Graduate School of Development Studies

A Research Paper presented by:

Asemenye Susan(Uganda)

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for obtaining the degree of

MASTERS OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

Specialization:Public Policy and Management

(PPM)

Members of the examining committee:

Dr Barbara Lehmbruch [Supervisor]Dr Daniel Chavez [Reader]

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES AND FARMER GROUPS IN

UGANDA. Case study of Mukono District

The Hague, The NetherlandsNovember, 2010

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Disclaimer:

This document represents part of the author’s study pro-gramme while at the Institute of Social Studies. The views stated therein are those of the author and not necessarily those of the Institute.

Inquiries:

Postal address: Institute of Social StudiesP.O. Box 297762502 LT The HagueThe Netherlands

Location: Kortenaerkade 122518 AX The HagueThe Netherlands

Telephone: +31 70 426 0460Fax: +31 70 426 0799

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DEDICATION

The research paper is dedicated to my lovely parents Mr and Mrs Emopus who have always provided me with the wisdom to further in education and career development.

To my siblings who have been there for me in terms of moral support while away from my Country. Thank you all, you have been such a strength (Maureen, Ronald, Patrick, Joseph, Mercy, Daniel, Brian)

Ebert and Joshua I appreciate your inspirations

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Gratitude to Dr Barbara Lehmbruch and Dr Daniel Chavez who guided me through the whole academic writing pro-cess, for you both enabled me broaden my thinking, I ap-preciate and may you live to attain more wisdom as you carry on with your dreams. Appreciation to Dr Sylvia Bergh for her effort made alongside my Supervisors. To my Col-leagues in the PPM programme especially Amon, Robert, Migena, Chihiro and Veena for your encouragement and in-put during my seminar presentations. Iam grateful to my Convener (Dr Joop De Wit) and the entire PPM Staff for they have been instrumental in my academic attainment

To the Netherlands Fellowship Programme that facilitated the whole academic programme. I appreciate and for without you as an Institution it would have been costly fin-ancially and to the Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University for having been able to admit me for the Mas-ter’s programme in Public Policy and Management

My Employer (Felix) who was able to offer me study leave to be able to pursue the academic programme and Mukono district Local government that let me carry out the study within their Locality

To my Friends in Uganda, I appreciate the support that was offered during the data collection (Oyesiga, Stephenas, Christina)

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Contents

List of Tables vii

List of Figures viii

List of Acronyms ix

Abstract x

Chapter 1 Introduction 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Background 11.3 Problem statement 31.4 Justification 51.5 Structure of the paper 5

Chapter 2: Concepts, theoretical and analytical framework. 62.1 Introduction 62.2 Key concepts definition 6

2.2.1 Agricultural extension services. 62.2.2 A farmer group 62.2.3 Farmer Institutional development 72.2.4 Gender equality 72.2.5 Participation 72.2.6 Capacity development 9

2.3 Theoretical framework 102.3.1 Introduction 10

2.3 Analytical framework 122.3.1 Gender equality 132.3.2 Participation 14

2.4 Hypothesis 17

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2.5 Research objective 182.6 Research question 182.7 Methodology 18

2.7.1 Data collection Methods 182.7.2 Data sources 192.7.3 Sampling methods 192.7.4 Data analysis 20

2.8 Limitations to the study 20

Chapter 3 Uganda’s Economic Growth and Over-view of Agricultural Extension services 213.1 Introduction 213.2 Economic growth in Uganda 213.3 Overview of Agricultural Extension Services in

Uganda 223.4 Organisational structure of NAADS at District level

and National level 243.5 Formation of Farmer groups under NAADS 263.6 Farmers participation under NAADS 263.7 Location to the study 27

Chapter 4 Extension services: Farmers needs, gender equality and participation 294.1 Introduction. 294.2 Research question: How have agricultural extension

services, enabled farmer groups improve on their productivity? 294.2.1 Sub question 1: How does advice given to

farmer groups relate to farmers’ needs? 294.2.2 Sub question 2: How is gender equality pro-

moted in FID activities in farmer groups? 364.3.3 Sub question 3: How has Participation of

farmer groups been enhanced in FID activit-ies? 37

Chapter 5 Summary of findings, Conclusions and Policy Recommendations 415.1 Introduction 415.2 Summary of Findings 415.3 Conclusions 425.4 Policy Recommendations 42Appendices 44

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Appendix 1 Focus group discussion guide for the Farmer groups 44

Appendix 2 Interview guide for the technical staff 45Appendix 3 Table showing list of technical staff inter-

viewed 46Appendix 4 Table showing Farmers in a Focus group dis-

cussion 46References 47

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List of Tables

Table1 Farmer Institutional development and the in-volvement of the farmer groups 2

Table 2 Nominal profitability of major cash and food crops in Mukono District 3

Table 3 Contributions to production and ownership of land by Men and Women in Uganda (percent) 15

Table 4 Growth rates of Industry, Services and Agricul-ture 2003/4 – 2008/2009 21

Table 5 Education attainment of the adult population in Uganda 27

Table 6 survey of 120 farmers perceptions of the con-tract system 33

Table 7 Adoption rates of enterprise by enterprise 35

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Eight rungs on the ladder of participation 10Figure 2 Participation of farmer associations in different

stages of extension delivery chain. 18Figure 3 NAADS and District Structure 23Figure 4 Organisational structure of National Agricul-

tural Advisory Services (NAADS) 24Figure 5 Farmer institutional development process used

by NAADS 26

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List of Acronyms

ABCD Agri Business Development ComponentCDO Community Development Officer

FID Farmer Institutional DevelopmentGNP Gross Net ProductHa HactareLRA Lord’s Resistance ArmyIPC Integrated food security Phase Classifica-

tionMAAIF Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industries

and FisheriesMFPED Ministry of Finance Planning and Eco-

nomic DevelopmentMOLG Ministry of Local Government

MTR Medium Term ReviewMOU Memorandum of UnderstandingMWLE Ministry of Water Lands and Environment

NAADS National Agricultural Advisory ServicesNARO National Agricultural Research Organisa-

tionNGO Non-Governmental OrganisationNEMA National Environment Management Au-

thorityPEAP Poverty Eradication Action PlanPMA Plan for Modernisation of AgricultureUCDA Uganda Coffee Development AuthorityUK’s United Kingdom’sUSAID United States Agency for International De-

velopmentUS$ United States Pound

UShs Uganda Shillings

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Abstract

The study focuses on Agricultural extension services and farmer groups in Uganda. The purpose of the study was to analyse how the agricultural extension services have en-abled the farmer groups improve on their productivity (yields)

Specifically looked at how advice on farmers needs was related FID activities in farmer groups. How gender equal-ity had been promoted in farmer groups. And how participa-tion had been enhanced in farmer groups

As findings revealed , Farmer Institutional Development activities in Mukono district were related to the farmer needs, however the adoption of skills was low .The other challenge faced by the farmers was price instability, food insecurity, market linkage, gender issues such as limited access to ownership and control of land thus limiting the agricultural production. The gender roles were not shared equally by the men and women. Participation had been en-hanced through the decision making process, information sharing consultation between farmer groups and policy im-plementers has been practised

In conclusion, farmers’ needs can be addressed through farmers forming higher level institutions that will engage the farmers in broader production, marketing and collective action. NAADS Gender strategy needs to be improved to in-clude an affirmative action for issues such as land owner-ship, use and control, shared gender roles. To evaluate Par-ticipation, yard sticks and performance indicators should be formulated to measure the involvement of the farmer groups in information sharing, decision making process and consultation with the policy implementers.

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Relevance to Development StudiesLiterature provides information on the importance of agri-cultural extension services, how they can be reconsidered in developing Countries to be able to increase on the pro-ductivity nationally. However the current study is relevant in that it focuses on how agricultural extension services have enabled farmer groups improve on their agricultural productivity in the rural setting. Through the farmers needs, gender equality and participation.

KeywordsAgricultural extension services, Farmer Institutional devel-opment, Gender equality, Participation.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 IntroductionExtension is non formal education that applies to any in-

stitution that spreads information and advice, with the aim of having knowledge, skills, attitudes and aspirations pro-moted (Rivera and Qamar 2003). The Public sector’s exten-sion roles have changed in developing Countries in the past three decades. In history, many developing countries, as-sumed that it was the role of Public sector to provide farm-ers with new technology, farm inputs, supplies and agricul-tural services. However the development of training and visit (T&V) extension, in mid 1970’s caused a shift of public extension to technology transfer. In the past decade, donors and national governments have decreased their investment in public sector, with agricultural extension inclusive. As a result the extension programs have deteriorated (Swanson and Samy 2002).

Failures have been fuelled recently by pluralism, mar-ket liberalisation and globalisation, thus giving rise to initi-atives that would improve effectiveness and efficiency of en-tire technology generation, sub components of the exten-sion delivery, dissemination and its use (Madukwe2006). However to improve production and sustainability of agri-culture, in the developing world, depends on the ability of rural people to adopt, and innovate in the use of techno-logy. Systems in management, arrangements within organ-isations, institutions and resources within the environment, whereas expanding the capacity of the people to be able to innovate will depend on knowledge and information ser-vices (USAID 2010).

With shifts in the role of the public sector, not to provide agricultural extension services, there would be need to un-derstand why the changes. For it acts as indicator, to defin-ing as to whether services provided to farmers are proper. If so, to what level is accountability fulfilled by the imple-menters to ensure that the right services are provided to beneficiaries who are farmers, to avoid deterioration. So as to fill the gap that is faced with the farmers in terms of farmer needs, gender inequality and participation.

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1.2 BackgroundAgricultural extension services in Uganda are defined in terms of the NAADS policy which aims at creating a de-mand driven approach and farmer led service delivery. NAADS, targets the poor and women. It aim is to give farm-ers increased access to information. Gender is crucial, if poverty impacts of Poverty Eradic-ation Action Plan are to have adequate anticipation and be appropriately adjusted. The Ugandan government tries to address gender issues, through different programmes. However, the response remains poor. Women and men’s specific needs at all levels of planning and budgeting still need critical consideration. Priority areas for research, through which gender can be achieved, are agriculture and technology advancement. Poor men and women have al-ways been denied access to agricultural advisory services and technology development, thus leading to adoption of technologies and production being low. Gender dimensions of land accessibility and utilisation need further investiga-tion, for analysis of biases, rights and entitlements, which limit increase of agricultural productivity, in opportunities such as re-stocking. Mukono district rapid assessment, sug-gested that the poorest are still excluded from NAADS, which targets those who are economically active poor. For appropriateness of NAADS approach to address gender concerns and poverty, needs to be investigated (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development 2004). Much as gender concerns need to be analysed its essential to un-derstand why the differences in gender, when it gets to land accessibility, use and ownership because men are con-sidered in the literature as overall owners and controllers of resources of production.

Analysts have claimed, farmer’s productivity is low in Uganda because research and extension services, are not appropriately demand driven, and use of technologies is low, even when they are available (World Bank 2007). In at-tempt to modernise agriculture, to be able to increase yields, productivity and improve on livelihood of the rural poor, Ugandan government designed a policy called Na-tional Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) in 2001, which is funded by International donors (80%) such as European Union, UK’s department for International devel-opment, Ugandan government, Local governments and farmer groups. However the policy under implementation spreads slowly. According to International Food Policy Insti-tute (IFPR), the policy had promoted use of improved pro-

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duction technologies and high yield crop varieties, however, few farmers used them within Sub counties with services in operation. In early 2009 the Auditor General’s report indic-ated that 63% of funds allocated to activities went to waste, because farmers did not like classroom style training given by service providers (Kavuma 2010). To date, NAADS has adopted an approach of farmer representatives, approving work plans that have to be implemented.

