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JACK SHUTER MSH320: DISSERTATION

Jack Shuter PER320 Music Dissertation

Exploring the relationship between Popular music and film

An in-depth look at contemporary collaborations between Popular Music composers and Film Directors

This dissertation is submitted in accordance with the requirements of the award of BA (Hons)

Music

I Jack Shuter confirm that, except where other sources are acknowledged, the work

contained herein is my own. I am aware of Falmouth University’s regulations concerning

academic integrity, and submit this work in good faith.

[4725 words]

18/04/2016

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ABSTRACT

In this dissertation I aim to explore the relationships between popular music and film. Looking at why popular musicians are commonly approached to score films, and dissect the techniques used by them when scoring for film. In addition to this I will explore in detail a selection of film scores that I am passionate about, with an aim of contributing to the relatively untouched area of academic analysis of contemporary film music.

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Contents

Introduction: The Popular Musician as Film Composer

Methodology

Chapter I: Soundtrack Culture

i. Commercial Implications

ii. The Power of the Pop Song in ‘Palo Alto’ and ‘Drive’

Chapter II: Experimental Electronica in Film

i. Impact of Minimalism

ii. The experimental nature of Popular Musicians, explored through ’Under

The Skin’, ‘Monsters and ‘The Social Network’

Conclusion

Bibliography

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Introduction: The Popular Musician as Film composer

In recent years their have been a number of fruitful collaborations between

filmmakers and Popular Music composers, leading to great commercial and critical

success, benefitting both the studios and the musicians involved. In this Dissertation

I will explore the possible reasons a film director or studio would approach a popular

musician over a traditional film composer, and give evidence of how and why the

styles and techniques typically employed by artists in the popular music realm can

be suited to film. For the purpose of this dissertation I shall clarify what I mean by

‘Popular Musician’; this is what I take to mean as a musician, or artist, who has

established a career in the music industry through writing and selling songs intended

for a mass audience. Making their name and reputation in the Popular Music industry

before moving in to composition work for film. The specific genre or stylistic realm

that a popular musician operates in isn’t necessarily important; as many successful

‘pop’ artists merge elements from different genres by experimenting with techniques

and ideas from many contrasting styles. Successful examples of artists who have

done this are evident throughout the history of popular music, but I would like to draw

a focus to the critical and commercial successes of British artists during the 1970’s

Psychedelic era. Some hugely influential artists who achieved success during this

period through their experimentation within the realms of popular music are: The

Beatles, Pink Floyd and David Bowie. I have chosen these three artists for two

reasons. Firstly, they made lasting impacts on Popular Music; this can be seen

through their inclusion in the top 50 of ‘Rolling Stone 500 Greatest Albums of All

Time’ list (Listology 2012). But more importantly, these artists were all approached

by film director’s and studios, to gain their involvement in commercial films. The most

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notable example here being Paul McCartney and George Harrison of the Beatles,

who scored the music for the films ‘The Family Way’ (1966), and ‘Wonderwall’ (1968)

respectively (Reay 2004: p. 74-75). It may have been this distinct lack of stylistic

constraint and rules shown by popular musicians during the psychedelic era, which

may have more obviously existed in the realm of classical orchestral music that

attracted film studios or directors to work with these popular musicians in the first

place. David Toop states that from the late 1960’s Psychedelic pop era,

experimentation and fragmentation became far more common and ‘the adventurous

end of rock and pop evolved into a kind of film music without film’. (Reay 2004).

Whilst it is clear that such collaborations offer great opportunity to director and

musician to explore their artistry. From the point of the view of the studio, the

combination of popular music and film can result in increased commercial success.

From the film studio’s point of view having a musician, who appeals to a different

demographic of fan, score a film will maximise both the reach of the film and the

profitability, due to the potential of releasing the film’s music as a separate product

alongside the film, to become a ‘vehicle for cross-promotion’ (Smith 1998). French

Electro-House Duo Daft Punk’s score for ‘Tron: Legacy’ is perhaps the biggest

example of such a collaboration in recent years. Aside from the huge financial

success that the film itself achieved, turning in 400.1 million USD at the worldwide

Box Office (Box Office Mojo 2016)., the subsequent rewards that Daft Punk received

show that this collaboration benefitted the duo’s reach and record sales

tremendously. To give some perspective, Daft Punk’s previous output before

releasing the Tron soundtrack was their 2007 album ‘Alive’, this peaked at number

just 169 on the ‘US Billboard200’ album chart. The release of the 2010 Tron: Legacy

soundtrack, with all of the added promotion from being associated with a huge

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blockbuster film and released under the ‘Walt Disney’ record label, got the duo

peaking at number 4 on the same American Billboards chart; this became Daft

Punk’s first top 10 album in the United States; selling more units in North America

than any of their previous record. It’s very interesting to note that their next official

studio album, 2013 ‘Random Access Memories’ debuted straight at number one on

the Billboard 200. Subsequently becoming the year’s best selling Dance album in the

United States. (Billboard 2016). It is unclear whether Daft Punk would have

achieved this huge improvement in state-side success if they hadn’t scored Tron:

Legacy, but the huge promotional campaign in promoting the film will have certainly

meant that more people, who were previously unaware of Daft Punk, than ever

would hear their music in some way. Meanwhile, in England there has been a growth

in the amount of record labels who focus on releasing film soundtracks.

