It's a mark of how extraordinary a step Darwin proposed the idea – that random mutations would make some species better suited to their environments than others, and that those species would be more likely to breed –Natural selection and survival of the fittest and common descent.

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• In evolutionary biology, a group of organisms share common descent if they have a common ancestor. There is strong quantitative support for the theory that all living organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor

• Natural selection the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Number 3• Adaptation -- when an organism becomes better matched with

its current environment . Adaptations can be structural (meaning an organism undergoes bodily changes to survive) or behavioral (when a specific behavior increases an organism's chances of survival).

• Examples: birds migrating south for the winter or animals using tools to forage for food, occur at the individual and population levels.

• Environmental factors -- including competition for resources, predation, infectious diseases, climate and seasonality -- play a large role

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• Believe it or not, our skin has an adaptation of its own -- tanning. Humans adapt to the sun's ultraviolet rays through the production of melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color . Melanin shields deeper layers of the skin and prevents the sun's harmful rays from breaking down folic acid, an important vitamin that repairs blood cells in the body

Number 4• Structural evidence..like teeth• Embryonic development..developing embryos all have same

features depending on ancestry• Genetic evidence-DNA matches

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• We did not cover this in class….so read carefully and summarize the examples

• Speciation is the changing of individuals within a population so they are no longer part of the same species. This most often occurs due to geographic isolation or reproductive isolation of individuals within the population. As the species evolve and branch off, they cannot interbreed with members of the original species any longer.

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• There are 3 main types of speciation that can occur based on reproductive or geographic isolation, among other reasons and environmental factors

• Allopatric (allo = other, patric = place)Geographically isolated populations. The

Isolation might occur because of great distance or a physical barrier, such as a desert or river, as shown below.

Number 5 continued Parapatric (para = beside, patric = place) a continuously distributed population that for various reasons only mate with certain parts of the population thus not spreading certain genes.Example: Some of these plants live near mines where the soil has become contaminated with heavy metals. The plants around the mines have experienced natural selection for genotypes that are tolerant of heavy metals. Meanwhile, neighboring plants that don’t live in polluted soil have not undergone selection for this trait. The two types of plants are close enough that tolerant and non-tolerant individuals could potentially fertilize each other—so they seem to meet the first requirement of parapatric speciation, that of a continuous population. However, the two types of plants have evolved different flowering times. This change could be the first step in cutting off gene flow entirely between the two group

Number 5 continuedSympatric (sym = same, patric = place) within the range of the population but environmental factors keep then mating only with specific mates.Example: 200 years ago, the ancestors of apple maggot flies laid their eggs only on hawthorns—but today, these flies lay eggs on hawthorns (which are native to America) and domestic apples (which were introduced to America by immigrants and bred). Females generally choose to lay their eggs on the type of fruit they grew up in, and males tend to look for mates on the type of fruit they grew up in. So hawthorn flies generally end up mating with other hawthorn flies and apple flies generally end up mating with other apple flies. This host shift from hawthorns to apples may be the first step toward sympatric speciation—in fewer than 200 years, some genetic differences between these two groups of flies have evolved.

Number 6The highest taxonomic rank of organisms in which there are three groupings: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya

Number 7• A phylogeny, or evolutionary tree, or cladogram represents the

evolutionary relationships among a set of organisms or groups of organisms, called taxa (singular: taxon).

Number 8• Species share similarities that are signs of their common

ancestry. Bones structure of whale fin and human hand or all insects have 6 legs.

• There are progressions of species changing over time for example species that lived in the past are very often drastically, wildly different from anything alive today. Dinosaurs, giant sloths etc.

• Species have traits that are the remnants or left overs of past generations. Vestigial organs like the appendix .

• Embryological development

Number 8 continued• This a manatee flipper which still has nails from toes it no

longer needs.