Uganda’s low productivity currently, is associated with poorly functioning farmer extension linkages, and failure of extension systems, to respond to the real needs of the farm-ers. Therefore priority on achieving greater relevance is as-signed, through emphasis being placed not only on en-hanced extension programmes but doing so under institu-tional arrangements that have been changed to ensure in-crease in response to farmer needs. With regards to exten-sion, NAADS should lead to increased to increase in farmer access to information, knowledge and technology through effective, efficient and decentralised extension with in-creased private sector involvement in line with government policy (NAADS Master Document 2000). NAADS principle is to empower farmers and build their capacities to be able to demand for appropriate tech-nologies and agricultural advisory services (NAADS 2001). While NAADS takes interest in ensuring that farmers’ capa-cities are built, adoption of practices are still low and in-crease in productivity is not impressive. Therefore the cur-rent study focuses on Farmer Institutional development be-cause it attempts to verify why extension services are not demand driven, and why use of technologies is low. Yet in-formation shows that the number of farmer groups re-gistered each year is increasing, and attention is given to sensitisation and community level mobilisation, selection of the enterprises and farm technology development. The table below; shows how farmer groups registration is in-creasing.

Table1

Farmer Institutional development and the involvement of the farmer groups

2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004 2004/2005New NAADS Farmer groups 200 8,632 6,920 4,007cumulative 200 8,832 15,752 19,759Number of new NAADS farmer groups registered

0 4,911 4,362 2,721

Cumulative 0 4,911 9,273 11,994% of women in farmer groups 53%

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Number of MoUs signed 24 44 114 100Cost of the FID contracts (mil-lions of Ush.)

66,689 548,493 770,138 382,797

Average cost per farmer group(Shs):

91,000

Number of interim Sub county Farmer Fora

24 100 61 1

Cumulative 24 124 185 186Number of substantive sub county Farmer Fora

0 0 43 51

Cumulative 0 0 43 94

Source: Medium term review (MTR) NAADS May 31st- June 2nd 2005

The table above shows that there is an increase of farmer groups registered, and memorandum of understand-ings signed with groups within Sub counties and Districts. Whereas groups registered are increasing cumulatively the question of improved productivity comes in. Declining parti-cipation of farmer groups in trainings has been associated to farmers’ preference to “learn by doing” instead of classroom delivery mode. (Oakeley et al. 2004).

1.3 Problem statementNAADS, in Uganda was designed as a new system to re-place the old and non responsive extension system. NAADS emphasises community participation in making decisions about enterprises/practices that best fit local needs. NAADS further aims at increasing the farmers’ access to improved Knowledge, technologies and information (Isubikalu 2007).

However NAADS has little impact, on agricultural pro-ductivity increase, because of poor implementation and monitoring .NAADS poor performance since its inception has made President Yoweri Museveni suspend it twice. First it was suspended in 2007 and resumed in 2008 after the Cabinet review. In Uganda, constraints in agricultural pro-duction such as; crop pests and livestock disease, suitability of inputs, appropriateness of technology to have increased productivity, changing weather, seasons and limitations to financial and extension services (Oketch 2010), should be addressed, because productivity is declining time and again. This can be reflected in the baseline study carried out in Mukono district (NAADS Baseline Study Report 2002).

Table 2

Nominal profitability of major cash and food crops in Mukono District

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Crop 1998 1994 1997 1998Yield/kg/ha Gross

margin Ushs/ha

Return to

family labour Ushs

Gross margin

Ushs/ha

Return to

family labour Ushs

Gross margins Ushs/ha

Return to family la-

bour/ Ushs

Tea(out grower) 8680(green leaf)

179,706 864 356,300 1,738 336,800 2,145

Coffee(Robusta) 1200 616,127 4,929 453,150 4,082 435,240 3,657Banana (Matooke)

7880 342,200 1,880 374,195 2,478 383,455 2,577

Maize 1550 135,412 947 474,720 3,391 207,908 1,824Beans 1079 155,834 1,199 129,900 1,139 153,449 1,550Groundnuts 838 222,417 1,444 212,519 1,288 298,317 2,663Cassava 6628 392,540 2,133 328,100 1,600 356,420 1,958Sweet potatoes 4985 405,301 3,464 439,885 3,120 221,385 1,491Soy beans - - - 243,600 1,888 427,538 4,804Sunflower - - - 154,200 1,359 134,274 1,492Vanilla - - - - 0m t0

9m-

Cocoa 866 - - - -

Source: Adapted from NAADS baseline study report 2002) Table 3.5.1pp22.

In reference to the above table, there had been a de-cline in productivity and profitability of individual crops. During the baseline study, coffee yields had dropped since 1998 from 1200kg/ha to 600kg/ha. Tea, estate yields were almost 166% to those realised by small holders (out grow-ers), and gain in the percentage since 1998 showed a de-cline and the case of cocoa was disturbing. In Mukono dis-trict most of the estates were abandoned and not in produc-tion, fields were un rehabilitated and adoption to spraying against pests and diseases was negligible. For bananas, the acreage that was occupied had unviable bananas with low yields, most of them un rehabilitated and reflecting un op-timal use of land. In the case of maize the trend in pro-ductivity and profitability, since 1991 was moving towards profitability and un profitability at the same time though im-proved varieties had been released by the National Agricul-tural Research Organisation (NARO). However farmer yields remained low and staggering due to limited adoption and use of technologies (NAADS baseline study report 2002).

With reduction in yields and productivity, it’s not clear as to why the acreage is abandoned and un rehabilitated, at the same time not put to full capacity use, yet there are im-proved varieties provided under NARO. With the initiatives and literature provided there is doubt as to whether agri-cultural extension services have enabled farmer groups im-prove on their agricultural productivity.

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1.4 JustificationNAADS mission is to have increase of farmer access to in-formation, knowledge and technology so that there can be profitable agricultural production (NAADS 2002), Bakene-gura and Mugyenyi as cited by Uganda Management Insti-tute 2006. Through Farmer Institutional Development, NAADS endeavours to have the Farmer institutions strengthened where the existing farmers are legally facilit-ated to register, new ones encouraged to form and capacity building needs are identified (Bakenegura and Mugyenyi as cited by Uganda Management Institute 2006). However the current study takes interest in finding out how the agricul-tural extension services have enabled the farmer groups im-prove on their productivity (yields) Farmer Institutional de-velopment will be analysed through farmers’ needs, gender equality and participation.

1.5 Structure of the paperThis has provided five chapters. The first chapter provides the Introduction, background information in relation to the research, problem statement, and justification.

Chapter two narrates the key concepts, theoretical ana-lytical framework. It further mentions how the concepts are referred to in the study, hypothesis is formulated, research objective, research question, sub questions, methodology and limitations to the study.

Chapter three focuses on economic growth of Uganda, over view of agricultural extension services, organisational structures of NAADS, formation of groups under NAADS, farmers’ participation in NAADS and location of the study

Chapter four provided data from the field and focuses mainly on how the agricultural extension services have been able to guide the farmer groups in having increased productivity, it further discusses how farmer institutional development is related to the farmer needs of farmer groups, how gender equality has been promoted and how participation has been enhanced.

Chapter five provides summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations in relation to the National Agricul-tural Advisory policy.

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Chapter 2: Concepts, theoretical and analytical framework.

2.1 IntroductionThe chapter provides definitions of main concepts, theoret-ical and the analytical framework is discussed. Concepts such as Agricultural extension services, Farmer group, Farmer Institutional development, Gender equality, Parti-cipation, are defined. Hypothesis, research objective, re-search question and sub questions are indicated, methodo-logy and limitations to study are narrated.

2.2 Key concepts definition

2.2.1 Agricultural extension services.Agricultural extension is a process of education that is non formal, takes place over a period of time, aims to improve the living conditions of farmers and family members, by making their activities more profitable. Farmers’ should be able to improve their knowledge skills through agricultural extension. And their attitudes towards agricultural techno-logy, farming activities and agricultural marketing should change, Mahaliyanaarachchi 2003 as cited by (Mahaliy-aarachchi and Bandara 2006).

While Knowledge is transferred to farmers, they should be able to appreciate the value of the skills, provided under agricultural extension, for purposes of improving farming experiences, to be able to have increased yields, for home consumption and sale. However the situation can be differ-ent because it will depend on the perception of farmers about the knowledge that is transferred to them. In the study, agricultural extension services will be referred to as advisory services (NAADS) that are transferred to the bene-ficiaries so that they can be able to improve on agricultural productivity (yields).

2.2.2 A farmer group According to (Madukwe 2006) a farmer group is an interac-tion of farmers within one another in a collective way with an aim of achieving a common goal. The membership varies of which it is advantageous to have a smaller group, for purposes of face to face interface interaction and flow of in-

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formation. With the farmer group approach, a valuable role in policy advocacy is played and the major benefit is that farmers support one another, to be able to learn and adapt. Whereas it is better to have a smaller group, it is not clear as to whether this kind of membership, may facilitate the regular participation of members in activities that are im-plemented through extension services. Farmer group in the study refers to the beneficiaries of the agricultural exten-sion services and these beneficiaries are registered, have constitutions for their groups, so the interest in the study will be to find out whether the programme has been benefi-cial in improving the agricultural productivity of farmers

2.2.3 Farmer Institutional developmentNetherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs n.d. defines Institu-tional development as a process that involves creating people’s awareness in activities they are involved in. Farmer Institutional development involves capacity building of those involved such as the farmer groups, so that they can be able to acquire skills not to only increase their pro-ductivity, but also adapt and be able to search for informa-tion that is helpful such as market information and be able to own the whole process thus causing a positive change in their behaviour and livelihood.

In the study farmer institutional development will be the core component of intervention in terms of the trainings. The study will venture into finding out as to whether the trainings (mass mobilisation and sensitisation, group forma-tion and registration, enterprise selection and farm techno-logy development) is related to farmers needs. Gender equality and how it has been promoted in the activities and if participation has been enhanced.

2.2.4 Gender equalityMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark-Danida (2008) refers to gender equality as a means where Individuals, both men and women are able to develop their personal abilities and be able to make choices without being limited by the gender roles. Aspirations of men and women are valued and looked at equally. In the attempt to define the above its important to realise how important it is to involve both wo-men in farmer Institutional development activities without having restrictions from their gender roles such as agricul-tural production.. Gender equality in the study will focus on both men and women who are involved in the trainings for

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Manipulation

Therapy

Informing

Consultation

Placation

Partnership

Delegated power

Citizen control

3

4

5

6

7

8

2

1

Citizen Power

Tokenism

Nonparticipation

purposes of finding out how land ownership, use and con-trol is promoted, roles of different genders (men and wo-men) will be considered to be able to know if the roles are shared in terms of agricultural production.

2.2.5 ParticipationSidorenko (2006) defines participation as the process of be-ing able to take part in spheres that are different in societal life. It can take different forms such as political, social, cul-tural, and economic and others. Participation can be able to take different forms like direct, representational where rep-resentatives are selected from membership based groups and associations, while political is through elected repres-entatives, it could also be information based where data is aggregated and reported directly.

Citizen Participation according to Arnstein 1969 is a term for Citizen power. Power is redistributed to enable the have-not Citizens, who are excluded from political and eco-nomic processes to be included in the future. The author provides a typology of eight levels of participation.

Figure1

Eight rungs on the ladder of participation

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Source: Arnstein (1969)

Manipulation and therapy are the two levels of non particip-ation at the bottom, where the real objective is not to have people participate in planning or conducting programs but the power holders educate or cure the participants. Level 3 and 4, progress to positions of tokenism. At this level people’s voices are heard and they also hear at the same time. Level 5 allows the have-nots to advise , but the power is with the power holders to decide. With ladder 6, levels of decision making are increasing for the have-nots, partner-ships enable them negotiate with the power holders. Ladder 7 and 8 materialises to have-nots having majority of de-cision making seats or full managerial power (Arnstein 1969).With levels of participation it is easier to notice whether the people are progressing in being part of the de-cisions being made by the state.

