issues of decolonization: (1) imperial issues: the ... 2013/lectures/feb 11... · world war ii:...

Issues of Decolonization: (1) Imperial Issues: the colonial powers

Europe and Europeans Post WWII

World War II: [reference last week’s notes]

- Africa and Africans served much the same roles as in WWI with some differences

Britain: used its African forces ‘overseas’

- this created a veterans’ group that had particular experience in Europe and (especially) Asia: its voice was an important addition to post-war Africans’ discontent… [reference last week’s readings, especially two pieces on WWII, dealt with by Group 4 & 5 in Discussion]


France: was placed in very ‘particular’ position by early and unexpected fall Germans - France (and Belgium) fell to Axis powers (specifically Germany) in 1940

- France left in hands of German puppet regime based in Vichy – hence ‘Vichy France’

-France’s colonies left without formal ‘Colonial Master’


French West Africa (‘AOF’):

- part of collaborative Vichy regime

- population 10 to 20 million, including Senegal, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, French Guinea, Sudan, Togoland, Mauritania, Niger, Upper Volta [see French West Africa, in ‘Resources’ ]

- when Allies took North Africa in 1942, thereafter, supported “Free French” effort (see below)

French West Africa (AOF French acronym)

ContemporaryMali

Bank of West Africa

French West

Africa

Bank Notes


French Equatorial Africa (FEA) : -supported ‘government in exile’, so- called “Free French”

- consisted of Gabon, Chad, Middle Congo (Congo), Ubari-Shari (Central Africa Republic) capital Brazzaville [see French Equatorial Africa, “Resources”]

- Felix Eboue (Chad) critical in preventing Axis base in Africa

- FEA: base for Charles de Gaulle

French Equatorial Africa

(AEF French acronym)


FEA important in generating Brazzaville

Conference (1944): promised ‘improvements'’

to colonialism in full heat of WWII

General principles:

1. The French Empire would remain united. 2. Semi-autonomous assemblies would be established in each colony.

3. Citizens of France's colonies would share equal rights with French citizens.


4. Citizens of French colonies would have the right to vote for the French parliament.

5. The native population would be employed in public service positions within the colonies.

6. Economic reforms would be made to diminish the exploitative nature of the relationship between France and its colonies.


But the Key Passage read: “.. the colonizing work of France makes it impossible to accept any idea of autonomy for the colonies, or any possibility of development outside of the French empire. Even at a distant date, there will be no self-government in the colonies.”


Britain: no such direct promises but understood to have made commitment in Atlantic Charter of 1941 [reading from last week]

- declaration signed between US president and British Prime Minister that:

“they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them” [understood by Africans to mean THEM]


In post-war years both Britain and France sought ‘moderate’ change and reform:

- looked to reshape colonial relationship through imposition new political frameworks, encouragement political expression (through parties)

- sought out moderate leaders as allies

- both direction and pace of reform influenced by post-war domestic politics


Political Change Quick to Come Both Britain and France:

- Britain: first Labour majority government

- explicitly Socialist platform: creation of welfare state (e.g. national health programme)

- saw Africa as in need of real development: programme of investment


- also began speaking of ‘moderate reform’ in colonies like Gold Coast and Nigeria

Nigeria: Richards Commission (1946):

- all Nigerian Legislative council: advisory only, with two Nigerian representatives

- three regional councils (south east, south west and north)

- constitution revamped 1951:Macpherson Constitution devolution more power to Federal Government


- Gold Coast: limited political participation encouraged through emergence of political parties (e.g. United Gold Coast Convention formed in 1947)

- 1951 Constitution provided for: local elections, ‘assembly’ to work with British Governor General who oversaw ‘self- governance’ of colony

- key areas (military, foreign affairs, monetary base) remained in British hands


1950s saw rapid escalation of reforms:

- ‘returns’ on economic investment slow to be realized: disappointment

- Labour government and socialist experiment short-lived: conservatives returned to power

- attempts to ‘hold on to empire’ under Churchill failed


- will to continue colonialism waned

- loss of India (independence 1947) reflected shifting ‘mood’ of British public: influenced policy in Africa

- acceleration of reform leading to decolonization also influenced by events in British settler colonies East Africa [more on this in discussion of ‘Settler Societies’]


- to quote Churchill (towards end of life): “I could have defended the British Empire against anyone except the British people.”


France: left-leaning coalition (including Communist Party) came to power

- immediately moved for change in the colonial world

- 1946: Union Francaise created ‘commonwealth’ of French Colonies

- 20 Africans to be elected representatives to French Assembly, others to serve in new Assembly for the Union


Rapidly changed post 1947:

- conservative political forces took power in government

- favoured businessmen, settlers in African affairs

- against the rapid and radical actions as predecessors proposed


- for example: attacked Houphouet- Boigny (Cote d’Ivoire) and regional ‘partie democratique’ (PDCI) for ‘communist’ leanings

- several dozen members killed, hundreds imprisoned.

[see also in context of ‘International factors: Cold War’, below]


1956 “Loi Cadre”:

- devolved government from Dakar and Brazzaville (centres of former federations) to each of 12 colonies.

