal patronage and support. In the case of theTamil region, Jains and Buddhists flourished in the time of Kalabhras and

Pallavas. The traditions depended not merely on the strength of doctrines

proved through debates (and their unfortunate consequences) but also onspurious practices, including healing miracles. Generally, religious traditions

defend their doctrines and practices tooth and nail, to the extent of animosity

and warfare. This has resulted in any number of new creations in book andother art forms. But, unfortunately, religious traditions have also failed to

realize that life is enhanced not merely by intellectual warfare or muscle

power, as is evident in contemporary times, but by humane, healthyrelationships among them. Had these traditions understood this fundamental

ideal about life and living, Tamil language and literature would have been

further enriched. Religious hatred and strategies of doing away with theother swept away the marks of intelligence in the Tamil region, nay in the

whole of India. It is a task and a challenge to the contributors of the present

times to the growth of society, language, and literature to learn our lessonsfrom the past, wounded history.

Nayanars (leader,

master) who led theTamil Saiva bhakti

movement in the Sixth

and SeventhCenturies, energetically

condemned Jains and

Buddhists for theirdoctrines and practices

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 87

End Notes

1 Originally, the Classical Tamil period refers to the Sangam Age up to,more or less, 5th Century A.D. Its literature is confined to Patthu Pattu andEttu Thogai, more concretely, works like Tholkappiam, Thirukkural,Silappathikaram, and Manimegalai. The period of the Kalabhras, thecelebrated Jain-Buddhist patrons, saw a rich resources of literary worksin Tamil. Once Tamil language received the status of “Semmozhi”, theperiod extended to as far as 12th Century A.D., in which case, a number ofother literary works come to be included. Moreover, I would go alongwith M.S. Ramasamy Ayyangar, who prefers to classify Jain works undervarious groups such as Didactics, Kavyas and other treatises instead ofby historical period. See SSSSStudies in South Indian Jainismtudies in South Indian Jainismtudies in South Indian Jainismtudies in South Indian Jainismtudies in South Indian Jainism (Madras: Printedby Hoe & Co. at the “PREMIER” Press, 1922), pp 88-89

2 M.S. Ramasamy Ayyangar, Op. Cit. pp 19-20

3 Referring to Karnataka or Canarese Country in the south of India

4 The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1901 Asiatic Society 1901 Asiatic Society 1901 Asiatic Society 1901 Asiatic Society 1901 VVVVVol.ol.ol.ol.ol., p. 861; “Jainism orthe Early Faith of Asoka” by Thomas, The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal The Journal of the Royal AsiaticAsiaticAsiaticAsiaticAsiaticSocietySocietySocietySocietySociety, , , , , VVVVVol. IX, (New Series)ol. IX, (New Series)ol. IX, (New Series)ol. IX, (New Series)ol. IX, (New Series) Article 8; V.A. Smith: Early History ofEarly History ofEarly History ofEarly History ofEarly History ofIndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia, Recent Edition, p. 146. In this, he rejects his earlier view referring tothe death of Chandragupta as ‘imaginary history’ and says ‘I am nowdisposed to believe that the tradition probably is true in its main outlineand that Chandragupta really abdicated and became a Jain ascetic.’

5 The Sacred Books of the East, The Sacred Books of the East, The Sacred Books of the East, The Sacred Books of the East, The Sacred Books of the East, VVVVVol. XXIIol. XXIIol. XXIIol. XXIIol. XXII, p. xliii

6 Inscription No. 44 records that Samantabhadra was a great missionarywho established himself in religious disputations (referred to as “beatingthe drum”) from Pataliputra (Patna) in the North to as far as the city ofKanchi in the South.