However, Save the Children(2000) as cited by (The Scottish Parliament 2002) refers to participation as an arena where people share ideas, they at the same time think for themselves, their views are expressed effectively, they plan, prioritise and are being involved in the decision making process.

Furthermore Zadeh and Ahmad (2010) mention that participation is being involved in the decision made, to choose a project for the community, plan, implement, man-age and control it. It aims at ensuring that , decisions that affect the community are promoted. While participation refers to having the community members being involved in the project that affects them, by members identifying the project, having it planned, it is important to note that the involvement of the beneficiaries creates a sense of owner-ship.

All the above frameworks are relevant while I analyse as to whether FID has enhanced the participation of farmer groups in terms of consultation, decision making and in-formation sharing, while extension services are delivered.

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2.2.6 Capacity developmentBolger (2000) advanced that several definitions and capa-city development frameworks have been used in the recent years. As they defer in detail, they all underline importance of understanding the context within which development programs occur or are being put into consideration. Differ-ent dimensions or capacity levels are reflected. For example

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individual, organisational and societal of which it is import-ant to recognise and respond to the relationships among them. Capacity problems, constraints and solutions need to be considered from a perspective of the system while ap-preciating the dynamics among various issues and actors in differing dimensions. While the capacities of farmer groups are inadequate, in ensuring that production improves, gov-ernment of Uganda has been able to engage farmers in in-stitutional development, for purposes of providing know-ledge and skills, so that improvement in production (yields) can be achieved. In the study reference will be made to the capacities that are lacking, that the farmers need to im-prove.

In the attempt to implement NAADS, the first activity in every financial year is farmer empowerment. Farmer em-powerment is referred to as institutional development and it takes place in the Sub counties through the farmer groups, the process includes selecting Non governmental Organisations from a short list of NGO’s of which NAADS Secretariat provides an outline of the evaluation criteria, one of the criteria is that the NGO should be experienced in agricultural sector. However the Secretariat does not spe-cify the experience that is required. NAADS guideline 2004/5 gives some of the specific areas of capacity develop-ment, that farmer groups should be equipped with namely; rights, responsibilities and roles of the farmer groups, group initiation, growth initiation and development, skills in leadership and development, enterprise selection, farming as a business, market linkage, gender considerations while developing groups. Complaints are raised by the district officials as to how the NGO’s available, are incapable of car-rying out the institutional development. Areas of coverage are wide and require a number of expertise, which may not be there with local NGO’s. Training requires a standard-ised training manual, so there can be reliable methodology of training that is common and provides content flow. Trainers need to undergo a trainer of trainees to enable them perform (Deniva report n.d). As the farmer group ca-pacities are being developed the challenge is that the farm-ers are faced with different farming experiences based on different projects so harmonising the different areas of ca-pacity development such as enterprise selection, group formation, market linkage may be gradual, if a visible im-pact is to be created because each farmer may have a dif-ferent area of interest.

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2.3 Theoretical framework

2.3.1 IntroductionAccording to (Eicher and Staatz 1998), the European and Agricultural economists in the 1950’s viewed agricultural extension services through a perspective of their own Coun-try experiences. For example they assumed, agricultural ad-visors then, would have agricultural extension models and technology shifted from high income to low income Coun-tries, and community development projects would enable people in the rural setting improve their livelihood . Fur-thermore agricultural programmes in the 1950’s emphas-ised the “American model of agricultural extension and dif-fusion model of agricultural development” which assumed that, a farmer can increase production through allocation of resources, that exist more efficiently and adopting prac-tices and technologies that are practised in the Industrial Countries. For farmers to improve on their productivity, the need to put available resources such as land into maximum use is important. Adoption of practices and technologies such as improved seeds and fertilisers would enhance de-velopment.

Economists, Educators and researchers have been able to express their concern about the economic development in the rural parts of Africa that is under depression, sugges-tions have been made, as to why the poor rate of economic development is plaguing the Continent (Dent 2007).Okpala and Jonsson (2002p. 87) as cited by (Dent 2007) suggest that “the lack of sustainable economic growth and devel-opment in Africa are partly due to Political, social and eco-nomic instability” and further mention that corruption is a major factor and “are quite pervasive in most African Coun-tries (Okpala and Jonsson, p.87), the authors found out that Uganda has the highest economic instability in any African Country meaning that its more likely to experience eco-nomic unrest thus being economically regressive.

Abul Muyeed as cited by (Dent 2007) described nine in-dicators of rural development in his 1982 article, “some rural reflections on education for rural development” (Muy-eed, 1982, p231). Muyeed’s indicators highlight not the im-portance of income generation but employment as well, in-creased access to education and health that is better. Muy-eeds indicators of rural development as (cited by Dent 2007) are 1) the rate at which income of the rural poor is increasing , 2) the rate at which productivity of small scale farmers is increasing, 3) degree to which participa-

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tion is increasing in decentralised administration and plan-ning, 4) improvement rate in nutritional status among the rural poor, 5) increase in the rate of employment, 6) in-crease in functional literacy, 7) proportion of budget alloca-tion increase to education at all levels, 8) degree to which there is social demand for education services in rural areas, 9) improvement rate in availability of social, recre-ational, health and other better services to the rural.

In the study development can be referred to as, agricul-tural extension services that are provided to the farmers and how much they are put into use determines the in-crease in productivity.

In reference to (Sen 1999:3) he does focus on ‘develop-ment as freedom’. The author mentions that development can be viewed, as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. Growth of Individual incomes can be very important as an expansion of freedom enjoyed by so-ciety however the freedom does depend on certain factors such as education facilities, health care as well as the polit-ical and civil rights, for example the freedom to participate in scrutiny and discussions in the public. The author men-tions that development requires the removal of the unfree-dom such as poverty which is a tyranny, economic oppor-tunities that are poor as well as systematic social depriva-tion, public facilities that are neglected as well as the over activity of repressive states.

There are illustrations provided by the author such as “freedom and quality of life”, an example is the liberty to participate politically or the chance to have basic education or health care are components of development, , Another illustration is “transactions, markets and economic unfree-dom”. The freedom to enter the market is a significant con-tribution to development, which is different from what the market mechanism may or may not do, to have economic growth or industrialisation promoted. The third illustration is “Organisations and Values”, this allows the appreciation of the important roles in the process of development , of many different organisations such as markets, govern-ments, local authorities, political parties, such an approach enables us to accept the role of social values and mores that are prevailing which influences the freedoms that people enjoy and have to treasure, shared norms can have influ-ence on social features such as gender equity, nature of child care including many outcomes and arrangements.

Sen’s approach which focuses on “development as free-dom” is relevant to the study, in that Agricultural extension

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services can be viewed as ‘development’ that people should enjoy. The fact that farmers can determine what kind of ex-tension services that should be provided is a sign of free-dom because it will be participatory and the farmers will have a chance to have their voices heard. Women having a chance to use and control land, sharing gender roles in pro-duction are examples of freedom that can be referred to ac-cording to Sen’s approach.

After decades of having agricultural research modern-ised, farmers on small scale are still poor and have contin-ued to operate largely on traditional technology, and a little more above subsistence scale. Modern technology has not been developed specifically to suit a small scale farmer, who is poor but it is wealthier farmers who have adopted it, and have succeeded in its use. However, if agricultural re-search is to help farmers on a small scale, there is need to design technology that is appropriate to their situation due to scarce financial resources that they are faced with. Plus other constraints such as poor access to information, scarcity of market outlets where they can sell farm produce and buy inputs and the landholding that is limited (Peterson 1985). Farmers are still faced with a challenge of techno-logy use due to various factors such as financial constraints, scarcity of market outlets, Policy makers would need to design appropriate mechanisms to address constraints of a small scale farmer.

Modernisation theory dominates explanations of how agro technological change occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. For it did not put attention to processes surrounding generation of new technologies because of the stance to-wards technology. Modern technology is looked at as a modern and not social issue. For adoption of technology was considered to be of benefit, in its impact on production and levels of living and the cumulative change which adop-tion induced on social attitudes and behaviour. Modernisa-tion theory stresses that, main problems in modifying agri-cultural practices does not rely in research process, largely controlled by people with modern values but in the dissem-ination process. Social and cultural obstacles in adoption of new techniques and products would be anticipated in popu-lations that are rural, have attitude that is traditional and conservative values (Hulme 1990).

NAADS as a programme focuses on agricultural mod-ernisation which entails having the communities participate in the decisions that best fit local needs of farmers at spe-cific local levels. NAADS design is meant to increase the

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farmers’ access to knowledge, technologies and information that is improved (Isubikalu 2007). For farmers to make use of the skills and knowledge their attitude and conservative values ought to change if development is to be realised.

Modernisation theory is applicable to the study in that, Farmers can be viewed as the agents of change. For agri-cultural productivity to improve the farmers need to put to use the skills and knowledge that is provided under agricul-tural extension services. Furthermore the farmers should be able to change their attitudes and traditional values for purposes of benefiting from technology that is new.

2.3 Analytical framework The analytical framework looks at agricultural extension services, but the focus is farmer Institutional development and how it has enabled farmers improve productivity(yields) in terms of ensuring that the farmer’s needs identified are related to the advice given under extension services and as to whether gender equality is promoted and participation enhanced in FID activities. Furthermore, NAADS MTR (2005) mentions that farmer Institutional development is a process that focuses on the dynamics of the groups and fur-ther highlights farmer Institutional development as includ-ing community level mobilisation, forming of groups and registering them, training the groups and farmer forum members, selecting the enterprises and the farm techno-logy development.

The study focuses on farmer institutional development. Farmer needs such as pests and livestock disease, market linkage, food security, falling prices and how they are re-lated to the advice will be analysed. Gender equality in terms of land ownership, use and control, shared gender roles in production and access to extension services and they are promoted will be looked into. Participation in terms of information sharing in regard to both the benefi-ciaries and the implementers of NAADS, whether the farm-ers are involved in making the work plans for their needs and if farmers influence in decision making processes. Whether farmer groups are consulted on extension services that should be delivered and how the farmer groups are placed in the Organisational structure of NAADS imple-mentation.

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2.3.1 Gender equalityConstitutions have been adopted by most governments which take on board gender equality. The countries that have provided progress on the constitutional provisions on human rights and gender equality are Benin (1990), Ghana (1992), Ethiopia (1994), Uganda (1995), Malawi (2006). The above constitutions mention equality before the law and non discrimination whereas some provide the mandate to the respective states to embark on actions that are affirmat-ive, to be able to solve imbalances that may be between males and females in the political, social, economic and civil spheres of society (The Sixth African development forum 2008). In the attempt to ensure imbalances are minimised, the Constitution of Uganda Article 33(1) mentions that wo-men will be accorded full and equal dignity of a person as men. Under NAADS, the difference is that when it gets to resource allocation the men still do predominate over wo-men. For example in production the women do not have the same access to resources as compared to men, so even if the women attend trainings the chances of putting what has been learnt into practice may be limited thus affecting the production of the women yet they are hard working. Ellis et al. (2006) highlights that women are more active in the agricultural sector as compared to men, espe-cially in food crop production, processing and marketing as shown in the table below;

Table 3

Contributions to production and ownership of land by Men and Women in Uganda (percent)

Indicator Women MenPopulation 51 49Food production 80 20Planting 60 40Weeding 70 30Harvesting 60 40Processing preparation 90 10Access to and ownership of land and related means of production

8 92

Source : Adapted from Ellis et al. (2006) ,Table 2.2 pp 29

The gender division is confirmed by NAADS strategy, which mentions women as playing a pivotal role in agricul-ture in Uganda, through providing most of the labour force. There are distinct roles played by men and women in the

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farming system, as they engage in different crops and live-stock. The men tend to concentrate on the cash crop pro-duction (coffee, tobacco, cotton and lately cereal crop pro-duction) whereas the women’s concentration is on food crops which are meant for consumption of the family and simultaneously provide much labour for the cash crop pro-duction. In livestock women concentrate on t small rumin-ants (rabbits, pigs, poultry,goats, sheep) and men concen-trate on the large stock such as cattle(NAADS Secretariat 2003) as cited (Ellis e tal. 2006).Ownership to means of pro-duction is still a challenge to the different genders espe-cially the women so is it ,when it comes to whether the wo-men should access information in relation to extension.