Number 9• Energy flow occurs within cells.• Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.• All cells have the same basic chemical composition• Cell is the basic unit of life• All living things are made of cells

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As organisms evolved to become multicellular, diffusion of materials into and out of the organism was no longer an efficient way to exchange materials with the environment (or among the cells inside). As a result, certain cells became "specialized" to perform more specific jobs. The larger and more complex organisms became, the more important it was for cells to take on special jobs.

A good analogy is a manufacturing business- if it's small, a few workers can do several jobs to make a product. However, if it's a large factory, each of the many workers must learn to specialize in doing one thing. This is called "division of labor."

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Number 19 Active transport takes place in the small intestine during digestion.Passive transport is gas exchange in the lungs

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Number 25Interphase is made up of three distinct phases: G1, S phase, and G2. The G1 and G2 phases serve as checkpoints for the cell to make sure that it is ready to proceed in the cell cycle. If it is not, the cell will use this time to make proper adjustments that can include cell growth, correction or completion of DNA synthesis, and duplication of intracellular components. S phase involves the replication of chromosomes. All three stages of interphase involve continued cell growth and an increase in the concentration of proteins found in the cell.

Number 26Prophase Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres. Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle.

Metaphase Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus. This line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps to ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome.

Anaphase The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and move to opposite sides of the cell. Motion results from a combination of kinetochore movement along the spindle microtubules and through the physical interaction of polar microtubules.

Number 26 continued Telophase Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new membranes form around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the light microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage. Cytokinesis In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a protein called actin around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter cells.

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Asexual: - allows for a quick "doubling" of populations (faster) - less energy required for reproduction - daughter offspring look exactly and have the same genetic material as the parent - lack of genetic variation - population may go extinct with dramatic changes in environment

Sexual: - allows for genetic variation due to the joining of two different individuals- less population growth - slower process - requires long-term energy use

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Prophase I, Crossing-Over - homologous pairs join together (synapsis) and exchange genetic informationExchange of DNA during prophase I increases genetic variability. Chromatids are no longer exact duplicates.Metaphase I, chromosomes line up in PAIRS, but they line up randomly which allows for a phenomenon known as INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Number 28 continuedCrossing-over of homologous chromosomes (recombines the maternally- and paternally-derived chromosomes to create new allele combinations).

Random segregation of homologous chromosomes (the maternally- and paternally-derived chromosomes will go randomly into the two daughter cells during meiosis I).

Random segregation of the sister chromatids during meiosis II (in mitosis, sister chromatids are identical, but due to crossing-over, in meiosis, they're not, so random segregation of them is another way there's increased variation).

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Number 36Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent. Mendel tracked the segregation of parental genes and their appearance in the offspring as dominant or recessive traits. He recognized the mathematical patterns of inheritance from one generation to the next. Mendel's Laws of Heredity are usually stated as: 1) The Law of Segregation: Each inherited trait is defined by a gene pair. Parental genes are randomly separated to the sex cells so that sex cells contain only one gene of the pair. Offspring therefore inherit one genetic allele from each parent when sex cells unite in fertilization.

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2) The Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted separately from one another so that the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another.

3) The Law of Dominance: An organism with alternate forms of a gene will express the form that is dominant.

Number 37 Phenotype: This is the "outward, physical manifestation" of the organism. These are the physical parts, structures, metabolism, energy utilization, tissues, organs, reflexes and behaviors; anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a living organism.

Examples: hair color, five fingers, curly hair, diseases etc.

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Genotype: This is the "internally coded, inheritable information" carried by all living organisms. This stored information is used as a "blueprint" or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature. These instructions are found within almost all cells. These instructions are intimately involved with all aspects of the life of a cell or an organism. They control everything from the formation of protein macromolecules, to the regulation of metabolism and synthesis.A= white haira= red hairGenotype AA, Aa, aaPhenotype white hair or red hair

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M=orangem=cream

Number 39 Genotypic ratio= 25% RR, 50% Rr, 25% rrPhenotypic ratio= 25%red, 50% pink, 25% white

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The possible genotypes of a man with blood type B are BB or BO and the genotype of a woman with blood type AB is AB. The child would receive an A allele or a B allele from the mother and a B allele or an O allele from the father. Therefore, the child could not possibly be of blood type O. The following diagrams are Punnett squares for the two possible combinations, i.e. AB x BB or AB x BO.