Organisations such as ‘Invada Records’, ‘Death Waltz’ and ‘Mono Records’ aim to

source and distribute film soundtracks in the UK, with a focus on contemporary

experimental scores. Invada Record’s, a small label based in Bristol, manager Redg

Weeks states ‘Modern soundtrack composers can't make a film score without half a

dozen labels fighting for the rights to release it’. This shows the increasing demand

for film soundtracks to be released as separate entities from the film and an

emerging market for film music. (Clash 2013). For smaller labels such as these,

releasing film soundtracks seems an enticing proposition, as they won’t necessarily

have to spend as much money as they would marketing a new artist, as they can

rely on the existing promotional campaigns and fans from the film’s initial release.

Redg goes on to say working with soundtracks is ‘an entirely different beast to

working with bands, it’s like a blank canvas as to the rules and regulations of how

you market an album in the soundtrack world’ (Tucker 2013). Interestingly, of the four

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films I will go on to give a detailed analysis on, three of them were released in the UK

by Invada Records (Invada 2016). Now we’ve had a brief introduction to the

relationship between popular music and film, and touched upon the potential

financial benefits that can arise from it. I would like to take a more action-based

approach to my research, through looking at some contemporary films that have

been scored by popular musicians and analysing the techniques used, and whether

they were successful.

Methodology

Before I do that it’s useful to state where I believe my study to situate itself within the

wider contexts of academic music writing. Whilst I have chosen this topic because of

a fascination of film music, and lover of popular music composition. I also chose this

topic because I feel it is one that has been relatively unexplored in academic writing,

but I feel the movements that are happening within this field are of great cultural

importance; so it will therefore benefit myself and others in a similar situation to me,

so attempt to broaden the academic research in this area. Film lecturer Pauline Reay

states ‘academic writing in the field of film music has been somewhat neglected’, and

the main reason for this is that film music ‘brings together two discrete areas, each

with their own specialist language and terminology’ (Reay 2004: p. 1). Whilst

Rebecca Eaton informs us ‘academic scholarship often lags by decades’. (Eaton

2012: p. 12). So in order for me to provide a useful contribution to this field, I have

chosen to look at films and popular musicians that I am very familiar with. Extensive

use of online sources such as film reviews, music blogs, and online magazines must

be used as these examples are too recent to exist in any of the academic books in

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the library. In addition to this I will draw upon my knowledge on popular music

composition that I have formulated through my time here at Falmouth University.

Chapter I: Soundtrack Culture

Filmmakers have long taken advantage of Popular Music’s ability to provoke certain

emotions in the audience that would be otherwise difficult to achieve. A song’s

association with a certain era or event, aswell as certain cultural connotations, can

be utilised within a scene by filmmakers to enhance the overall depth of a film and

resonate with audiences more effectively. Bartkowiak states ‘one chord played on

the piano can create a short-hand that speaks to us more than any screenwriter

could hope to affect with dialogue’. (Bartowiak: 1). Even before sound was available

in picture, ‘Silent’ films often utilised live music in the cinema to ‘provide historical,

geographical and atmospheric setting’ and ‘help depict and identify characters’.

(Gorbman: 37). In this chapter I will look at the music for ‘Drive (2011)’, and ‘Palo

Alto (2013)’, two independent films released with an intention of reaching a mass

audience. I have chosen these as examples to demonstrate why a commercial film

may benefit more from a song-based soundtrack compiled by a popular musician,

rather than a more traditional orchestral score. This is due to pop music's ability to

efficiently reference, or pay homage to a specific style or era through the use of

certain production techniques more commonly found in popular music composition

than traditional film music. The similarities between both of the films I have chosen

are that they are highly stylised, with a thoughtful emphasis being placed on shot

composition and creative cinematography to create a defined ‘retro’ visual aesthetic

that evokes feelings of nostalgia of the 1980’s era. Online columnist Darren Franich

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claims that ‘Drive’ is directly referencing 80’s heist thrillers ‘Thief’ and ‘Miami

Vice’ (Franich 2014). Whilst the film’s visuals, especially the title credits and fonts,

certainly evoke feelings of nostalgia; what really confirms the director’s homage to

the 80’s is the music. For this Cliff Martinez, an ex popular musician who made his

name originally with the band ‘Red Hot Chilli Peppers’, was approached by the film’s

director Nicolas Winding Refn. With Refn asking for a ‘kind of retro, 80s-ish,

synthesizer europop’ sound. This is an example of a director seeking a composer

with an extensive knowledge of popular music, due to the connotations that can be

associated with pop music or a soundworld from a certain era to reinforce a

message being put across in the film. The music for Drive is made up from a

combination of Martinez’s original synthesiser-based score and a collection of

carefully selected contemporary electronic pop songs which stylistically reference the

1980s. A critic on music review website Bleep states ‘the soundtrack perfectly

reference the 80s nostalgia and brooding atmosphere of the film.’ (Bleep 2014).