Kizilaslan (2007) argues that much as women have a vi-tal share in production of agriculture, they have been denied agricultural services. Including the regions where agricultural activities are carried out by women. Extension services are driven towards men, yet women have an active role in food security, sustainable farming and the rural de-velopment. Agricultural extension services are interested in farmers (assuming men usually) and the use of farm sources and the farm management problems, it has been known that not all farmers benefit from the extension ser-vices equally. Literature review indicates that 58% of the total sources that are extension organisations are meant for the commercial farms that are directed towards market production and have no resource restrictions and farmers without land for farming make use of only 34% or a little more of the extension services. Amongst groups, women be-nefit only 5% of the source and extension activities and this reveals that men and women cannot share the extension services equally. Work plans in extension services focused on women have been neglected. Women have been usually trained by home economists instead of extension staff that are women on subjects such as nourishment, child care and handcrafts and this is geared towards the family roles. However the role of women in agricultural production is equally important. In the attempt to focus on the man as major in agricultural production through the provision of agricultural services, it is also important that the women are accorded the same treatment as the men, since both genders play vital roles in ensuring that the livelihood im-proves.

Uganda provides a NAADS gender strategy to bridge the gap between men and women. The gender approach means that NAADS is meant to create an impact directly on

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the well-being of the poor, especially the rural women. The outcomes expected are; that conditions created should be favourable especially to the poor women and youth to en-gage in commercial farming. The rural poor especially the women with no direct access to agricultural resources also benefit from the improved agricultural production and pro-ductivity resulting from the NAADS activities. Women should be empowered to seek agricultural information, and use this information to serve the interests and needs of wo-men, especially raising income from farming (NAADS Sec-retariat 2003). Findings revealed that both men and wo-men have access to the trainings, however the level to which information was provided to both the genders was not defined though the women had a challenge of putting the knowledge in to use due to the limited resources such as land.

2.3.2 ParticipationGoetz and Gaventa (2001) narrate that the efforts by offi-cials to foster the participation of citizens in making policies and having scrutiny of policies implemented varies depending on the engagement by the Citizens. For example most of the officials find it acceptable to try and develop a relationship that is consultative with the citizens as com-pared to assigning them automatic rights to the information in regard to the government decisions made. The Authors mention three processes that represent the steps, a state will engage in, with citizens and these include consultation, presence and influence. Consultation involves having dia-logue and being able to share information and it does vary. Whereas presence and representation involves being able to institutionalise access that is regular for the social groups in decision making for example in planning and budgeting debates of the Municipalities. And influence in-volves citizens translating access and presence into an im-pact that is visible on policy making and organisation in the delivery of services. Participation process can be facilitated through the two stake holders being present, that is the cit-izen and the representatives of the state who are engaged in the whole policy process, however their role should be to enable the citizens own the decisions that arise out of the consultations and discussions as compared to imposing on the citizens what may not be workable as per the service delivery. This is revealed in the findings where the farmers

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are engaged in determining what extension services should be provided to be able to increase productivity.

Feder et al. (2010) discusses community extension in a diluted format. Farmers’ organisations have a say in the design and execution of the extension programs .whether they are representatives of single communities or wider constituencies. The later approach can have improvement of extension services that the farmers receive, and may have advantages that the small holders will be provided with. The paper cites (Anderson and Feder 2004) as they argue that in most developing countries, the farmer to agent ratio is more than 1,000:1, hence farmers have a hard time in exercising the demand and having the service pro-viders held accountable without some form of organisation. However farmers associations can play an important role in putting together the farmers’ demands for extension and also representing the farmers’ models that are participatory so as to make extension demand driven.

Figure 2

Participation of farmer associations in different stages of extension delivery chain.

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Source: Feder et al. (2010)

Feder et al. (2010) explains that the associations can have influence in the design of the new extension services, for example by being involved in the consultative work-shops that are held during the reform process. Farmers as-sociations can also participate in the planning that is annual and long-term. They can help finance agricultural extension services through collection of fees from the members and can have seats in the bodies that are managing funds. If ex-tension is contracted out, the farmer associations can still influence what extension agents do and this can be done by participating in the management boards of the extension agencies. Farmers can participate in the process of exten-sion if interactive methods are used and farmers associ-ations may make a contribution towards the evaluation of performance and impact made by the agricultural extension providers. In the study it was realised that the farmers are organised in farmer institutions such as farmer groups, through which demands for extension services are made. However the challenge was that the ratio of the service pro-viders to the farmers was small though the extension ser-vices had been provided.

According to (Anderson and Crowder 2000) they men-tion that Pubic sector funding of the private sector delivery of extension services is at the planning stage although a pi-lot was expected to start in the near future. The approach of extension contracting that is planned is part of the NAADS programme which is a provision of the conditional

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matching grants to the Local governments (districts and sub county administration and representative farmer groups (farmer forum) for the contracting of the extension services. Contribution of funds from local governments and farmers will initially be small (12-19% in years 1-5) and will increase to 50% by the 20- year end programme. The parti-cipation of the farmers will be through the farmer forum, which will have a representation of the majority of the farm-ers. However representatives of local government, plus those on the district, subcounty councils and the commit-tees will be included. Farmer representatives and local gov-ernment bodies will make decisions regarding the work plans and selection of the service providers. Services that are contracted will be monitored and evaluated by the farmer forums who will certify the payments of the service providers according to Local government regulations. Provi-sions will be in place to strengthen the farmer forums and the local government bodies to be able to have the ability to prepare local extension plans, contracts the services, man-age and evaluate contracted services.

Findings from the field indicated that extension ser-vices, aim at empowering the farmer group representatives. So that they can be at the core of the decisions taken in terms of what services are to be contracted, which service provider takes the contract. But how the decision is arrived at, is questionable for as to whether, the farmers are provided with feedback of the whole extension contract pro-cess. And if any of the members of the farmer groups wit-ness the whole process of contracting as members of the public, besides having the farmer representatives (farmer forum).

In Uganda the, (NAADS 2010) web page highlights the institutional frame work for the implementation of NAADS programme. The institutions include Farmer Institutions, Local governments, private sector, NGOs, NAADS Board, NAADS Secretariat, MFEPD, and MAAIF. Farmer Institu-tions comprise of the Farmer groups and Farmer Fora. The Farmer groups are charged with the responsibility of imple-mentation of the NAADS programme at the grassroots levels at the parish and village. The farmer groups are the nuclear institutions at the grassroots for NAADS imple-mentation, and the effectiveness of their participation will be the principle determinant of the success of NAADS. The Farmer Fora comprise of the Sub-county Fora, District Farmer Fora and National Farmer Fora. Their primary role is priority setting, resource use, upward and downward

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linkage in implementation of the programme at Sub county, District and National level. The Farmer Fora does the plan-ning, determines priorities and allocation of resources, per-formance evaluation of service providers, considering ap-proval of the NAADS work plans for the final inclusion in the Sub county development plans, feedback between the farmers and Fora at different levels, assessing the quality of service provision, influencing the policy direction. Farmer groups are core in the implementation of the advisory ser-vices for their work plans are determined through their rep-resentatives who are the farmer fora.

2.4 HypothesisLow productivity of the farmer groups is related to low ad-option of skills and knowledge from Agricultural Extension Services. Furthermore gender biases and limited participa-tion of farmers have affected their productivity.

2.5 Research objectiveThe study sought to analyse how agricultural extension ser-vices have enabled farmer groups improve their production (yields) in Mukono district.Sub objectives

1. To find out if the advice given to the farmer groups relates to their farmer needs/ reality in farming

2. To find out how gender equality has been promoted in FID activities in the farmer groups.

3. To find out participation has been enhanced in FID activities in the farmer groups

2.6 Research questionHow have agricultural extensions services enabled farmer groups improve on their productivity (yields)?

1. How does the advice given to farmer groups relate to farmers’ needs?

2. How is gender equality promoted in FID activities in farmer groups?

3. How has participation of farmer groups been en-hanced in FID activities?

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2.7 MethodologyThe study employed a qualitative approach because it sought to have an in depth understanding of how the exten-sion services have enabled the farmer groups improve their agricultural productivity in Mukono district. Ntenjeru Sub-county was purposively selected for it benefited from the initial stages of the NAADS programme, for the period should have been long enough to create an impact and the period under study was 2005-2008. In the subcounty four parishes were randomly selected namely Nsanja, Saayi, Ntanzi and Bunakija because they were among the first par-ishes to benefit from NAADS

2.7.1 Data collection MethodsData collection methods used was Focus group discussions and interview guide. A focus group discussion provides rich data that is expressed in the words of the respondents and context (Stewart and Shamdasani 1990) and it further helped facilitate the understanding of the topic under study since the members in the discussion(farmer groups) were the direct beneficiaries of the programme. An interview guide was used to facilitate the whole process. Semi-struc-tured interviews were useful for they allowed collection of specific data and the Key informants (technical staff) were able to be elaborate on the topic (Hall 2008). The parti-cipants were not limited to particular answers but could give detailed information as per the topic at hand.

2.7.2 Data sourcesThe study collected both primary and secondary data. The primary data included the interviews with technical staff namely District NAADS Coordinator, the Sub county NAADS Coordinator, Animal husbandry Officer and the Ag-ricultural officer for they are the core implementers of the programme and the focus group discussions with the bene-ficiaries of the programme who are in groups that are re-gistered at the Sub county. With the focus group discus-sions held at the parishes the researcher was able to ob-serve both the men and women express their views in rela-tion to the farmer needs they were faced with, furthermore the focus group discussions enabled the farmers mention facts about gender equality and participation within the farmer groups.

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On the other hand, documents were accessed at Sub county, District and National level. Documents reviewed in-cluded;

work plans of the farmer groups development plan of the subcounty and District quarterly progressive reports of trainings of the

farmer groups NAADS implementation manuals 2001 and the

revised 2007 enterprise activity reports of the farmer groups Minutes of meetings of the farmer groups baseline study reports laws and regulations governing the programme

under implementation such as the NAADS act, Constitution

semi and annual review reports, Newspapers, conference proceedings. For secondary data information used included journals, text books, and working papers. The use of secondary data enabled the researcher supplement on that data collected from the focus group discussions and interviews.

2.7.3 Sampling methodsThe sampling methods used in the study were both random and purposive. Simple random sampling involved obtaining a list of the farmer groups registered and benefiting from the programme at the Subcounty. From the farmer group list 44 farmers were selected where the women were 25 and the men were 19. The 44 members entailed having a focus group discussion in each parish which summed up too four focus group discussions with 10- 15 members in each group. The 44 members were chosen because they provided information about NAADS and they were representative of the rest of the farmer groups, whereas purposive did target the key informants such as the District NAADS Coordinator, Subcounty NAADS Coordinator, Community development officer, Agricultural officer, Veterinary officer because they had information in relation to the study and were informat-ive in the technical in area (Mugenda and Mugenda2003).

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2.7.4 Data analysisData collected from focus groups and interviews was read thoroughly, edited and cleaned up as the data was being or-ganised. Information was evaluated to create usefulness in answering the research questions at the same time the re-port was being written.

2.8 Limitations to the studyAccessing the key informants was a great challenge and they were always busy and some of them had fear and were hesitant in disclosing some information since the policy was under review. Appointments were re-scheduled to be able to meet the key informants and confidence was given to them that the study was a requirement for the fulfilment of the masters’ programme.