Number 43Stem cells are either embryonic stem cells or adult stem cells. In the lab, embryonic stem cells keep reproducing themselves until they’re coaxed into creating specific types of cells. In the body, these cells eventually disappear, so a human adult body no longer contains cells that can generate any kind of cell.

• Embryonic stem cells: Embryonic stem cells are derived from three- to five-day-old embryos that are created for fertilization treatments but aren’t going to be used to try to start a pregnancy; Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they can give rise to any type of cell in the fully developed body.

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• Adult stem cells are generally multipotent, able to give rise to several kinds of cells in their home tissues. However, in their normal environments, adult stem cells don’t seem to generate cell types outside their particular tissues. Liver stem cells, for example, don’t generate heart cells, and brain stem cells don’t generate kidney cells.

• to be able to generate any other type of cell.)

Adult stem cells: So-called adult stem cells are really stem cells in specific tissues whose job seems to be replenishing their particular tissues — or specific parts of their tissues — as needed. Adult stem cells also renew themselves periodically to ensure that a pool of stem cells is always available to generate specific cell types. So far, scientists have verified stem cell caches in several tissues, including bone marrow, the brain, fatty tissue (called adipose tissue), the liver, the reproductive system (both male and female), skeletal muscles

Number 43 continuedGene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient’s cells instead of using drugs or surgery. Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy, including:• Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy

of the gene.• Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning

improperly.• Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections), the technique remains risky and is still under study to make sure that it will be safe and effective. Gene therapy is currently only being tested for the treatment of diseases that have no other cures.

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J shape S shape

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Carrying capacity refers to how many organisms can live sustainably in a particular environment without destroying its resources. Many things can be limiting factors, such as food or water supply, amount of shelter, capacity to absorb wastes, or predation, and different factors can be the limit that determines carrying capacity at different times and places

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Mutualism

Commensalism

Parasitism

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caused by carbon cycle out of balance

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Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles Talk about a word that describes everything on Earth. The world’s cycles all fall under the big grouping of biogeochemical cycles. Let's break it down. Carbon/Oxygen CycleNitrogen CycleWater CycleRock Cycle Phosphorous Cycle

See Nitrogen Cycle on next to slides

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Number 51 continuedThe nitrogen cycle.• Nitrogen fixation: In the soil, as well as in the root nodules of

certain plants, nitrogen is "fixed" by bacteria, lightning, and ultraviolet radiation. The "fixing of nitrogen" does not mean nitrogen was broken; a better term might be "fixated," because the bacteria put elemental nitrogen into a form that can be used by living organisms and do not allow it to leave that form and revert to elemental nitrogen.

• Nitrification: Certain bacteria take the forms into which nitrogen was fixated and further process it (oxidization). Oxidation provides energy for the nitrogen cycle to take place — the bacteria that live in soil cannot harness energy from the sun. The energy they use during their work in the nitrogen cycle comes from this process.

• Denitrification and ammonification. Plants absorb nitrates or ammonium ions from the soil and turn them into organic compounds. Animals obtain nitrogen by consuming plants or other animals..

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Number 53An ecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as you move through each feeding (trophic) level in an ecosystem. The base of the pyramid is large since the ecosystem's energy factories (the producers) are converting solar energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis. A food chain can also depict a reduction in energy at each feeding level if the arrows, drawn between the different levels, continue to be reduced in size.

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biotic Abiotic

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There are three main types of carbohydrate. Another word for sugars. There are Starches= (also known as complex carbohydrates) PolysaccharidesSugars =Monosaccharides and disaccharides

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Number 58Four main types of organic molecules predominate in living organisms: • carbohydrates (polymers of simple sugars) table sugar

• lipids (fatty acids linked by glycerol) wax, Animal fat

• polypeptides (made of amino acids) enzymes

• nucleic acids (DNA or RNA - polymers of nucleotides)