Much of the music appears diegetically through the protagonist's car radio, as lead

actor Ryan Gosling states that the movie is ‘about a guy who drives around listening

to pop music because it’s the only way he can feel’ (Lim 2011). Partly due to the

omnipresent nature of the music in conjunction with the slow moving plot, the

soundtrack was placed at the forefront of the film. This is quite unusual as typically a

film’s music should be somewhat unnoticeable in order to avoid detracting from the

audience whats going on screen, however this experimental approach to scoring

stood out to become a large part of what made the film so successful. This marriage

between soundtrack and film went on to become hugely influential, to the point of it

being listed by Spin Magazine as one of the ’40 Movie Soundtracks That Changed

Alternative Music’ (SPIN 2013). It then became of particular cultural importance

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when a collection of contemporary pop artists , under the guidance of radio host

Zane Lowe, ’rescored’ the film. By writing new songs to play over the film-replacing

the existing ones; the re-scored version of the film was then shown on BBC Three to

a mixed reception. (Barlow 2014). The track I would like to draw attention to from the

Drive Soundtrack Kavinsky's ‘Nightcall', this track was chosen by Martinez to play

during the film’s opening credits, to instantly get across to the viewer the director’s

stylistic intensions and themes for the film. The music serves to provide an

atmospheric back-drop to a montage of shots of the Los Angeles skyline and close

ups of the dashboard of a vintage stunt car. Despite the song being released in 2011,

the soundworld is made up from a combination of timbres which would have been

more commonly found on a 1980s Synth-pop hit. ‘Retro’ sounding synthesizer pads,

with added pitch modulation add to the sense of movement in the driving scene, and

a punchy drum loop made up from stock sounding drum machine sounds ground the

pad whilst creating connoting a clear reference to the decade. In addition to this, the

snare sound is affected with a gated reverb; a production technique excessively

used on many hit records in the 1980s, most notably by The Smiths, Phil Collins and

Peter Gabriel (Musicradar 2014). The use of these textures and production

techniques connotes feelings of nostalgia and pays a direct homage to the music of

that era.

‘Palo Alto’ was scored by popular musician Devonté Hynes, most commonly known

under his artist name ‘Blood Orange’. Foremost a producer, Hyne’s music spans

across many different stylistic realms but the familiarity of his sound comes through

his sound selection and production techniques. Similarly to much of the music that

makes up the Drive Soundtrack, Hyne’s palette of sounds are heavily paying

homage to 80’s synthpop through extensive use of sounds from that era. Lush

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synthesizer pads, ‘disco pulse’- created again through use of vintage drum

machines, aswell as pentatonic guitar ostinatos and deep basslines commonly

employing a ‘slapped technique’ both of which are very reminiscent of 80’s Disco

music. (McNamee 2009). Music Blog site Pitchfork describes his album latest album

‘Cupid Deluxe’ (2013) as a ‘collection of melancholic 80-inspired pop odes’,

‘informed by the neon atmosphere of Chris Issack, Billy Idol, and 80’s Japanese pop’

Hynes was approached by Gia Coppola to produce a score that would reflect the

film’s ‘dreamlike quality’ whilst being appropriate to be used for a ‘coming of age’

story(Travers 2014). Here is an example of a director being able to grab a specific

sound and identity created by a popular musician and get it imprinted on to their film.

The film’s music is made up from a combination of ambient inspired electronic score

and two original songs that Hynes wrote especially for the film. Many film critics were

unfavourable towards the film, with suggestions that it valued style over substance.

This notion is somewhat enhanced by the atmospheric synthesizer-based

compositions that make up the majority score; with sparse, repetitive synthesizer

minor chords treated with reverb and pitch modulation to work in perfect

accompaniment to the ‘candyheart impressionism’ of the camera work (Shone 2014).

The most notable moment of music in the film is when one of Hyne’s original song

compositions appears in the film diegetically, taking center stage as the teenager’s in

the film host a house party. Hyde’s track ‘Champagne Coast’ plays from the

speakers, this song is also available on his album ‘Cupid Deluxe’ showing an

example of synergy which can be successful manipulated for increased financial

gain. The song itself is made up from a soundworld typical of Hyne’s work as Blood

Orange; with repetitive drum machine loops, reverberated pads and ostinato guitars.

This reference to 80’s disco provides a perfect backdrop to a scene full of teen-angst

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and partying; evoking feelings of nostalgia and adding depth to the film’s aesthetic.

To the fan of Blood Orange, this prominent, uncut use of one of his songs in the film

would be a welcome addition, and those that were drawn to watch the film after

finding out about his involvement would appreciate this, however this certainly goes

against convention as it serves to place equal importance on the music to the visuals

potentially taking away from the impact of the plot.