Accessing some documents was a challenge such as the progressive reports, annual and quarterly work plans in re-lation to the programme under implementation. However the reports and documents in relation to the NAADS pro-gramme were accessed on internet and a few copies were availed by the technical staff of the programme.

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Chapter 3 Uganda’s Economic Growth and Overview of Agricul-tural Extension services

3.1 IntroductionEconomic growth of Uganda, overview of agricultural ex-tension in Uganda, organisational structure of NAADS, formation of groups, farmers’ participation under NAADS and location of study are narrated.

3.2 Economic growth in UgandaIn Uganda the 1990’s were referred to as being for strong economic growth, though partially affected by external and internal shocks that led to both positive and negative ef-fects of the economy. Between 1992 and 2000 Uganda’s growth environment focused mainly on inflation control which was affecting investment thus economic growth. In-flation rates, then reduced from 26% in 1992/93 to 5% in 1999/2000 for which low inflation rates were meant to provide an environment that was conducive for private sec-tor investment. In addition, the economy of Uganda has been driven by private sector investment especially in in-dustry and construction sectors. There has been increased support from donors which is geared towards public sector spending for provision of social services. Furthermore agri-culture had performance that was mixed at best where im-proving rates were lower than the growing population (of.3.2% per anum). Until 1995 the services and industry were growing at an increasing rate whereas agriculture was growing at a lower rate which was erratic depending on prevailing weather conditions, major growth shocks in-cluded rebel insurgency caused by Lord’s Resistance Army(LRA) in Northern part of Uganda which affected the economic activities in that particular part of the Country during the period of review and the rebel infested areas re-mained poor from 1992 to 2000 for it has remained the same until 2005(Ssewanyana and Bategeka 2007).

For economic growth to be realised within a Country it is important that the atmosphere within which the eco-nomic activities take place should be secure in terms of not having restrictions that would limit the freedom of the po-tential investors to invest and engage in the investment

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without reservations thus causing development. Further-more (MAAIF 2010) gives evidence that more recently the performance of agricultural sector has been less impressive than expected. Agricultural output real growth declined from 7.9% in 2000/1 to 0.1% in 2006/7 before recovery to 2.6% in 2007/8 and 2008/9 respectively. The rate of growth has been below the population growth rate of 3.2% which implies that the percapita agricultural Gdp has been declin-ing. While the share in agriculture is declining as industry is growing (evidence of the structural transformation of the economy) up to 21% of observed growth has been made between 2001-2005 and accounts for growth that is signific-ant in proportion indirectly which is through forward and backward linkages with the service industrial sectors (world bank 2006) as cited in (MAAIF 2010).

Table 4

Growth rates of Industry, Services and Agriculture 2003/4 – 2008/2009

Sector 2003/4 2004/5 2005/6 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9Agriculture 1.6 2.0 0.5 0.1 1.3 2.6Cash crops 7.3 -5.5 -10.6 5.4 9.0 1.7Food crops -1.5 -0.2 -0.1 -0.9 2.4 2.9Livestock 4.7 3.0 1.6 3.0 3.0 3.0Fisheries 9.6 13.5 5.6 -3.0 -11.8 -0.1Forestry - 6.5 4.1 2.0 2.8 3.2Industry 8.0 11.6 14.7 9.6 9.1 3.8Services 7.9 6.2 12.2 8.0 10.2 9.4

Source: Adapted from MAAIF 2010, Table 2.1 pp20

As shown in the table above subsectors of agriculture shows evidence in the decline of growth. Given that the households engaged in agriculture in Uganda are 73 per-cent for the decline in performance matters a lot for the livelihood of the households thus representing a setback in the drive to fight poverty and create wealth. Decline in the growth limits the freedom of the citizens to enjoy the basic social services that are meant to be provided by the state.

3.3 Overview of Agricultural Extension Ser-vices in Uganda

In Uganda agricultural extension has moved through a number of transformations from 1898 as the colonial period to 2002. Firstly, in 1907-1920 planting materials were be-ing imported and research stations were established to carry out agriculture and forestry research. Secondly in

27

1920-1956 the extension services were through the chiefs, where they distributed planting materials and messages on how to grow them coupled with the enforcement of the bye-laws. Thirdly in 1956-1963 it moved on to progressive farm-ers where the advice was given to the selected farmers, their improved performance was meant to increase the ag-ricultural productivity. Fourthly in 1964-1972 extension ser-vice became professional through conducted trainings and the extension methods. Fifthly in 1972-1980 there was dis-ruption in the economy and it went dormant. Sixthly, 1981-1991 was the recovery period with emphasis being given to the rehabilitation of the Infrastructure and the basic ser-vices were restored though having no improvement in the extension services but duplication of services and conflict persisted. Seventhly, 1992-1997 was faced with the agricul-tural extension education/reforms such as restructuring, downsizing. Districts lacked the capacity to manage the ex-tension role as a result the staff in the system lost the mor-ale and the farmers’ access to the extension services had to fall. Finally in 1998-2002 there were conflicting views and activities regarding extension services however the in April 2001 the National Agricultural Advisory services were put in place by the act of Parliament (Semana n.d).

In the attempt to improve the livelihood of the poor and women, there have been various changes over the years however there are still efforts to see to it that the farmers become independent and can be able to have increased pro-ductivity and incomes thus the reflection of the changes in the different years shows how gradual the whole process is and further can be improved of which it varies following the different governments in power and the political stabil-ity within the country despite the different approaches ap-plied to improve on the existing agricultural extension ser-vices.

For extension services, to improve in the developing world, there is a pluralism of models, that are in various stages of development and implementation that are being used in Asia and Africa, which involve having a mix of Pub-lic, Ngo and private firms (for example dealers in fertiliser and seeds) having extension services delivered to the small holders (Eicher 2007).

Uganda adopted the private extension model (PMA) which focuses on deepening decentralisation , for efficiency in service delivery, reduced public sector activities and pro-moting the role of the private sector , disseminating and production enhancing technologies adopted, food security

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addressed through markets, designing and implementation of gender balanced programmes, strengthening and parti-cipation of stakeholders in planning being enhanced (NAADS 2001).

In deepening decentralisation of plan for modernisation of agriculture (PMA), NAADS is one of the core pro-grammes that is decentralised for it covers five components namely;

Advisory and information services to farmers involve orientation of farmer groups and mobilisation, planning in a participatory manner for services that are advisory in rela-tion to the farm and information and communications. While technology development and linkages with markets includes creating a strong linkage amongst the farmers, ad-visors and researchers through farmers and markets where funding is provided to relevant expertise to be able to work with the farmers. Whereas quality assurance- regulation and technical auditing of service providers, provides for the auditing of the service providers. Private sector institu-tional development involves training of the farmer groups as per the respective information needs and programme management. Finally monitoring and evaluation focuses on the monitoring and evaluation of the programme (NAADS 2001).

The implementation arrangements are made through various institutions namely; Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) which has the overall re-sponsibility of the programme with the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic development (MFPED) overseeing. Whereas the Districts ad Sub counties hold the responsibil-ity for the support and supervision, while the primary role is at the grassroots who are the farmer groups who are the beneficiaries of the advisory services. The Ministry of Local Government (MOLG) holds the responsibility for the admin-istration of the Local Governments under which the NAADS District, Sub county, Parish and Village activities take place. (NAADS 2000)

The NAADS board will be constituted and will have the role of advising and giving the guidance on the policy, strategy issues, facilitating, supporting and supervision of the NAADS executive, the NAADS executive forms the man-agement of the programme and the members will hold the responsibility for planning ,directing ,supporting and man-aging the operations in their field of competence, the Local Governments will handle the local administrative and the regulatory aspects and will support requirements for

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District Chief Administrative Officer

PrincipleCommercialOfficer

Subcounty Chief

SubcountyNAADSCoordinator

Senior Land ProductivityOfficer

Senior CropOfficer(County)

Senior VeterinaryOfficer(County)

SeniorCommercialOfficer

Vermin ControlOfficer

District Head of production and marketing

DistrictNAADSCoordinator

PrincipleVeterinaryOfficer

PrincipalFisheriesOfficer

PrincipalEntomologist

PrincipalCrops Officer

NAADS ,in each participating District the policy will finance in the contracting of a District NAADS co-ordinator for which the Co-ordinator will ensure that there is a smooth operation in the programme and the Farmer Institutions will be the core of the programme and how effective they are determines the success of the programme and the cre-ation of farmer groups is to have institutions that can en-able farmer empowerment(NAADS 2000).

Having the various institutions, is to ensure that proper coordination of the programme takes place however it’s not clear as to what criteria is used to determine who performs what task, though the beneficiaries of the programme are brought on board to ensure that they own the programme for it will facilitate its sustainability. However, how success-ful the extensions services are depends on how well co-ordinated the above institutions are.

3.4 Organisational structure of NAADS at Dis-trict level and National level

Figure 3

NAADS and District Structure

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Source: Potts and Nagujja 2007

The structure above focuses on the hierarchy at the District level that is responsible with the implementation of NAADS policy where the Chief Administrative Officer is the overall Manager. District Head of Production reports to the District Chief Administrative Officer. Head of Production supervises the team in ensuring that they implement the activities in the various sectors; Crop, Entomology, Veterinary, Com-merce. District NAADS Coordinator supervises NAADS activities at the District and the Sub County. Sub county Chief and Sub county Coordinator coordinate at Subcounty level while in coordination with the rest of the Sectors at the District.

Figure 4

Organisational structure of National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS).

Potential service providers

MAAIF Technical departmentPlanning UnitNARO,UCDACDO etc

MWLE , NEMAOther line departments and Parastatals

International NGOsRegional/National NGOsUniversity and other Academic Sectors

Private sectorConsultants,ContractorsCompanies, Agro-business

Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries

Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture

Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development

Subcounty CouncilSubcounty Development,InvestmentAnd Production CommitteProduction DepartmentTechnical planning Committee,Local Administration

NAADS Board andNAADS Secretariat

District CouncilDistrict Development,Investment andProduction CommitteeProduction departmentTechnical planning CommitteeLocal Administration

District Farmer Fora

Subcounty Farmer Fora

National Farmer fora

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Source: Potts and Nagujja (2007)

Key

The above Organisational structure shows overall imple-mentation of NAADS from Village level, where farmer groups are situated up to the Centre where the Ministry and other bodies are placed.

3.5 Formation of Farmer groups under NAADSNAADS facilitates the process of group formation through the activity of farmer institutional development. Meetings are conducted with the farmers on the key areas regarding group formation and the key areas include;

Group meaning Group characteristics Benefits of forming groups Group size (15-25members) is the ideal situation Common activities undertaken in a group Group member roles Factors that lead to strengthening ,sustainability

and failure of groups Group constitution(format/contents)

After the meetings, farmers are then given time to inter-act and form,

groups based on common farmer interests (NAADS revised 2007). Farmers’ capacities are built by NAADS to enable them form their own groups.

Donors

Indicates members of the programme

Executive Lines of authority

/accountability for NAADS operation Lines of technical

communication and

Farmer groups at Parish and Village level

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Enterprise selection and DevelopmentCreate or reinforce a network of actors for agro enterprise selection and development,strengthen farmers institutional capacity to link with actors from government, private sector and civil society, who play a role in supporting agro enterprise development

Farmer group and Farmer Fora Formation and Development Analyze capacity for tasks required, Build capacity to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the Individual farmer groups to demand and use services of Farmer Fora to ensure provision of support services

Mass sensitisation and awareness raisingEducation of local leadership and clarify expectations about NAADS,mass sensitisation and awareness raising about NAADS

Verification of existing groups and formation of new groups Registration, inventory and characterisation of existing groups,formation of new groups

InstitutionalDevelopment

InstitutionalStrengthening

Group Formation

Sensitization &Awareness Raising

3.6 Farmers participation under NAADSThe figure below shows how NAADS empowers the farmers to be able to participate in the various activities such as (Stroud et al. n.d.);

Mass sensitisation and awareness raising Verification of existing groups and formation of new

groups Farmer group and farmer fora formation and

development Enterprise selection and development

Figure 5

Farmer institutional development process used by NAADS

Source: Stroud et al.(n.d.)