7 “The nature of Jain contribution to literature and its impact on Tamilsociety can be best studied and understood against the background ofthe historical processes which transformed Tamil society from a basicallytribal, kinship based, anthropocentric and humanistic organisation of theearly centuries of the Christian era to a highly complex, hierarchical, casteoriented or stratified one by the medieval times. The broad periods withinwhich these changes can be situated are the early historical period, morepopularly known as the Cankam (Sangam) age, followed by a period oftransition in which northern, Sanskritic, normative traditions increasinglyinfluenced and mingled with local traditions, ultimately leading to theearly medieval period, from 6th to the 12th centuries, when the bilingualand bi-cultural interaction reached its apex and created a new socio-cultural matrix, which came to be recognized as typically Tamil and whichled to the emergence of the Tamil cultural region.” See, Prof. R.Champakalakshmi: Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in TTTTTamilamilamilamilamil (Internet source) See, Prof.R. Champakalakshmi: Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in TTTTTamilamilamilamilamil (Internet source)

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 88

8 A list of Jain Tamil literary sources is categorized according to the type ofmaterial. See Dr. S.V. Subramanian: Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya VVVVVaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaru(Manivachakar Pathipagam, August 1999), pp 254-56

9 For the date of Tholkappiyar, see arguments presented by M.S.Ramaswami Ayyangar, Op. Cit. pp 38-40

10 The meaning of the verse strongly supports the Jaina path of non-violencein the place of ritual sacrifice which involved animal sacrifice: “Not killinga single creature for the sake of food is far better than a thousand yagasperformed according to Vedic rules. “Aadi Bagavan” refers to Adinath,the first Jain Tirthankara. “Malarmisai” is a formation of the lotus underthe feet of the Jina (Jain Tirthankara), which moves along wherever theJina goes about preaching the doctrine. “Venduthal Vendaamai Ilaan” isthe one who is above likes and dislikes, the equanimous, the samana.“Engunatthaan” refers to the eight Jain attributes of God: Perfect Faith,Infinite Knowledge, Infinite Cognition, Extreme Fineness,Interpenetrability, Stationariness, Undisturbabale Bliss, and so on.“Porivavilaindavittan” refers to the one who is completely devoid ofpassions through the five senses. “Aravali Andanan” refers to aBrahmana, who goes by morality rather than sacrificial rituals for the pathto salvation.

11 There is a possibility that this Elacharya, being a great intellectual and alinguist, could infuse in the Kural the North Indian wisdom of ArthasastraArthasastraArthasastraArthasastraArthasastraof Kautilya.

12 A general classification is given by Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History ofTTTTTamil Literature amil Literature amil Literature amil Literature amil Literature (Annamalainagar: Annamalai University, 1967), p 65

13 Dr. S. V. Subramanian, Op. Cit. pp 254-55

14 Dr. S. Subash Chandra Bose: Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya VVVVVaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaru, PaavaiPublications, Chennai, July 2002, p. 88; Ilangovadigal’s SilappathikaramSilappathikaramSilappathikaramSilappathikaramSilappathikaram:Commentary by Na.Mu. Venkatasamy Natar, (Chennai: Tirunelveli,Thenninthiya Saiva Siddhanta Publications, Ltd., Second Edition, July1999), Pathigam p. 4.

15 Soma Sundaram Pillai, Op. Cit. pp 356-57; Na.Mu. Venkatasamy Natar,Op. Cit. pp 353-355.

16 ‘Gunavathan’ may also be interpreted as Guna vrati. The regulations orthe rules of conduct for a lay person are anuvrata, gunavrata, siksavrata.Here, gunavrata refers to Dig vrata, Desa vrata, and Anarthadanda vrata.A householder should constantly try to limit his activities for possession.The vows of limiting one’s directions, regions (Dig vrata or Desa vrata).These are facilities offered to a devout Jaina to be content with what onehas.

17 One of the Holy Pentad in Jaina soteriology: Arihanta, Siddha, Acharya,Upadhyaya, and Sadhu. These are the visionaries or the prophets of theJaina community.

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 89

18 ‘Angam’ or Angagama refers to the 12 prime scriptural texts: e.g. Acaranga,Sutrartanga, Sthananga, Samavayanga, etc.

19 Soma Sundaram Pillai, Op. Cit. pp 353-354.

20 All references are from ManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalai: Commentary by Puliyur Khesikan,(Chennai: Paari Nilayam, 1994, Ninth Edition).

21 One could speak particularly of the doctrines of Karma and Fate, ofToleration and Debate. The earlier presence of the great Naga race in theTamil land could have been a means of easy spread of these religionsamong the Tamils (e.g. Tree and Naga worship).