Chapter II: Experimental Electronica and Ambient Music in Film

This chapter focuses on experimental electronic music within film. I have chosen to

do this as it’s a genre born out of many of the same principles that have come to

establish the widespread use of minimalist music within film. The impact Minimalism

has had on popular music cannot be understated; Ivan Hewett of the telegraph

states that ‘you can hear the echo of it's pounding beats, static harmonies and slowly

shifting patterns everywhere in the wider world of music’ (Hewett 2015). Academic

writer Rebecca Eaton states in her journal ‘Unheard Minimalisms’ that Minimalist

music ‘was an avant-garde phenomena in the 60’s and 70’s’ but by the 90’s it was

used in ‘mainstream Hollywood horror and science fiction films’. (Eaton 2012: p. 48).

Whether it was their intention, composers at the forefront of minimalism such as

Steve Reich and Philip Glass have gone on to make music with mass market appeal,

bringing the movement out of the American avant-garde and into the mainstream;

with Reich’s own ‘Music for 18 musicians’ becoming a ‘massive global success’.

(FACT 2010). Futhermore Glass himself found equal commercial and critical success

in Hollywood with his Oscar nominated Minimalist score for Martin Scorsese’s

‘Kundun’. ‘Daily Variety’ critic Robert Koehler stated at the time that Minimalist music

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‘is being heard all through the cineplexes of America’, and has ‘won Hollywood’s

heart’. Through this commercial appropriation the defining characteristics of the

movement, to the mainstream audience atleast, became the ‘cyclical patterns,

repeated figures, attenuated builds up and an aurally hypnotic sound’. (Koehler

1998). Interestingly these are principles commonly found in Experimental Electronic

music. Before we get to that it is important to know just how minimalism worked its

way in to popular music. A huge figure in bringing Minimalist techniques and ideas in

to the world of Popular Music is producer Brian Eno. He developed the techniques

initially set out by Minimalist composers such as Cage and Glass, and brought them

in to a more accessible light. Exploring the ideas of music as mood enhancing

background compositions, which you could tune in and out of, rather than songs that

are placed at a focal point in a home. At the height of his celebrity status with pop

group Roxy Music, his discovery of Ambient music did not get missed by the

mainstream public; propelling both Ambient music and minimalism, the concept it

owes so much to, into the minds of popular musicians and film composers.

Examples of commercially successful pop albums that Eno has employed these

ambient techniques on are vast, with Bowie’s Berlin Trilogy of albums being perhaps

the most notable. (Sexy Intellectual Records 2012). On an immediately superficial

level, a quick listen to the hits that make up the top 10 tracks in Official Singles Chart

Top 40, at the time of writing will show a clear emphasis on repetitive rhythms, tone

simplistic arrangements. This simplicity means that it is widely accessible, and

therefore more likely to appeal to the widest range of people possible. This may go

some way to explaining the huge success of electronic music at the moment. I find

that musicians writing ‘pop’ music often, yet maybe inadvertently, draw upon the

ideas and philosophies first apparent in minimalist and ambient music. Now to move

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on to some examples of films that employ ambient and minimal technique in the

music.

The score for Under The Skin was composed by Mica Levi, previously known for her

work in the realm of popular music with the band ‘Micachu & The Shapes’. Levi’s

sparse and haunting score draws together techniques from many different styles of

music, such as horror soundtrack, avant-garde and electronica. The film itself is a

Sci-Fi horror which follows a female alien predator (Laura), seemingly sent to earth

to seduce men into her lair where they mysteriously vanish. There is a distinct lack of

dialog throughout the first half of the film, as the camera follows Laura through

Scotland as she experiences humanity for the first time; initially she is repulsed, but

as the film progresses she becomes fascinated and wants to experience human

emotion. Due to the extremely conceptual nature of the film, and the sparse action in

the opening half an hour the scores job is to unsettle and confuse the viewer, and to

reflect the alien’s state of mind. Director Jonathan Glazer instructed Levi to ‘follow

Laura musically’ (Jones 2014) ’The music’s strange soundworld is made up from just

a small number of elements, predominantly these are digitally warped string

instruments, used in conjunction with ‘fake’ MIDI strings, anchored with minimal

percussion, made through manipulating found sound. This limited sound palette

means that the intrinsic qualities inherent in these sounds are placed to the fore, to

make for an uncomfortable but gripping listening experience reminiscent of a classic

horror score. The music serves to reflect the alienation that the protagonist feels all

the while using the organic sound of real acoustic strings in the form of viola’s to

ground the film’s sporadic cuts. Levi cites influential Minimalist composer John Cage

as a direct influence on the score, particularly in his use of Aleatoric music, or

‘chance music’; where a composer will leave some compositional decisions

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completely down to chance. This was implemented by Levi as she deliberately

incorporated human error into her violin playing; ‘humans have imperfections that

create irregularities’. She states ‘the movie was changing all the time, so the music

was changing all the time’, with the first half of the film favouring Levi’s own error-

strewn violin playing, frenetically bending between notes and over-exaggerated use

of the tremolo effect to create frenetic tension as the Laura acts unpredictably with

clear irregularities. But as she becomes more accustomed to earth and begins to

experience human feelings the violin changes to a smoother, more synthesised

texture. ‘It works an opposite way, the human stuff is more synthesised’. (Wilson

