it controls part i: accounting information systems, 5 th edition james a. hall copyright © 2007...
TRANSCRIPT
IT Controls Part I:
Accounting Information Systems, 5th edition
James A. Hall
COPYRIGHT © 2007 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo,
and South-Western are trademarks used herein under license
IT Controls & Financial Reporting• Modern financial reporting is driven by
information technology (IT)• IT initiates, authorizes, records, and reports the
effects of financial transactions. – Financial reporting IC are inextricably integrated to IT.
• COSO identifies two groups of IT controls:– application controls – apply to specific applications
and programs, and ensure data validity, completeness and accuracy
– general controls – apply to all systems and address IT governance and infrastructure, security of operating systems and databases, and application and program acquisition and development
Types of Audit Tests
• Tests of controls – tests to determine if appropriate IC are in place and functioning effectively
• Substantive testing – detailed examination of account balances and transactions
Organizational Structure IC (Internal Control)
• Audit objective – verify that individuals in incompatible areas are segregated to minimize risk while promoting operational efficiency
• IC, especially segregation of duties, affected by which of two organizational structures applies:– Centralized model– Distributed model
President
VPMarketing
VP ComputerServices
VPOperations
VPFinance
SystemsDevelopment
DatabaseAdministration
DataProcessing
New SystemsDevelopment
SystemsMaintenance
DataControl
DataPreparation
ComputerOperations
DataLibrary
President
VPMarketing
VPFinance
VPOperations
IPU IPU IPU IPU IPU IPU
VPAdministration
Treasurer ControllerManagerPlant X
ManagerPlant Y
CENTRALIZED COMPUTER SERVICES FUNCTION
DISTRIBUTED ORGANIZATIONALSTRUCTURE
Segregation of Duties
• Transaction authorization is separate from transaction processing.
• Asset custody is separate from record-keeping responsibilities.
• The tasks needed to process the transactions are subdivided so that fraud requires collusion.
Segregation of Duties
Authorization
Authorization
Authorization
Processing
Custody Recording
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4
Custody Recording
Control Objective 1
Control Objective 3
Control Objective 2
TRANSACTION
Centralized IT Structure• Critical to segregate:
– systems development from computer operations
– database administrator (DBA) from other computer service functions
• DBA’s authorizing and systems development’s processing
• DBA authorizes access
– maintenance from new systems development– data library from operations
Distributed IT Structure• Despite its many advantages,
important IC implications are present:– incompatible software among the
various work centers – data redundancy may result– consolidation of incompatible tasks– difficulty hiring qualified professionals– lack of standards
Organizational Structure IC• A corporate IT function alleviates potential
problems associated with distributed IT organizations by providing:– central testing of commercial hardware and
software– a user services staff– a standard-setting body – reviewing technical credentials of prospective
systems professionals
Audit Procedures• Review the corporate policy on computer security
– Verify that the security policy is communicated to employees
• Review documentation to determine if individuals or groups are performing incompatible functions
• Review systems documentation and maintenance records– Verify that maintenance programmers are not also design
programmers
• Observe if segregation policies are followed in practice. – E.g., check operations room access logs to determine if
programmers enter for reasons other than system failures
• Review user rights and privileges – Verify that programmers have access privileges consistent with
their job descriptions
Audit objectives:– physical security IC protects the computer
center from physical exposures– insurance coverage compensates the
organization for damage to the computer center
– operator documentation addresses routine operations as well as system failures
Computer Center IC
Computer Center ICConsiderations:• man-made threats and natural hazards• underground utility and communications lines• air conditioning and air filtration systems • access limited to operators and computer center
workers; others required to sign in and out• fire suppressions systems installed• fault tolerance
– Redundant disks and other system components– backup power supplies
Audit Procedures
• Review insurance coverage on hardware, software, and physical facility
• Review operator documentation, run manuals, for completeness and accuracy
• Verify that operational details of a system’s internal logic are not in the operator’s documentation
Disaster Recovery Planning
• Disaster recovery plans (DRP) identify:– actions before, during, and after the