22 ManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalaiManimegalai: Commentary by Puliyur Thesikan: Op. Cit. pp 316-41 Forinstances, on Time and Space (Ether):

è£ô‹, èEè‹ âÂƒ°Á Gè›„C»‹,

ã½‹ èŸðˆ F¡ªù´ Gè›„C»‹; (ñE«ñè¬ô 27:191-192)

Ý‚°‹, Ýè£ò‹ â™ô£Š ªð£¼†°‹

Ì‚°‹ Þìƒªè£´‚°‹, ¹KMŸ ø£°‹ (ñE«ñè¬ô 27:193-194)

23 Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XVII , p. 74

24 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum, Tirunelveli,Thennindiya Saiva Siddhanta Noorpathippu Kazhagam, Ltd., Chennai,2000 (Third Edition), p. 48

ÿñˆ; FóI÷ úƒ«èvI‹ ï‰F úƒ«èvF Ü¼ƒè÷£

Ü¡õ«ò£ ð£F Gv«úû ú£vˆó õ£ó£R ð£ó¬èý

25 See, Prof. R. Champakalakshmi: Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in Jaina Literature in TTTTTamilamilamilamilamil (Internet source)The Moola Sangha got further divided into “ganas” like Nandi Gana,Sena Gana, Simha Gana, Deva Gana… (Thiruvalavai Pathigam ofThirunnanacampantar)

26 There are two references in NaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyarNaaladiyar to Mutharaiyar, “the Lord of thethree mighty lands” (Nos. 200 & 296). There is also a view that Jainsthemselves invited these Kalabhras to establish themselves in the Tamilcountry. This was also the time of precipitation of rivalry betweenBrahmanism and the Jains.

27 Known as Mutharaiyar, who conquered the Chera, Chola, and Pandyakingdoms. “Who were the Kalabhras?” Read M.S. Ramaswami Ayyangar,Op. Cit. pp 53-56 and footnote 2 on page 56.

28 G.U. Pope names it as Vellalar Vedam or the Bible of the Cultivators orthe Agriculturalists. Sadly, Quatrain 243 clearly illustrates the rivalryforming between the Jains and the Brahmins.

29 The story goes to say that 400 quatrains out of 8000, composed by 8000Jain sages, swam against the current in Vaigai river. They were throwninto the river at the bid of an angry Pandyan king, who heard that the Jain

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 90

sages were leaving his country. It is these 400 quatrains which werecollected and collated.

30 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum, Op. Cit. p. 22 AJain monk should be careful about the flow of karma (asrava) in oneselfand stop its flow through carefulness in activities of speech, body, andmind (gupti), carefulness in moving about, procurement of provisions,etc. (samiti), carefulness in the practice of virtues (dharma), carefulnessin reflections (anupreksa), carefulness in being victorious over oneself(parishahajaya), and in activities in general (caritra). All these imply adiscipline over oneself, particularly control over one’s senses. TTTTTattvarthaattvarthaattvarthaattvarthaattvarthaSutraSutraSutraSutraSutra of Vacaka Umasvati, Translated by K.K. Dixit (Ahmedabad: L.D.Institute of Indology, April 2000, Second Edition), Chapter 9, No. 1-20, pp311-29.

31 Here is the description of a Wife: “She is sweet to the eye, and adorned inthe way a lover loves; she enforces awe; her virtue shames the villagefolk; she is submissive, but in fitting place is stern, yet sweetly relents;such a soft-voiced dame is wife.” (142)

Þ‹¬ñ ðò‚°ñ£™, ßò‚ °¬øM¡ø£™,

î‹¬ñM ÷‚°ñ£™ î£‹ à÷ó£‚ «è®¡ø£™,

â‹¬ñ àôèˆ¶‹ ò£‹ è£«íƒ è™M«ð£™

ñ‹ñ˜ ÜÁ‚° ñ¼‰¶.

Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature, Op. Cit. p. 387.

32 Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature, Op. Cit. p. 388.

33 “The beauty of the eye is benevolence; The beauty of the leg is firmness;The beauty of calculation is correct numbering; The beauty of music isits charm for the ear; The beauty of the king is the rosperity of his land.”Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature, Op. Cit. p. 390.