2014). Perhaps the most touching moment of the film comes when Laura tries to

experience love for the first time. Levi’s original composition ‘Love’ plays an

omnipresent role, as like with much of the film the scene is stripped of any dialog. It’s

in this composition where Levi’s use of ‘fake’ Midi strings, enhanced through the use

of chorus and tremolo modulation to sound more like synthesisers, is apparent. As

they play a simple triad chord progression that slowly glissandos up between the root

and fifth. The combination of this simple harmony and epic movement of the sound,

created from the use of effects evokes a euphoric feeling of love and desperation

that really draws out what Laura feels. Levi’ switch to a more natural sounding

harmony, but on a more artificial sounding tone, creates a feeling of progression in

the film. With this said I think it is fair to say that Levi’s persistent pairing of simplistic

harmony, and tone evolvement owes a lot to ambient and minimalist composition.

Another reason that a director may approach a popular musician may be for their

willingness to experiment and think outside the conventions of traditional film music. I

will now focus on the music for the films ‘The Social Network’ and ‘Monsters’. Whilst

the two films vastly contrast in genre, similarities can be drawn through their use of

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experimental, and at times abrasive music. I have chosen these two film scores as

they are great examples of film music offering popular musicians that already

showed experimentation in their own songs, a chance to fully explore a new style,

whilst borrowing elements from their own music and fully experiment with new

sounds without risk of alienating their fan base. The score for ‘The Social Network’,

directed by David Fincher, was composed by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross. Reznor

himself is a multi-instrumentalist, who had previously established himself as a

successful popular musician with the band ‘Nine Inch Nails’. The success of this

collaboration on ‘The Social Network’ led to Reznor continuing his partnership with

Fincher on his following two films, and subsequently becoming a sought after film

composer. This dark experimental score borrows many techniques from his work as

a popular musican; such as Industrial Rock, aswell as ambient composition. This is

most clearly shown through the use of slowly evolving drones, and machine-like

textures. Whilst conducting my research in to how the release was received critically,

it was interesting to note that the score itself as a body of work follows on quite

seamlessly from the Nine Inch Nails album ‘Ghost I-IV’. Reznor seemingly had quite

a committed fanbase already, so I felt it useful to find what fans of his output with

Nine Inch Nails thought of the score, using fan-based music rating service

‘RateyourMusic’. User Reviews stated that the soundtrack can be viewed as a

‘sequel to Ghosts I-IV’ and that it ‘has that NiN vibe’. Commenter ‘TwoonTwo’ states

that ‘everything tried in making Ghosts is perfected here’. (RateYourMusic 2010).

Whilst online music reviewer Kieran Aditham is of the opinion that the soundtrack

‘could’ve existed on its own as an original Nine Inch Nails production’ (Aditham and

LAS Magazine 2010). Reznor initially had doubts when he was first approached to

work on a film about the inception of Facebook and the resulting law suits that came

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afterwards. As it's not obvious how music could add to this seemingly unexciting

story. I don't think that the inclusion of a traditional orchestral score would have

enhanced the film as much as Reznor's did. The dark soundworld he created

managed to add depth to the character’s on screen through use of subtle hints

pushing them into ‘into even deeper shadows’, subsequently giving the film a

‘sharper edge than it would have had without it’ (Langager 2010). Similarities can

also be drawn between the compositional style and techniques used by Jon Hopkins

in his work as a composer, and his output as a popular musician. I will compare his

2013 album ‘Immunity’ with the music he composed for the 2010 Science Fiction film

‘Monsters’. It is interesting to note that both albums, along with the rest of Jon

Hopkins’ work, were released under ‘Domino Records’, showing little distinction from

his work as a composer and as a musician, aswell as a faith placed in him by the

label that the soundtrack would be listened to by a large audience, who wouldn’t

have necessarily watched the film. To reinforce this idea, online retailers such as

Amazon list the Monsters OST under the genre of ‘Pop’ adding to the notion that this

music is to be listened to by a mass audience. Furthermore the online streaming

service Spotify lists ‘Candles’, track three of the soundtrack, as Jon Hopkins’s most

popular track. Even Director Gareth Edwards states ‘the score stands alone’ (Rayner

2010). The ambient ideas presented by Hopkins throughout his output as a popular

musician are ever present in his score for Monsters; the atmospheres created

through favouring tones and textural drones over any advanced melody allows the

viewer to be placed in to the environment of the film without being told too much.

The film itself shows the journey of a man and woman through ‘an infected zone in

Mexico to get to the safety of the US border’ (IMDB 2010). Hopkin’s use of subtle

glitchy percussion adds greaty to the film’s overall movement and details this sense

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of journey effectively. This is particularly prominent in the film's composition

‘Journey’, this concept of establishing movement through sound is then further

explored on Jon Hopkins subsequent release ‘Immunity’. Showing an example of

artistic development which is born out of the collaboration process.