disaster– disaster recovery team– priorities for restoring critical applications
• Audit objective – verify that DRP is adequate and feasible for dealing with disasters
Disaster Recovery Planning
• Major IC concerns: – second-site backups
– critical applications and databases• including supplies and documentation
– back-up and off-site storage procedures
– disaster recovery team
– testing the DRP regularly
Second-Site Backups• Empty shell - involves two or more user
organizations that buy or lease a building and remodel it into a computer site, but without computer equipment
• Recovery operations center - a completely equipped site; very costly and typically shared among many companies
• Internally provided backup - companies with multiple data processing centers may create internal excess capacity
Audit Procedures• Evaluate adequacy of second-site backup
arrangements• Review list of critical applications for
completeness and currency• Verify that procedures are in place for storing
off-site copies of applications and data– Check currency back-ups and copies
• Verify that documentation, supplies, etc., are stored off-site
• Verify that the disaster recovery team knows its responsibilities– Check frequency of testing the DRP
Attestation versus Assurance• Attestation:
– practitioner is engaged to issue a written communication that expresses a conclusion about the reliability of a written assertion that is the responsibility of another party.
• Assurance:– professional services that are designed to
improve the quality of information, both financial and non-financial, used by decision-makers
– includes, but is not limited to attestation
What is an External Financial Audit?
• An independent attestation by a professional (CPA) regarding the faithful representation of the financial statements
• Three phases of a financial audit:– familiarization with client firm– evaluation and testing of internal controls– assessment of reliability of financial data
External versus Internal Auditing
• External auditors – represent the interests of third party stakeholders
• Internal auditors – serve an independent appraisal function within the organization– Often perform tasks which can reduce
external audit fees and help to achieve audit efficiency and reduce audit fees
What is an IT Audit?
Since most information systems employ IT, the IT audit is a critical component of all external and internal audits.
• IT audits: – focus on the computer-based aspects of
an organization’s information system – assess the proper implementation,
operation, and control of computer resources
Elements of an IT Audit• Systematic procedures are used
• Evidence is obtained – tests of internal controls– substantive tests
• Determination of materiality for weaknesses found
• Prepare audit report & audit opinion
Audit Risk is... the probability the auditor will issue an
unqualified (clean) opinion when in fact the financial statements are materially misstated.
Three Components of Audit Risk• Inherent risk is associated with the unique
characteristics of the business or industry of the client.
• Control risk is the likelihood that the control structure is flawed because controls are either absent or inadequate to prevent or detect errors in the accounts.
• Detection risk is the risk that auditors are willing to take that errors not detected or prevented by the control structure will also not be detected by the auditor.
IT Controls Part II: Securityand Access
Accounting Information Systems, 5th edition
James A. Hall
COPYRIGHT © 2007 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo,
and South-Western are trademarks used herein under license
Operating Systems
• Perform three main tasks:– translates high-level languages into
the machine-level language
– allocates computer resources to user applications
– manages the tasks of job scheduling and multiprogramming
Requirements for Effective Operating Systems Performance
• Protect itself from tampering from users• Prevent users from tampering with the
programs of other users• Safeguard users’ applications from accidental
corruption• Safeguard its own programs from accidental
corruption• Protect itself from power failures and other
disasters
Operating Systems Security
• Log-On Procedure – first line of defense – user IDs and passwords
• Access Token– contains key information about the user
• Access Control List– defines access privileges of users
• Discretionary Access Control – allows user to grant access to another user
Operating Systems ControlsAccess Privileges
• Audit objectives: verify that access privileges are consistent with separation of incompatible functions and organization policies
• Audit procedures: review or verify…– policies for separating incompatible functions– a sample of user privileges, especially access to
data and programs– security clearance checks of privileged employees– formally acknowledgements to maintain