è‡ õùŠ¹ è‡«í£†ì‹, è£™ õùŠ¹„ ªê™ô£¬ñ,

â‡ õùŠ¹, “Þˆ¶¬í Ý‹” â¡Á à¬óˆî™, ð‡õùŠ¹‚

«è†ì£˜ ï¡Á â¡ø™ A÷˜«õ‰î¡ î¡ù£´

õ£†ì£¡ ï¡Á â¡ø™ õùŠ¹. (CÁð…êÍô‹ 7)

34 Dr. S. Subash Chandra Bose: Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya Thamizh Ilakkiya VVVVVaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaru, Op. Cit. p. 69.

35 Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature, Op. Cit. p. 393-94.

36 “The trouble from toddy, the drunkard knows; The trouble from water,the sea-gull among birds knows; The trouble from poverty, the man ofmany wives knows; The trouble of concealment, only the thief knows.”(Naanmani KadigaiNaanmani KadigaiNaanmani KadigaiNaanmani KadigaiNaanmani Kadigai 97) Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamilamilamilamilamilLiteratureLiteratureLiteratureLiteratureLiterature, pp 396-97

èœO¡ Þ´‹¬ð èOòP»‹. cK´‹¬ð

¹œOÂœ æƒè™ ÜP»‹, GóŠH´‹¬ð

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 91

¹™ªð‡® ó£÷¡ ÜP»‹, èóŠH´‹¬ð

èœõ¡ ÜP‰¶ M´‹ (ï£¡ñE‚è®¬è 94)

37 Just like the species dry ginger, long pepper, and black pepper aremedicinal, Tirikadugam poems are restorative in nature in the moralwellbeing of a Soul. “Acquire wealth in order to give; Follow the greatworks in order to grow in virtue; Speak each word with gracious purpose;These three conduct not to the dark world.” (TirikadugamTirikadugamTirikadugamTirikadugamTirikadugam 90)

ßîŸ°„ ªêŒè ªð£¼¬÷, ÜøªïP

«ê˜îŸ°„ ªêŒè ªð¼Ë¬ô ò£¶‹

Ü¼œ¹K‰¶ ªê£™½è ªê£™¬ô - Þ‹º¡Á‹

Þ¼œàôè‹ «êó£î ÝÁ.

38 “Let every man tender with care like gold one’s body, wife, safety, and forone’s life along with one’s property. Or else, permanent evil would accrue.”(Achara KovaiAchara KovaiAchara KovaiAchara KovaiAchara Kovai 44) Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature,p. 403

î¡ àì‹¹, î£ó‹. Ü¬ì‚èô‹ î¡ àJ˜‚° â¡Á

à¡Qˆ¶ ¬õˆî ªð£¼«÷£´ Þ¬õ ï£¡°‹

ªð£¡¬ùŠ «ð£Ÿ «ð£ŸP‚ è£ˆ¶ àŒ‚è àŒ‚è£‚è£™

ñ¡Qò ãî‰ î¼‹.

39 Soma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature, p. 404

õ¡¬ñJŸ Cø‰îî¡Á õ£Œ¬ñ»¬ì¬ñ Integrity is superior tocourage

ñ‚è† «ðŸP¡ ªðÁ‹ «ðP™¬ô No greater acquisition than thepossession of children

ªð£¼í¬ê «õ†¬èò£¡ º¬ø ªêò™ªð£Œ “It is impossible foran amasser of wealth to be just in his doings.

40 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum (Chennai:Tirunelveli, Thennindiya Saiva Siddhanta Noorpathippu Kazhagam, Ltd.,2000, Third Edition), p. 15.

41 Ibid. p. 20

42 Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam points to the high position of Chintamani athis time. (Ref. 20, 21)

43 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum, Op. Cit. p. 9, 31.