To conclude, I feel that through my exploration of the relationship between Popular

Music and film, and subsequent analysis of some of the recent collaborations

between popular musicians and film studios. I have come to find out some of the

main reasons why such collaborations are beneficial to both parties. Aswell as my

insights into film music, I have looked at how minimalism and ambient music have

come to greatly influence popular music in ways to make it work seamlessly with

film. I have come to realise the soundtrack world is an ever-growing industry, and

any aspiring musician would do well to look at ways to get their music involved with

other mediums such as film or TV.

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Bibliography

ADITHAM, Kiran and LAS MAGAZINE. 2010. The Social Network [Original Soundtrack]. Available at: http://lostatsea.net/review.phtml?id=19778326984cc4df2e98f8a [accessed 18 March 2016]. BARLOW, Eve. 2014. ‘Radio 1’s Rescore of the movie “drive”: A valiant idea that ultimately falls flat’. NME, 30 October [online], 2014. Available at: http://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/radio-1s-rescore-of-the-movie-drive-a-valiant-idea-that-ultimately-falls-flat [accessed 17 March 2016]. BILLBOARD. 2016. ‘Daft Punk’. Billboard [online]. Available at: http://www.billboard.com/artist/300085/daft+punk/chart?f=305 [accessed 17 March 2016]. BLEEP. 2014. Cliff Martinez - Drive OST. Available at: https://bleep.com/release/56102-cliff-martinez-drive-ost [accessed 17 March 2016]. BOX OFFICE MOJO. 2016. ‘Tron legacy (2010) Box Office Summary’. Box Office Mojo [online]. Available at: http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=tron2.htm [accessed 17 March 2016]. CLASH. 2013. ‘Write on: Invada Records On Soundtrack Culture’. Clash [online]. Available at: http://www.clashmusic.com/features/write-on-invada-records-on-soundtrack-culture [accessed 18 March 2016]. COPPOLA, Gia. 2014. Palo Alto [Film]. DICKINSON, Kay (ed.) 2002. Movie music, the film reader. New York: Taylor & Francis. EATON, Rebecca Marie Doran. 2012. Unheard Minimalisms: The functions of the minimalist technique in film scores. United States: Proquest, Umi Dissertation Publishing. EDWARDS, Gareth. 2010. Monsters [Film]. FACT. 2010. ‘A brief history of minimalism’. Fact Magazine [online]. Available at: http://www.factmag.com/2010/02/01/a-brief-history-of-minimalism/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. FINCHER, David. 2010. The Social Network [Film]. FRANICH, Darren. 2014. ‘Entertainment Geekly: Why are we so obsessed with the 1980s?’. Entertainment Geekly [online]. Available at: http://www.ew.com/article/2014/01/23/80s-genre-entertainment-geekly [accessed 17 April 2016]. HAYWARD, Philip (ed.) 2009. Terror tracks: Music, sound and horror cinema. London: Equinox Publishing. HEWETT, Ivan. 2015. ‘Why everyone is wrong about minimalism’. The Telegraph, 7 January [online]. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/classicalmusic/11330169/Why-everyone-is-wrong-about-minimalism.html [accessed 18 March 2016]. IMDB. 2010. ‘Monsters’. IMDB [online]. Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1470827/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. INVADA. 2016. ‘Invada records’. Invada Records Shop [online]. Available at: http://www.invada.co.uk/collections/all-products [accessed 18 March 2016]. JONES, Lucy. 2014. ‘Q&A: Under the skin of mica Levi’s masterful film score’. NME [online]. Available at: http://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/qa-under-the-skin-of-mica-levis-masterful-film-score [accessed 18 March 2016]. KOEHLER, Robert. 1998. ‘Minimalist music at film forefront’. Variety [online]. Available at: http://variety.com/1998/more/news/less-is-more-1117467080/ [accessed 18 March 2016].