confidentiality of data– users’ log-on times
Operating Systems S ControlsPassword Control
• Audit objectives: ensure adequacy and effectiveness password policies for controlling access to the operating system
• Audit procedures: review or verify…– passwords required for all users– password instructions for new users– passwords changed regularly– password file for weak passwords– encryption of password file– password standards– account lockout policies
Operating Systems Controls
Malicious & Destructive Programs • Audit objectives: verify effectiveness of
procedures to protect against programs such as viruses, worms, back doors, logic bombs, and Trojan horses
• Audit procedures: review or verify…– training of operations personnel concerning
destructive programs– testing of new software prior to being implemented– currency of antiviral software and frequency of
upgrades
Operating System Controls
Audit Trail Controls • Audit objectives: whether used to (1) detect
unauthorized access, (2) facilitate event reconstruction, and (3) promote accountability
• Audit procedures: review or verify…– how long audit trails have been in place– archived log files for key indicators– monitoring and reporting of security violations
Database Management Controls
Two crucial database control issues:
Access controls • Audit objectives: (1) those authorized to use
databases are limited to data needed to perform their duties and (2) unauthorized individuals are denied access to data
Backup controls• Audit objectives: backup controls can adequately
recovery lost, destroyed, or corrupted data
Access Controls• User views - based on sub-schemas
• Database authorization table - allows greater authority to be specified
• User-defined procedures - user to create a personal security program or routine
• Data encryption - encoding algorithms
• Biometric devices - fingerprints, retina prints, or signature characteristics
Database Authorization Table
Resource
User
Employee Line Cash ReceiptsAR File File Printer Program
Read dataChangeAddDelete
No Access Use No Access
Read onlyRead code
No Access Use ModifyDelete
No Access Read only Use No Access
User 1
User 3
User 2
Access Controls
Audit procedures: verify…– responsibility for authority
tables & subschemas– granting appropriate access
authority– use or feasibility of biometric
controls– use of encryption
Backup Controls• Database backup – automatic periodic
copy of data
• Transaction log – list of transactions which provides an audit trail
• Checkpoint features – suspends data during system reconciliation
• Recovery module – restarts the system after a failure
• Audit procedures: verify…– that production databases are copied
at regular intervals
– backup copies of the database are stored off site to support disaster recovery
Backup Controls
Internet and Intranet Risks• Communications is a unique aspect of the
computer networks:– different than processing (applications) or data
storage (databases)
• Network topologies – configurations of:– communications lines (twisted-pair wires, coaxial
cable, microwaves, fiber optics)– hardware components (modems, multiplexers,
servers, front-end processors)– software (protocols, network control systems)
Sources of Internet & Intranet RisksInternal and external subversive activities
Audit objectives: 1. prevent and detect illegal internal and Internet
network access2. render useless any data captured by a perpetrator3. preserve the integrity and physical security of data
connected to the network
Equipment failureAudit objective: the integrity of the electronic
commerce transactions by determining that controls are in place to detect and correct message loss due to equipment failure
Risks from Subversive Threats
• Include: – unauthorized interception of a message
– gaining unauthorized access to an organization’s network
– a denial-of-service attack from a remote location
IC for Subversive Threats Firewalls provide security by channeling all
network connections through a control gateway.• Network level firewalls
– Low cost and low security access control – Do not explicitly authenticate outside users– Filter junk or improperly routed messages – Experienced hackers can easily penetrate the system
• Application level firewalls – Customizable network security, but expensive – Sophisticated functions such as logging or user
authentication
• Denial-of-service (DOS) attacks
– Security software searches for connections which have been half-open for a period of time.
• Encryption
– Computer program transforms a clear message into a coded (cipher) text form using an algorithm.
IC for Subversive Threats
DOS Attack
Sender Receiver
Step 1: SYN messages
Step 2: SYN/ACK
Step 3: ACK packet code
In a DOS Attack, the sender sends hundreds of messages, receives the SYN/ACK packet, but does not response with an ACK packet. This leaves thereceiver with clogged transmission ports, and legitimate messages cannot be received.