Building the capacity of the farmers has four stages as shown above. Institutional building starts with the mass mobilisation and sensitisation of the farmers about the NAADS programme which will include the local leadership,

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NGO’s. Second is verification of existing groups and are in-formed to register at the Subcounty, new groups with com-mon interests are formed. Third is the identification capa-cities that are lacking within the farmer groups and lastly trainings are provided by the service providers and exten-sion staff within the system.

3.7 Location to the studyMukono district’s location is in the central region of Uganda of which its extension to the west from the Namanve direction is about 10km’s that’s from the Ugandan capital city, Kampala. An area of 12437-74 sq km is being occupied by the district of which 79% is under open waters and swamps. Its estimated population is 763,800 and each density is about 294 person’s per.sq.km. The dominant land tenure systems include; freehold, lease, and mailo and privately owned. Furthermore agriculture stands to be the economic activity with major cash crops being coffee, sugarcane, vanilla and tea of which the dis-trict is fairly urbanised with three town councils namely; Njeru, Nkonkonjeru and Mukono (NAADS baseline draft re-port, 2002).

Administratively, Mukono district comprises of 4 Counties and 27 Subounties.Economic activities are mainly agriculture with emphasis in food crops(cassava, sweet potatoes,beans,maize),cash crops(cotton,coffee,sugarcane and tea),fruits and vegetables(tomatoes, onions, pine-apples),dairy farming and fishing on lake Victoria (Mpagi 2007).Literacy rate in Mukono district is reflected through educa-tional attainment in Uganda, of which the area under study is in the category of central region.

Table 5

Education attainment of the adult population in Uganda

No of formal schooling

Some primary

Com-pleted primary

Some secondary

Completed senior six

Post second-ary

Total

sex

Male 10.5 44.4 16.7 22.0 1.7 4.7 100.0

Female 28.3 42.3 11.9 14.7 0.5 2.2 100.0

Rural/Urban

Urban 8.6 29.6 15.3 33.7 3.2 9.7 100.0

Rural 22.5 46.0 13.9 14.9 0.6 2.1 100.0

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Region

Kampala 4.3 27.7 13.9 37.8 4.6 11.6 100.0

Central 12.9 42.8 15.8 23.6 1.3 3.6 100.0

Eastern 20.3 46.1 13.6 17.0 0.6 1.8 100.0

Northern 26.7 46.7 11.9 12.2 0.6 1.8 100.0

Western 25.7 42.7 14.8 13.2 0.6 3.0 100.0

National 20.1 43.3 14.1 8.1 1.1 3.4 100.0

Source: Adapted from Ministry of Gender, Uganda (2008) ,Table 1.14 pp10

The table indicates that the rural area is still lacking, when it comes to formal education in general. While the area of study falls under the central region it’s been real-ised that 12% never attended formal schooling, those who went beyond post secondary studies were few, for it is 4%, which is still far below average. Literacy rate has never im-proved for the last five years. Ugandan constitution guaran-tees the right to education (Ministry of Gender Labour and Social Development report 2008) but communities are still lagging in education of which it affects the literacy rate. For development to occur the need to have an elite community is crucial, for the population will value in improving their livelihood through agricultural extension services since ag-riculture is the main activity in Uganda.

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Chapter 4 Extension services: Farm-ers’ needs, gender equality and par-ticipation

4.1 Introduction.The chapter discusses data from the field in relation to the research question and the conceptual and analytical frame work.

4.2 Research question: How have agricultural extension services, enabled farmer groups im-prove on their productivity?

4.2.1 Sub question 1: How does advice given to farmer groups relate to farmers’ needs?

This section will focus on the farmer needs that the farmers encounter, how the farmers seek advice in relation to the farmer needs, what the procedure is if a farmer is to benefit from advice FID, how the advice is related to the farmer needs, How the advice has helped the farmers improve on the production (yields), what extension methods are used in the transmission of the advice and if the teaching methods used are interactive.

Farmers’ needs vary from context to context depending on the districts and the livelihood in them. However the findings show that the farmer groups do experience several farming needs such as pests attacking the crops and live-stock diseases, poor yields from the farm fields due to inad-equate rainfall since the seasons are changing and are never predictable like in the past, food insecurity since most of the farmers have no stores and granaries where they can store food, lack of proper marketing information and fall in the prices especially with yields have been real-ised, poor quality of seeds.

Pests affecting crops can be evidenced where (Tushemereirwe etal 2004) do argue that banana is one of the most important cash and food crop in Uganda. But the survival is not predictable because of many pests and dis-eases, making the farmers shift away from banana produc-

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tion thus making the enterprise less profitable. In Mukono district banana bacterial wilt was realised with a farmer (Mr. Musiitwa) through a team of plant pathologists, exten-sion workers who visited the farmer’s home on 7th Septem-ber 2001 amongst other farmers. The above farmer had the most affected plantations though several other farmers were assessed.

With pests affecting farmers, the need for continuous assessment of crops in terms of what diseases are likely to occur is vital, so that farmers do not get discouraged from farming which is yielding.

While the focus groups revealed that food insecurity was a threat previously, at the time of the field study the group members mentioned that there had been an improvement in food production, but the only problem was that the prices had fallen. One of the group members, who was a man, mentioned that he was stuck with his produce (maize) , he could not sell it because the costs he incurred in preparing the fields up to the time of harvest was so high. So for him to sell the maize at the prevailing price meant his produc-tion costs would not be recovered.

The above information is confirmed through the Uganda food security brief issued in May 2010, in regard to the post second season analysis that the overall food security situ-ation had improved in the country as compared to the previ-ous season (IPC September-January 2010). Improvement in the food security is related to the influence from the moder-ate elnino rain conditions. But increased food production led to fall in prices, however Mukono district had some spots that were identified as being at the borderline of food insecurity and these included Nagojje, Buvuma, Buikwe and Seeta Sub counties. Adequate amounts of rainfall had been received which resulted in crop production that was sub-stantial and food prices reducing generally in January to March 2010. The yields in maize that was high resulted to low prices in the second season of September to December 2009 though it enhanced food availability and seeds that were cheap. And because of the falling prices the farmers did not open their fields. The reduced prices from crop yields and livestock reduced the income of farmers. At the same time there were constant stocks of animals with products like milk and eggs being supplied, accompanied with increased rainfall leading to livestock diseases like foot and mouth disease leading to a decrease in the net income from the related products.

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While the farmer groups are taking the initiative to have improved production, so that incomes of the household im-prove, there is need to have policies formulated, within the local administration, so that every household is able to have a proper structure where food can be stored. The house-holds should be sensitised on the importance of having the storage structures since the seasons of production are not predictable in terms of the rain patterns. On the other hand it is important for the extension staff to have a market sur-vey on price conditions to be able to advise the farmers ac-cordingly.

To address the farmers’ needs, the focus group discus-sions mentioned that there is need for farmers to be organ-ised groups because a group is an entry to NAADS activit-ies. National Agricultural Advisory Services revised (2007) mentions that majority of farmers are small scale, con-strained by resources. As individuals they have no access and control in regard to the processes and structures that are meant to transform the natural resource assets of farm-ers into outcomes that are desired by the farmers. To be able to support the development of farmer institutions, farmers have to get organised into institutions that are ap-propriate, if control and access to advisory services is to be realised and for purposes of farmers having their voices heard in the decision making processes. Capacity develop-ment of farmers is a gradual process for and is continuous. After the formation of a group, it should be registered at the Sub county. The criterion before registration is that the members of the group should be involved in a common farming activity. There should be a clear leadership struc-ture within the group, which comprises of Chairperson, vice chairperson, secretary, treasurer and any other office bear-ers agreed upon by the members. The group should have a distinct address which should in-dicate the village parish and sub county. The group should have a constitution, which stipulates the set of rules and procedures that members should adhere too. There should be evidence to show membership of the group. For example membership role and should be regular in meetings and there should be evidence to prove the regular meetings.

For farmers to access Farmer Institutional development activities, being part of a group is crucial, for the implica-tion would be, if a farmer does not belong to a group it would be difficult to benefit from trainings that are provided by the programme. Unless if one of the members

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within the group is ready to volunteer to spread the inform-ation, to the farmers who are not part of the farmer groups.

Farmers within the focus group discussions mentioned that after the groups have been registered at the Sub county, the capacities of the groups are developed through trainings. General training areas mentioned by members were; rights, responsibilities and roles of the groups, initi-ation of the groups, gender considerations in the formation of the groups, market linkage, participatory planning, mon-itoring and evaluation. However the group discussion with farmers emphasised enterprise selection as an activity where farmers spear head the whole process by selecting enterprises/practices that are profitable, marketable, finan-cial outlay is low and risks such as pests and livestock dis-eases are low. The farmers mentioned that trainings are re-lated to the farming needs, they face in agriculture and en-ables farmers share experiences in relation to what prac-tical farming is.

“National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) is a very important programme, in that it allows us to express ourselves in terms of our farming experiences and gives us a chance to identify the difficulties we are faced with. Of which it takes the initiative to train us in these areas and many times the trainings are not imposed but it is us the farmers who mention our needs and are trained in many as-pects regarding farming such as disease control, enterprise selection and many others so we appreciate NAADS, so the programme should continue (Member of a farmer group)”.

For the farmers to minimise risks in farming, that affect increase in productivity thus income, it becomes advantage-ous to join a group and have skills to achieve from the train-ings that are provided under farmer Institutional develop-ment. If a farmer does not belong to a group it becomes difficult to access knowledge provided under the NAADS programme.

With trainings, the farmer groups have been able to im-prove their existing projects and equally start up new pro-jects of their interest, which is profit making. Besides the subsistence aspect which indicates that the farmers are moving towards making farming a business, in order to be able to have increased incomes at household levels, so that they can be able to improve, their standards of living. Farmer groups have been able to practise adaptive farming that is from farming at a group level to farming at a per-sonal level. Instead of waiting for the benefits provided by

39

the government (projects such as piggery, banana suckers) those farmers who are able, start up their own.

Vanilla farmers get hope again in Mukono district as stated by (Abdallah 2006) that Vanilla is a crop that has a future and thus enabling farmers get back to growing it, of which they are exploring the value addition. The farmers are grateful to NAADS for they can be able to access know-ledge and skills on how to grow and process Vanilla. The crop (green Vanilla) reached 150,000shs a kg. The prices that were high, attracted many farmers though it was short lived. Madagascar then, major vanilla producer had a dis-aster that led to deterioration in production. However when Madagascar got back to production, prices reduced down-wards in Uganda, which led to farmers uprooting their vanilla and abandoning the fields, but the change in price from shs 150,000 in 2004 to 1,000shs in 2006 of green vanilla did not discourage farmers in Mukono district with continuing in the enterprise. Though with 1000shs a farmer can still make profit, of which NAADS has been instru-mental in equipping farmers with skills and knowledge of how to do the processing of green vanilla, and making farm-ers aware of world prices. Furthermore, farmers are having a goal of accessing the International market and the only way is to help farmers form associations. NAADS is helping the farmers form associations but the risk with cooperatives is still fresh and risky said the district NAADS Coordinator. But the middle men are equally a threat to farmers, be-cause they do not want farmers to access exporters, even then it is the processing knowledge that has raised the mor-ale of farmers to grow vanilla because a farmer can earn 250,000shs per kilogram of processed vanilla as compared to shs 1,000 per kg of green vanilla.