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LANGAGER, Ross. 2010. ‘Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross: The social network soundtrack’. [online]. Available at: http://www.popmatters.com/review/133142-trent-reznor-and-atticus-ross-the-social-network-soundtrack/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. LIM, Dennis. 2011. ‘Cannes Q. And A.: Driving in a noir L.A’. ArtsBeat, 22 May [online]. Available at: http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/22/cannes-q-and-a-driving-in-a-noir-l-a/ [accessed 17 March 2016]. LISTOLOGY. 2012. ‘Rolling stone 500 greatest albums of all time (2012 updated list)’. Listology [online]. Available at: http://www.listology.com/jimmysmits/list/rolling-stone-500-greatest-albums-all-time-2012-updated-list-ones-i-own [accessed 17 March 2016]. MCNAMEE, David. 2009. ‘Hey, what’s that sound: Slap bass’. The Guardian, 1 June [online]. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/jun/01/whats-that-sound-slap-bass [accessed 17 March 2016]. METACRITIC. 2010. ‘The Social Network [Original Score]’. Metacritic . MUSICRADAR. 2014. ‘10 steps to producing perfect ’80s pop’. 23 July [online]. Available at: http://www.musicradar.com/tuition/tech/10-steps-to-producing-perfect-80s-pop-604018 [accessed 17 March 2016]. RATEYOURMUSIC. 2010. ‘The Social Network’. RateYourMusic [online]. Available at: http://rateyourmusic.com/release/album/trent_reznor_and_atticus_ross/the_social_network/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. RAYNER, Sarah. 2010. ‘Jon Hopkins - Monsters OST | albums’. musicOMH [online]. Available at: http://www.musicomh.com/reviews/albums/jon-hopkins-monsters-ost [accessed 16 February 2016]. REAY, Pauline. 2004. Film music: Soundtracks and synergy in contemporary cinema. 2nd edn. LONDON: Wallflower Press. REFN, Nicolas Winding. 2011. Drive [Film]. SEXY INTELLECTUAL RECORDS. 2012. Brian Eno: 1971-1977 - the man who fell to earth [Documentary Film]. SHONE, Tom. 2014. ‘Palo Alto: “Away from Emma Roberts, the film drifts” – first look review’. The Guardian, 13 August [online]. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/may/08/palo-alto-emma-roberts-coppola-franco-review [accessed 17 March 2016]. SMITH, Jeff. 1998. The sounds of commerce: Marketing popular film music. New York: Columbia University Press. SMITH, Jeff. 1998. The sounds of commerce: Marketing popular film music. New York: Columbia University Press. SPIN. 2013. ‘40 Movie Soundtracks That Changed Alternative Music’. [online]. Available at: http://www.spin.com/2013/02/best-movie-soundtracks-list-scores-alternative-music/130208-drive/ [accessed 17 March 2016]. SPRING, Katherine. 2010. 'Chance encounters of the musical kind:'. Music and the Moving Image, 3(3). University of Illinois Press, 1. TRAVERS, Peter. 2014. ‘Palo Alto Movie Review’. [online]. Available at: http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/reviews/palo-alto-20140508 [accessed 17 March 2016]. TUCKER, Simon. 2013. ‘Louder than war interview: Redg, manager of Invada records’. Louder Than War [online]. Available at: http://louderthanwar.com/invada-records-solaris-ost/ [accessed 18 March 2016].

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WILSON, Anna. 2014. ‘Cosmic anarchy: Mica Levi on under the skin’. Clash Music [online]. Available at: http://www.clashmusic.com/features/cosmic-anarchy-mica-levi-on-under-the-skin [accessed 18 March 2016]. Citations, Quotes & Annotations Palo Alto. 2014. . Perf. Devonte Hynes. (Palo Alto 2014) ADITHAM, Kiran and LAS MAGAZINE. 2010. The Social Network [Original Soundtrack]. Available at: http://lostatsea.net/review.phtml?id=19778326984cc4df2e98f8a [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Aditham and LAS Magazine 2010) BARLOW, Eve. 2014. ‘Radio 1’s Rescore of the movie “drive”: A valiant idea that ultimately falls flat’. NME, 30 October [online], 2014. Available at: http://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/radio-1s-rescore-of-the-movie-drive-a-valiant-idea-that-ultimately-falls-flat [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Barlow 2014) BILLBOARD. 2016. ‘Daft Punk’. Billboard [online]. Available at: http://www.billboard.com/artist/300085/daft+punk/chart?f=305 [accessed 17 March 2016]. ( Billboard 2016) BLEEP. 2014. Cliff Martinez - Drive OST. Available at: https://bleep.com/release/56102-cliff-martinez-drive-ost [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Bleep 2014) BOX OFFICE MOJO. 2016. ‘Tron legacy (2010) Box Office Summary’. Box Office Mojo [online]. Available at: http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=tron2.htm [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Box Office Mojo 2016) CLASH. 2013. ‘Write on: Invada Records On Soundtrack Culture’. Clash [online]. Available at: http://www.clashmusic.com/features/write-on-invada-records-on-soundtrack-culture [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Clash 2013) COPPOLA, Gia. 2014. Palo Alto [Film]. (Coppola 2014) DICKINSON, Kay (ed.) 2002. Movie music, the film reader. New York: Taylor & Francis. (Dickinson 2002) EATON, Rebecca Marie Doran. 2012. Unheard Minimalisms: The functions of the minimalist technique in film scores. United States: Proquest, Umi Dissertation Publishing. (Eaton 2012: p. 48) EDWARDS, Gareth. 2010. Monsters [Film]. (Edwards 2010) FACT. 2010. ‘A brief history of minimalism’. Fact Magazine [online]. Available at: http://www.factmag.com/2010/02/01/a-brief-history-of-minimalism/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. (FACT 2010) FINCHER, David. 2010. The Social Network [Film]. (Fincher 2010) FRANICH, Darren. 2014. ‘Entertainment Geekly: Why are we so obsessed with the 1980s?’. Entertainment Geekly [online]. Available at: http://www.ew.com/article/2014/01/23/80s-genre-entertainment-geekly [accessed 17 April 2016].