Standard Data Encryption Technique
EncryptionProgram
EncryptionProgram
Ciphertext
Ciphertext
CommunicationSystem
CommunicationSystem
Key
Key
CleartextMessage
CleartextMessage
Public – Private Key Encryption
Public Key used for encoding messages
Message A Message B Message C Message D
Ciphertext Ciphertext Ciphertext Ciphertext
Multiple peoplemay have the public key
Private Key used fordecoding messages
Typically one person ora small number of peoplehave the private key
Message A Message DMessage CMessage B
• Digital signature – electronic authentication technique to ensure that…– transmitted message originated with the authorized
sender – message was not tampered with after the signature
was applied
• Digital certificate – like an electronic identification card used with a public key encryption system – Verifies the authenticity of the message sender
IC for Subversive Threats
• Message sequence numbering – sequence number used to detect missing messages
• Message transaction log – listing of all incoming and outgoing messages to detect the efforts of hackers
• Request-response technique – random control messages are sent from the sender to ensure messages are received
• Call-back devices – receiver calls the sender back at a pre-authorized phone number before transmission is completed
IC for Subversive Threats
• Review firewall effectiveness in terms of flexibility, proxy services, filtering, segregation of systems, audit tools, and probing for weaknesses.
• Review data encryption security procedures• Verify encryption by testing• Review message transaction logs• Test procedures for preventing unauthorized
calls
Auditing Procedures for Subversive Threats
IC for Equipment Failure Line errors are data errors from
communications noise.
• Two techniques to detect and correct such data errors are:– echo check - the receiver returns the
message to the sender – parity checks - an extra bit is added onto each
byte of data similar to check digits
• Using a sample of a sample of messages from the transaction log:– examine them for garbled contents
caused by line noise
– verify that all corrupted messages were successfully retransmitted
Auditing Procedures for Equipment Failure
Electronic Data Interchange• Electronic data interchange (EDI) uses
computer-to-computer communications technologies to automate B2B purchases.
• Audit objectives: 1. Transactions are authorized, validated, and in
compliance with the trading partner agreement.2. No unauthorized organizations can gain access
to database3. Authorized trading partners have access only to
approved data.4. Adequate controls are in place to ensure a
complete audit trail.
EDI Risks
• Authorization – automated and absence of human
intervention
• Access– need to access EDI partner’s files
• Audit trail– paperless and transparent (automatic)
transactions
• Authorization– use of passwords and value added
networks (VAN) to ensure valid partner• Access
– software to specify what can be accessed and at what level
• Audit trail– control log records the transaction’s flow
through each phase of the transaction processing
EDI Controls
EDI System without Controls
PurchasesSystem
EDI TranslationSoftware
EDI TranslationSoftware
CommunicationsSoftware
CommunicationsSoftware
Sales OrderSystem
ApplicationSoftware
ApplicationSoftware
Direct Connection
Company A Company B (Vendor)
PurchasesSystem
EDI TranslationSoftware
EDI TranslationSoftware
CommunicationsSoftware
CommunicationsSoftware
OtherMailbox
OtherMailbox
CompanyA’s mailbox
CompanyB’s mailbox
Sales OrderSystem
ApplicationSoftware
ApplicationSoftware
VAN
Company A Company B (Vendor)
Transaction Log
Transaction Log
Audit trail oftransactions betweentrading partners
EDI System with Controls
Use of VAN to enforce use of passwords and valid partners
Software limits vendor’s (Company B) access to company A’s database
Auditing Procedures for EDI• Tests of Authorization and Validation Controls
– Review procedures for verifying trading partner identification codes
– Review agreements with VAN– Review trading partner files
• Tests of Access Controls– Verify limited access to vendor and customer files– Verify limited access of vendors to database– Test EDI controls by simulation
• Tests of Audit Trail Controls– Verify exists of transaction logs are key points– Review a sample of transactions