44 Ibid. p. 63

45 Thirukalambagam: Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum,Op. Cit. p. 30

46 The poem belongs 16th Century A.D. and has 1197 sutras, giving meaningto 11,000 words

¹Fò ðÂõ™ 92

47 Refer to the Jain works in Tamil in Dr. S. Subash Chandra Bose: ThamizhThamizhThamizhThamizhThamizhIlakkiya Ilakkiya Ilakkiya Ilakkiya Ilakkiya VVVVVaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaruaralaru, Op. Cit, Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum, pp 210-14; Also inSoma Sundaram Pillai: AAAAA History of History of History of History of History of TTTTTamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literatureamil Literature, Op. Cit. Chapter on“The Age of Buddhism and Jainism” pp 341-411

48 Neelakesi – Neelakesi – Neelakesi – Neelakesi – Neelakesi – The Original The Original The Original The Original The Original TTTTText and the Commentary of Samaya-Divakara-ext and the Commentary of Samaya-Divakara-ext and the Commentary of Samaya-Divakara-ext and the Commentary of Samaya-Divakara-ext and the Commentary of Samaya-Divakara-VVVVVamana-Muniamana-Muniamana-Muniamana-Muniamana-Muni: Edited and Published by Prof. A. Chakravarti, (Thanjavoor:Publication Division of Thamizh Palkalai Kazhagam, July 1984), pp 136-339; also see Five Minor EpicsFive Minor EpicsFive Minor EpicsFive Minor EpicsFive Minor Epics (of Tamil Literature in Tamil), (Chennai:Vardhamanan Publications, October 2006)

49 Like Sariputra, Moggalana was one of the chief disciples of Buddha.

50 Prof. A. Chakravarti, Op. Cit. pp 162-69 (Mokkalavada), 211-12(Buddhavada), 317-19 (Vedavada)

51 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum, Op. Cit. pp 54;Padmanabh S. Jaini discusses the bases and circumstances of theSramana-Brahmana controversy in the early history of theses religions.“Sramanas: Their conflict with Brahmanical Society” in Chapters in IndianChapters in IndianChapters in IndianChapters in IndianChapters in IndianCivilizationCivilizationCivilizationCivilizationCivilization, Ed. By J. Elder, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1970, pp 40-81; Also see, Vincent Sekhar: DDDDDharma harma harma harma harma in Early Brahmanic, Buddhist andin Early Brahmanic, Buddhist andin Early Brahmanic, Buddhist andin Early Brahmanic, Buddhist andin Early Brahmanic, Buddhist andJain traditionsJain traditionsJain traditionsJain traditionsJain traditions, (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2003), Chapter 1 and 7.

52 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum Samanamum ThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhumThamizhum, Op. Cit. p. 68

53 Ibid. p. 70, 71

54 See, “Phyllis Granoff: “Jain lives of Haribhadra – An Enquiry into theSources and Logic of the Legends”, Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:105-28105-28105-28105-28105-28; John E. Cort’s book (ed.) is a good source of information andbibliography on this topic: Open Boundaries – Jain Communities andOpen Boundaries – Jain Communities andOpen Boundaries – Jain Communities andOpen Boundaries – Jain Communities andOpen Boundaries – Jain Communities andCultures in Indian HistoryCultures in Indian HistoryCultures in Indian HistoryCultures in Indian HistoryCultures in Indian History (Albany: State University of New York Press,1998). Particularly, the Chapters written by Indira Viswanathan Peterson:“Sramanas Against the Tamil Way – Jains as Others in Tamil SaivaLiterature” (pp 163-86) and by Richard H. Davis: The Story of theDisappearing Jains – Retelling the Saiva-Jain Encounter in MedievalSouth India” (pp 213-24) are full of such references.

55 See, TTTTTevaram of evaram of evaram of evaram of evaram of ApparApparApparApparAppar, Campantar and Cundarar, Campantar and Cundarar, Campantar and Cundarar, Campantar and Cundarar, Campantar and Cundarar, , , , , TTTTTirumurai I-III, andirumurai I-III, andirumurai I-III, andirumurai I-III, andirumurai I-III, andTTTTTirumurai IVirumurai IVirumurai IVirumurai IVirumurai IV-VII, in 2 -VII, in 2 -VII, in 2 -VII, in 2 -VII, in 2 VVVVVolumesolumesolumesolumesolumes, Edited by Kayappakkam SadasivaChettiyar (Chennai: Tirunelveli Saiva Siddhanta Kazhgam, Ltd., 1973)

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Dr. Vincent Sekhar, S.J.Department of Philosophy

Arul Anandar College (Autonomous)Karumathur - 625514 Madurai Dt. INDIA

[email protected]

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