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(Franich 2014) HAYWARD, Philip (ed.) 2009. Terror tracks: Music, sound and horror cinema. London: Equinox Publishing. (Hayward 2009) HEWETT, Ivan. 2015. ‘Why everyone is wrong about minimalism’. The Telegraph, 7 January [online]. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/classicalmusic/11330169/Why-everyone-is-wrong-about-minimalism.html [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Hewett 2015) IMDB. 2010. ‘Monsters’. IMDB [online]. Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1470827/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. (IMDB 2010) INVADA. 2016. ‘Invada records’. Invada Records Shop [online]. Available at: http://www.invada.co.uk/collections/all-products [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Invada 2016) JONES, Lucy. 2014. ‘Q&A: Under the skin of mica Levi’s masterful film score’. NME [online]. Available at: http://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/qa-under-the-skin-of-mica-levis-masterful-film-score [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Jones 2014) KOEHLER, Robert. 1998. ‘Minimalist music at film forefront’. Variety [online]. Available at: http://variety.com/1998/more/news/less-is-more-1117467080/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Koehler 1998) LANGAGER, Ross. 2010. ‘Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross: The social network soundtrack’. [online]. Available at: http://www.popmatters.com/review/133142-trent-reznor-and-atticus-ross-the-social-network-soundtrack/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Langager 2010) LIM, Dennis. 2011. ‘Cannes Q. And A.: Driving in a noir L.A’. ArtsBeat, 22 May [online]. Available at: http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/22/cannes-q-and-a-driving-in-a-noir-l-a/ [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Lim 2011) LISTOLOGY. 2012. ‘Rolling stone 500 greatest albums of all time (2012 updated list)’. Listology [online]. Available at: http://www.listology.com/jimmysmits/list/rolling-stone-500-greatest-albums-all-time-2012-updated-list-ones-i-own [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Listology 2012) MCNAMEE, David. 2009. ‘Hey, what’s that sound: Slap bass’. The Guardian, 1 June [online]. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/jun/01/whats-that-sound-slap-bass [accessed 17 March 2016]. (McNamee 2009) METACRITIC. 2010. ‘The Social Network [Original Score]’. Metacritic . (Metacritic 2010) MUSICRADAR. 2014. ‘10 steps to producing perfect ’80s pop’. 23 July [online]. Available at: http://www.musicradar.com/tuition/tech/10-steps-to-producing-perfect-80s-pop-604018 [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Musicradar 2014) RATEYOURMUSIC. 2010. ‘The Social Network’. RateYourMusic [online]. Available at: http://rateyourmusic.com/release/album/trent_reznor_and_atticus_ross/the_social_network/ [accessed 18 March 2016].

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(RateYourMusic 2010) RAYNER, Sarah. 2010. ‘Jon Hopkins - Monsters OST | albums’. musicOMH [online]. Available at: http://www.musicomh.com/reviews/albums/jon-hopkins-monsters-ost [accessed 16 February 2016]. (Rayner 2010) REAY, Pauline. 2004. Film music: Soundtracks and synergy in contemporary cinema. 2nd edn. LONDON: Wallflower Press. (Reay 2004) REFN, Nicolas Winding. 2011. Drive [Film]. (Refn 2011) SEXY INTELLECTUAL RECORDS. 2012. Brian Eno: 1971-1977 - the man who fell to earth [Documentary Film]. (Sexy Intellectual Records 2012) SHONE, Tom. 2014. ‘Palo Alto: “Away from Emma Roberts, the film drifts” – first look review’. The Guardian, 13 August [online]. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/may/08/palo-alto-emma-roberts-coppola-franco-review [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Shone 2014) SMITH, Jeff. 1998. The sounds of commerce: Marketing popular film music. New York: Columbia University Press. (Smith 1998) SMITH, Jeff. 1998. The sounds of commerce: Marketing popular film music. New York: Columbia University Press. (Smith 1998) SPIN. 2013. ‘40 Movie Soundtracks That Changed Alternative Music’. [online]. Available at: http://www.spin.com/2013/02/best-movie-soundtracks-list-scores-alternative-music/130208-drive/ [accessed 17 March 2016]. (SPIN 2013) SPRING, Katherine. 2010. 'Chance encounters of the musical kind:'. Music and the Moving Image, 3(3). University of Illinois Press, 1. (Spring 2010) TRAVERS, Peter. 2014. ‘Palo Alto Movie Review’. [online]. Available at: http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/reviews/palo-alto-20140508 [accessed 17 March 2016]. (Travers 2014) TUCKER, Simon. 2013. ‘Louder than war interview: Redg, manager of Invada records’. Louder Than War [online]. Available at: http://louderthanwar.com/invada-records-solaris-ost/ [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Tucker 2013) WILSON, Anna. 2014. ‘Cosmic anarchy: Mica Levi on under the skin’. Clash Music [online]. Available at: http://www.clashmusic.com/features/cosmic-anarchy-mica-levi-on-under-the-skin [accessed 18 March 2016]. (Wilson 2014)

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jack shuter4ormat-asset.s3.amazonaws.com/vfs/536689/public_assets...psychedelic era. some hugely...

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