Knowledge and skills provided to farmers, has made farmers think further in terms of marketing the crop, how-ever the risks such as how to get to the International mar-ket, need to be addressed, because the transactions are be-ing made through middle men, which is more risky because benefits to middle men may be more, as compared to what farmers reap as profits.

Some members within the group had more interest in NAADS providing inputs such as seeds and fertilisers, as compared to advice. This can be illustrated below; a survey of 120 farmers was carried out in Mukono district, on farm-ers’ perception on the approach of NAADS. Reactions were based on various experiences with NAADS to date, includ-ing participation in trainings, mobilisation and planning

40

activities. Responses are summarised, as 72% felt that NAADS should provide inputs and agricultural credit for them to be able to apply the skills received from the train-ings. One farmer asked, what the point was, in spending a lot of money on advice. Yet there were no seeds available as the rains started and one farmer predicted that if 3 years of NAADS pass, without loans for activities, then the pro-gramme would be affected (stall). And stressed that NAADS was not serious, for it was providing Knowledge instead of the expected assistance (Obaa etal 2005).

Table 6

Survey of 120 farmers perceptions of the contract system

Perception Frequency Percentage%NAADS should provide credit and inputs

86 72

The system is good 42 35The system does not be-nefit the poor

16 13

Monitoring and follow up should be improved

14 12

Food and drink should be provided

08 07

Multiple responses pos-sible

Source: Obaa et al. 2005

However, capacity development provided to farmer groups has enabled farmers appreciate the importance of tracking progress of projects, they are personally engaged in, both at a group level and individual because they are taught how to keep records, mentioned one of the female farmers in the focus group discussion.

“For us to be able to know whether the project is pro-gressing, we are asked to keep records of which a follow up is made by the trainers, And they will not believe in update by mouth, they are interested in looking at records such as;

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if you have a cow,-how many calves it has produced, how much milk it has produced, what is used for household con-sumption and what has been sold. What feeding is provided for it, to be able to generate more milk and advice will be provided based on the records in place and they further ad-vise us to circulate the calves to other group members if it is a government delivered project (Member of the farmer group) ”.

Keeping records, enables farmers monitor and evaluate enterprises they are engage in. For purposes of checking whether the project is viable and worthwhile, determining success of the project can be possible, as compared to if a farmer has no records completely. Sharing experiences from farmer groups is part of trainings, so that farmers can be able to increase their yields through new lessons from colleague farmers, which experiences are later included into their projects.

“You can have fifty birds at the beginning of the project as a benefit from the district but with experiences shared, the project grows bigger because lessons are put into prac-tice, of which the project gets bigger to one hundred and fifty birds within a short period of time ,so as a group we exchange various ideas during trainings for it is good, be-cause some of us do not enjoy classes that are provided be-cause they are technical sometimes, since most us our edu-cation levels are limited (Woman member of a farmer group) ”.

For farmer groups to improve, it is important to do bench marking (evaluation amongst farmers for what is new and benefiting in terms of information) to be able to share. For farmers can be able to learn from one another, provide assistance to fellow group members on how to im-prove the projects.

Through the focus group discussions, farmers men-tioned that extension teaching methods used to provide skills and knowledge varied, some of the group members highlighted class room teaching, which most of the farmers did not like. But it is inevitable sometimes and some mem-bers mentioned demonstrations as another method. Demon-strations are provided to farmer groups depending on pro-jects identified, with guidance from trainers. A host farmer is identified by group members with condition that he/she is ready to have other farmers access the demonstration, with a lot of ease without restrictions and should be able to host visitors who would like to have a field visit to the demon-stration. In a demonstration the host farmer has responsib-

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ility, of maintaining the farm with the help of other farmers. The demonstrations are meant to provide hands on experi-ence for farmers. However farmers are able to express themselves freely, thus carry on lessons learnt to their household projects.

Okunade (2007) mentions that extension is an ongoing process, where useful information is got to people and therefore assists farmers to be able to acquire skills, know-ledge and attitude to make use of the knowledge or techno-logy effectively.. To achieve the broad aim, extension uses various teaching methods to train rural people, with the be-lief that the more the various ways of presenting and prac-tising the topic the faster, people tend to understand the subject matter.

As cited by Okunade 2007, Gaforth classified teaching methods of extension, into three namely; individual method, group method, mass method. Individual method involved face to face interaction between the teacher and learner. For example farm and home visits, whereas group method is meant to transfer specific information in regard to prac-tises. For example small plot adoption Techniques (SPAT), group discussions and excursions, mass media method in-volves bulletin, circulars, bulletins, leaflets, radio, television and cinema. The methods’ effectiveness can be measured in terms of their ability to change a situation that is static into a dynamic one. Much as the methods can be measured through the change created, considering suitability of teaching methods in relation to prevailing farmer needs is vital, because not all tools of teaching may be applicable to particular needs of farmers.

Responses from focus group discussions, about exten-sion teaching methods was that the teaching methods were interactive, for the farmers were able to apply what had been taught in a demonstration because it was practical. But not all the farmers put what was learned from demon-strations into practice because of limited resources (land, finances). It is farmers who were rich (had resources) that managed to adopt practises. However there was classroom teaching, which was academic because it involved writing notes on farming and by the time farmers were out of class they had forgotten. Putting it into practice was difficult.

Byekwaso and Namwase(2007), in an assessment car-ried out in March 2007 by Agri-business Development Com-ponent(ABDC), on progress made by farmers, as per ad-option of skills(agronomic practises) such as; use of im-proved crop varieties ,spacing, fertilisers and herbicide ap-

43

plication, weed control, improved breeds and control of livestock pests and diseases that were disseminated by Farmer Organisations and other Organisations , mentioned that the objective of assessment was to determine the ex-tent to which farmers adopted skills that were provided through business support services and other services that were provided by participating Organisations. A sample was collected from 479 farmers and 141 extension linked farm-ers in 12 districts where the farmer organisations get ABDC. The assessment defined ‘adoption rate’ as that pro-portion of the number of practices of technology of a tech-nology package to which a farmer was trained on and he/she was applying repeatedly. Furthermore, overall adoption of farmers in technology and skills increased. In 2007 it was 42.7% which implied that the farmers were applying the practises that they had been trained on. In 2003 it was 37% and in 2005 it was 37% which was attributed to experience and knowledge acquired and being able to access re-sources, technologies, services that were necessary through farmer Organisations and other participating Organisations that provided additional support.

Table 7

Adoption rates of enterprise by enterprise

Adoption rate by percentageEnterprise/practices 2003 2005 2007

Coffee 40.0 41.1 28.1Poultry 28.0 28.3 39.7Banana 53.0 32.6 40.0Maize 41.2 39.2 41.7Upland rice 18.8 40.1 42.7

Dairy/zero grazing 40 41.2 44.0potatoes 76.7 50.8 44.7Horticulture 28.9 42.9 50.9overall 34.6 35.8 42.7

Source: Byekwaso and Namwase 2007

Byekwaso and Namwase (2007) compared the adoption rates by districts in 2007 where Mukono and Iganga were recorded as the lowest in adoption (38%). Kyenjojo and Apac were recorded as the highest (48%). However farmers provided an insight, as to why the variations in adoption which included; availability and cost of input such as seeds, fertilisers, knowledge about the technology, gender and support availability. Adoption was high, if returns were ex-

44

pected to be high from application of technology, in regard to high yields and disease resistance. It was reasonable be-cause farmers liked to allocate resources to practises that yielded high benefits. About 51% of farmers ranked better yields as a benefit expected from adoption of any techno-logy, 6% was to other factors such as disease resistance and for less post harvest losses the ranking was 4%. Fur-thermore low adoption was in instances where the techno-logy availability was not guaranteed for example affordabil-ity, access and knowledge on application of the technology. Farmers again ranked 24% to lack of money for input pur-chases, 20% to awareness on where to get the inputs, 18% to high demands of labour and these were the four most im-portant reasons for not adopting the technology. Farmers are being realistic in deciding which technology to adopt after capacity development has been provided in terms of trainings. For it is not trainings that determine adoption, but technology benefits

Interviews further revealed that much as farmers appre-ciated advisory services. Farmers had mixed feelings about the programme because of changes in service provision. For example when the programme started in 2001, it was service providers training fully, but later it changed, and in-cluded extension staff within the system, to be able to min-imise costs and ensure that information provided by exten-sion staff does not contradict with extension, provided by Service providers, though Service providers trained farmers in areas where extension staff had no expertise.

“NAADS at the start thought service providers, were more knowledgeable but most of the service providers who trained the farmers were social workers, they did not have a background of entomology which dealt with plants, veter-inary which dealt with animals and also general agricultural knowledge which was a problem, so the NAADS secretariat which is overseeing Institution had to revise advisory ser-vices, to ensure that the extension staff within the system are part of the advisory service provided which also minim-ised the costs incurred by Government on the Service Pro-viders(Animal Husbandry Officer)’’.

Having extension staff that are knowledgeable and are within the system meant that, the staff could easily be reached by farmers. And in case of intervention it would be easier to locate extension staffs that are within the system because they are employed by government.

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4.2.2 Sub question 2: How is gender equality pro-moted in FID activities in farmer groups?

In this section the focus will be on how gender is pro-moted in farmer institutional development activities and how farmer institutional development facilitates land own-ership and use rights, different gender roles played by both men and women in improving productivity.

Through the discussions in the focus group majority of the members agreed that the NAADS approach through farmer institutional development recognised all the social categories such as the men, women, youth and elderly. Farmer groups were formed according to common interests as per the different social categories, depending on which group the farmers were comfortable to join. During farmer Institutional development activities, most of the members who attended were women, for they were interested in ac-quiring skills and knowledge that was provided by the train-ers/service providers. Economic Policy Research Centre (2009) mentions that NAADS has high registration of wo-men averaging to 60% in farmer group activities while the youths’ response has been low at 10%. Furthermore women were engaged in activities under Farmer Institutional devel-opment, but applicability of skills and knowledge was lim-ited because men were owners of resources of production. Especially when it is land, men have control and for women to be able to tilt and access land they have to agree with their husbands. When women buy their own land, they have to put it in the men’s name. It is perceived that women have no right to own land and the land that is in place is limited so it has to be leased for a particular period of time and within that period the women have to inform their husbands and if the land is not leased individually it has to be done in a group and its the men in the group who take pride out of the women’s hard work.

“Organisations such as Naro, Sasakawa Global 2000 provide us with seeds, but we are limited with land. The only provision is leasing which is expensive, and the owners provide their land for a short period of time. Traditional Chiefs have a lot of land, and many farmers compete to have the same land (Woman farmer group member)”.

Nayenga (2008) discusses that, the system of land that is recognised in Uganda by law is freehold, mailo and cus-tomary tenures. The author cites Uganda Bureau of Statist-ics (UBOS) as having collected data on land ownership. Where UBOS referred to land ownership as that land which a house hold has a title or certificate showing ownership, it

46

also included land which the household has been using for many years without claims being made on the land. Land under use rights refers to the situation where land can be used and benefited from, though it belongs to another per-son but should not be damaged in any way. For the rights use can be an arrangement between the tenant in occupa-tion of the land and the land owner. Furthermore land in Uganda is highly concentrated, and it is not equally distrib-uted across regions, income groups and gender. There are gender biases that are deeply rooted in land ownership, for Male headed households have 80% and 90% of ownership rights. In both rural and urban, basic household assets such as saucepans and pots are owned by women, for they are used in their domestic chores. Men own assets that are valuable such as pangas, hoes and transport means. This limits the woman’s capacity to engage in meaningful pro-duction since they lack the assets for production.