- context important: imminent independence of British colonies Gold Coast, Nigeria

- crisis in Algeria


1958:

- dramatic changes in France led to fall of fourth republic, recalling of Charles de Gaulle and formation of Fifth Republic with new Constitution (all related to crisis in Algeria – see discussion later in week)

- ‘Union’ became ‘Community’: France to control finance (common currency), foreign policy, military affairs


- local parliamentary government, flag,

anthem devolved to ‘states’

- African colonies provided with referendum allowing them to retain status or become ‘members of the Community’

- most chose latter: assured strong continuing influence of France even in ‘de-colonized’ Africa

The French Community (1958): successor to the French

Union (from 1946) [included French Guyana, South America]


Process different, Domestic politics different but outcome was form of ‘decolonization’ beginning with Britain’s Gold Coast in 1957, followed by France’s ‘referendum’ in 1958:

- discussion continues as to most important factors shaping both process and politics, however


- some argue that it was the ‘push’ factors from Africa and Africans that were central :

- ‘protest riots’ like those of 1948 in Gold Coast

- labour strikes like that of the French Soudan in 1947

- racial riots, violence like that of Nyasaland (1957) or Kenya (1952- 60)

- actual wars of independence like that of Algeria (1954-60)

[we will return to these ‘push factors’ in looking at ‘local issues’]


- others argue that International factors, acting on the colonial powers themselves (and by extension, domestic politics), put the question of ‘Africa’ in a much larger post-war picture.

- Independence of India - US interests in acquiring ‘access’ to Africa

- Cold War

- Pan-Africanism

[see articles on British decolonization in Additional Readings]


Independence of India:

- profound effect on Britain: unclear to what degree reflected ‘mood’ or shaped it but clearly had impact on how Britain saw its other colonies

- equally profound impact on Africans: if the ‘Jewel in the Crown’ (of Britain) was to be independent, surely there could be no reason for denying the same to Africans


Creation of the United Nations (replacing the ‘League of Nations’):

- reflected US interest in colonial world, new powerful international position

- support for decolonization (Atlantic Charter) was also way to open up continent for its own interests

- emerged from war stronger economically, politically than Britain or France: in position to ‘push’ for decolonization


Also Became Issue of ‘Cold War’:

- not only US but Soviet Union saw Africa as ‘opening up’ to its influence: ideologically, financially


-Soviet Union successfully linked ‘capitalism

with colonialism, imperialism’ in political rhetoric

– offered ‘alternative’: attractive to those

seeking the freedom so far denied by colonial masters


- Many post-WWII leaders engaged with ideas of socialism, if not communism

- e.g. Nkrumah: “In order to be able to carry out this resistance to neo-colonialism at every point, Positive action requires to be armed with an ideology, an ideology which, vitalizing it, and operating through a mass party with a regenerative concept of the world and life…


… In order that this ideology should be comprehensive, in order that it should light up every aspect of the life of our people, in order that it should affect the total interest of our society, establishing a continuity with our past, it must be socialist in form and in content and be embraced by a mass party.“

[see Nkrumah: turning away from the West? In ’Resources’ for

more]


- Some African leaders, like Amical Cabral (Portuguese Guinea) questioned the ‘real’ aim of the ‘imperialist countries’

– in the context of an emerging ‘cold war’, were they not -- in agreeing to African independence – trying to prevent:


“…the enlargement of the socialist camp, [to]

liberate the reactionary forces in our

countries stifled by colonialism, and enable

these forces to ally themselves with the

international bourgeoisie [middle class].”

[from B Davidson, Modern Africa, p.104]


Pan-Africanism:

- anti-colonial stance, rhetoric of 5th Pan African conference (1945) also drew on Socialist ideology

- reinforced equation of ‘capitalism, colonialism, the West’

- by 1950s, influenced almost ALL nationalist leaders


- included Kenyatta (Kenya), Nyerere (Tanzania), Kaunda (Zambia), Selassie (Ethiopia), Luthuli (South Africa), Azikiwe (Nigeria)…

- and Nkrumah (Gold Coast/Ghana) [also see discussion of Nkrumah and Pan-Africanism under ‘origins of decolonization and WWII]

- late 1940s and through 1950s, argued for independent West African Federation, first step towards a United States of Africa


- became main spokesperson for ‘African’ Pan-Africanism

- following Ghana’s independence, organized Conference of Independent States (“All Africa” Conference) 1958

- goal: help ALL colonies transcend colonial boundaries, work to unite continent

- no country truly free until ALL colonies had freedom


Concluding Comments:

To understand decolonization as the consequence of one factor – or indeed as the same process across the continent – would be to oversimplify a critical moment in the creation of contemporary Africa



- to underestimate the role of domestic (European) politics, in turn influenced BOTH by what was happening in Africa AND by what was happening elsewhere on the international scene, would be a mistake…



- yet to see what was happening on the local Africa scene ONLY as ‘irritations’ or ‘momentary provocations’ would also be to misunderstand the complexity of decolonization dynamics



- we need to look more closely at the nature of those ‘issues’, both in the West African context focused AND in the Central, Eastern and Southern contexts that draw the ‘white settler’ factor into the mix

- this will extend the analysis to Portugal, Belgium and South Africa, providing yet additional views of the decolonization process

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