In 2002 as cited by Nayenga (2008) a participatory poverty assessment was conducted on gendered division of roles Findings showed that the prime responsibility of wo-men was that of domestic duties and food production. While Men had productive activities and leisure as part of their time spent. Both men and women contribute to agricultural production but women play a greater role in food produc-tion and small- scale livestock rearing such as poultry. Men do large scale livestock rearing such as cattle. In addition women provide 70-80% of agricultural labour, 7% of wo-men own or control the use of land but land is ultimately with men(Ovonji-Odida etal,2000) as cited by Nayenga(2008). Generally men decide how land should be used and whether to sell it. For Farmer Institutional devel-opment under NAADS, to be effective in increasing pro-ductivity of farmer groups’, gender issues such as land own-ership and accessibility including shared gender roles should be mainstreamed while conducting the Farmer Insti-tutional activities with the Farmer groups.

4.3.3 Sub question 3: How has Participation of farmer groups been enhanced in FID activit-ies?

The section will focus on activities that are provided to farmer groups under Farmer Institutional Development, stake holders involved, how participants are determined within groups, structure of programme implementation and how farmers influence the decision making process, as to whether the planning process considers consultation, in-

47

formation sharing and representation of farmers and chal-lenges that are faced by farmers and the technical staff in implementing the programme

During focus group discussions, farmers recognised that NAADS as a programme provides several extension services namely; Farmer Institutional development which mobilises all stakeholders and provides sensitisation on basics of NAADS approach, thereafter farmer group identi-fication and formation is carried out, then registration of farmer groups at the Sub county for purposes of being able to benefit from services under the programme, selection of farmer representatives to the Sub county is carried out and the Sub county Chief oversees the whole process with the help of other extension staff within the Sub county, particip-atory planning which includes the selection of enterprises and constraints involved in the enterprises, market linkage, gender considerations while the groups are being de-veloped and the group members supplemented that the pro-gramme provides services in relation to production(yield) improvement such as pest and livestock disease control, food security measures.

In the discussions the members of the group mentioned that there are a number of stakeholders and these include the farmers within the community, the Sub county staff who include the community development officer, NAADS Co-ordinator, Subject matter specialists (Commercial officer, Agricultural Officer, Community development Officer) though the whole programme is Village level to Sub county, District, Ministry and other related bodies.

The interviews further mentioned that technical staffs who are the Cdo, Animal husbandry Officer, and Agricul-tural Officer are responsible for guiding farmer groups and should be able to encourage farmers to voice up the needs they are faced with during farming.

“As a team, meetings are held to sensitise farmers on the need to plan, so that the farmers can be able to know their contribution, the farmer group representatives should be able to develop work plans, monitor and evaluate the progress of activities implemented within the financial year. Semi annual review meetings are held for purposes of get-ting feedback from all stakeholders, including farmers for purposes of cross checking what progress has been made by farmers and implementers of the programme(Sub county NAADS Coordinator)”.

Stakeholders have taken the initiative to empower farmer groups, by farmers taking lead in identification of

48

farming needs, so that a sense of ownership is instilled in the farmer groups.

In focus group discussions, Members mentioned that, being a participant of a group is based on common farming interests within members. However a group should be re-gistered at the Sub County in order to be recognised and to be able to benefit from the extension services. The criterion followed to be able to get registered is by filling a form which is obtained from the Sub county. NAADS ACT 2001 section15 (2) spells out that those farmer groups, associ-ations or cooperatives with legal entity and are already in existence, may fill form 1 in the second schedule of the act for purposes of benefiting from NAADS services. Making Farmer groups register at the Sub County is for purposes of having an organised system of operation within the locality for purposes of identification amongst the group Members.

The Farmer groups revealed that prioritising the needs in regard to the advisory services (Farmer Institutional de-velopment) is the role of the Farmers. Work plans are de-veloped by farmers in their groups and submitted to the Subcounty. Farmer groups still responsible in monitoring and evaluation of services, which is done on a daily basis and through semi and annual reviews, which is an arena where farmers share information in regard to progress of the programme. In annual reviews, District respective leader ship is in attendance to note views of farmers that are beyond sub county leadership. NAADS flyer (2001) clearly spells out the role of farmers at Districts and Sub-counties, as identification and prioritisation of farmers en-terprises and advisory service needs, work plans should be written to address members needs within the group, contri-bution of finances for implementation of services at group level, electing representatives to the Sub county Farmer forum, Monitoring and evaluation of the performance of the service providers.

Interviews further supplemented that the roles of farmer groups, are a mechanism of ensuring that farmers evaluate progress of advisory services through semi annual and annual reviews that are conducted at both District and the Sub county. Quarterly meetings are held between the Farmer representatives and extension staff. Through meet-ings, extension staffs are able to explain to farmers changes that are going on within the programme. While farmer groups are involved in providing views in regard to whole policy process. The farmer representatives are involved in the planning and the budgeting process conducted at the

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Subcounty and the District which is an arena where the farmers’ views can be listened too through the representat-ives

“We do have several updates that we get from the Cent-ral Ministry. It is our duty as staff to share information with farmers so that they can be able to provide their views in relation to programme implementation. A report is written and submitted to the Central Ministry and thereafter with feedback from the Ministry the farmer groups have to be informed (District NAADS Coordinator)’’.

Farmer groups appreciate advisory services because of consultations carried out in regard to progress of the pro-gram, and how NAADS has been able to consider farmers’ ideas. However the timing within which activities are con-ducted is delayed. For the fact that farmer groups are in-volved in the whole process of programme implementation, it gives an impression of farmers’ voices being heard. Tim-ing of activities needs to be put under consideration, for the planning cycle should be implemented according schedules within the calendar year. So that farmer groups’ are not af-fected with enterprise (practise) implementation.

Interviews conducted with the technical staff revealed that farmer groups are faced with a challenge of not receiv-ing advice on time because farmer groups are many, and area of coverage is big. Furthermore service providers who are contracted to provide trainings to farmers may conflict with trainers within the system because of lack of coher-ence of Information provided to farmers. For capacity of service providers is limited in the area of capacity develop-ment as per farmer needs faced by the farmers. Interviews further mentioned that farmers are slow at identifying needs they are faced with, which affects the schedules of trainings that are meant to be provided. Farmer groups are deteriorating in terms of attendance in trainings. Trainers sometimes get to training venues and there are no farmers to be trained.

To be able to improve on production of farmers, the need to harmonise interests of farmers and trainers/tech-nical staff is vital, because advisory services have to be provided within a given period of time. For example aspects such as service providers providing contradicting advice to farmers as need to be cross examined.

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Chapter 5 Summary of findings, Con-clusions and Policy Recommenda-tions

5.1 IntroductionThe Chapter provides a summary of the findings, conclu-sions and Policy recommendations

5.2 Summary of FindingsAgricultural extension services have not enabled farmer groups improve on their productivity. Findings reveal that Farmer groups are faced with various needs such as market linkage, falling prices, pests and livestock diseases. NAADS trainings have been provided so that the farmers can be able to select enterprises/practices that are less risky. Farmers’ needs were related to the trainings such as enter-prise selection but not all the farmers put the skills into practice because some preferred improved varieties (seeds) and agricultural credit (loans) compared to the knowledge provided. The adoption of technology was low amongst the farmers and adoption by farmers was determined by yields expected from a particular adoption/practice and the costs of the inputs (seeds, fertilisers) needed for production. Fur-thermore the Farmers found demonstrations more practical though most of the demonstrations that were put in place were in the homes of the wealthy farmers which left those without resources helpless.

In the study, the findings in relation to gender equality (sub question two) revealed that NAADS through farmer In-stitutional development recognised the different social cat-egories such as men, women, youth and elderly in the activ-ities such as enterprise selection however it was realised that the women still have a challenge of use, owning and controlling land for it limits the capacity of women to have increased production. Furthermore both men and women are involved in agricultural production but the women provide most of the labour in cash crop production and also engage in food production, the women are involved in small scale livestock rearing(poultry, chicken) while the men are involved in the large scale which is Cattle rearing.

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In sub question three, the findings in relation to how participation has been enhanced in farmer groups revealed that farmers groups have to be organised and registered to be able to benefit from NAADS however NAADS has a structure that entails several stakeholders namely farmers, technical staff, service providers and the programme is co-ordinated from the Village, Sub county, District, Ministry and other bodies. Aspects as per the decision making influ-ence by the farmers revealed that the farmers influence de-cisions through the development of work plans in regard to the farmer needs for inclusion in development plan of the Sub county and District. Farmer groups are involved in the information sharing and consultation during the semi and annual reviews held annually for the purposes of evaluating the progress of the programme, quarterly meetings are held with farmer groups then on a monthly basis there are general meetings that are held and the meetings do include all the stakeholders of the programme from the Subcounty and District and the farmers are represented through the farmer representatives. During the budgeting and planning process at the Sub county and the District the representat-ives of the farmers are involved.

5.3 ConclusionsThe study sought to find out how agricultural extension services have enabled farmer groups improve on their pro-ductivity(yields)in Mukono District.

Agriculture in Uganda still stands to have less impress-ive progress even with implementation of NAADS policy. Production on ground has not improved visibly much as farmers recognise and appreciate the programme. Farmers are still challenged with implementation of skills and know-ledge provided under farmer Institutional development. Though trainings are related to farmer needs such as pest and livestock disease control, market linkage, price stability and food security because farmers feel NAADS should provide inputs like improved seeds, fertilisers and agricul-tural credit (Loans) so that skills and knowledge can be ap-plied. The proportion of farmers using practices that they are trained on such as market linkage, improved varieties, fertilisers, control of livestock pests and diseases were few because adoption depended on availability and costs of the inputs, yields that could be harvested and how high the re-turns would be from the new practice that the farmers were trained on.

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Gender inequality has not been resolved by NAADS, for the fact that farmers are faced with disparities between men and Women. Land owner ship and control is not main-streamed into the programme, so it becomes difficult to im-plement skills, for men have full control over resources. Gender roles are not shared equally for most of the produc-tion is by Women, whereas men are engaged in cash crop farming and large livestock keeping(Cattle) and Women do small scale livestock keeping(poultry, pigs) and food crop growing.

NAADS through Farmer Institutional development re-cognises the role of farmers in decision making process, information sharing and consultation for farmers are in-volved in determining work plans in regard to services needed, and farmers participate in the semi and annual re-views and do make an input in the budgeting conferences and planning meetings held at the Subcounty and District level but farmers attendance in the activities has reduced due to the timing within which the activities take place.

5.4 Policy RecommendationsGovernment of Uganda has taken the initiative to have agri-culture production improve, through the provision of agri-cultural extension services (NAADS).With Farmer Institu-tional development as an activity where farmer group capa-cities are developed for purposes of identifying farmer needs. However there is need to help farmer groups form higher level institutions, so that farmers can engage in broader production ,marketing and collective action where farmers can be able to deal with challenges in production such as falling prices, food insecurity, market linkage , pest and livestock control.

Technology adoption is still a challenge amongst farm-ers, Government should be able to carry out an assessment on how suitable and available a particular technology provided to farmer groups is for example if a pineapple pro-cessor is provided to a farmer group, how much would it cost for the farmers to maintain the processor and just in case it fails to work, can it be possible for the farmers to find a professional to repair it.

NAADS gender strategy, needs to be improved, to be able to incorporate aspects such as land ownership, use and control, shared gendered roles should be encouraged through having an affirmative action.

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Much as there is enhanced participation, by farmer groups having an influence in the decision making, informa-tion sharing through the semi and annual reviews and con-sultation of the farmer groups through the budget confer-ences and planning meetings at the Subcounty and District, there is need for the Government to provide yard sticks and performance indicators to be able to evaluate the involve-ment of the farmer groups in the decision making process, information sharing and consultation.

Following the challenges that are faced by the extension staff such as big locations for services to be delivered, con-flict of information delivered to farmers by service pro-viders and extension staff. Government needs to recruit more staff so that extension services can be more demand driven by the farmers. Define areas of services that can be delivered by the extension staff and what needs to be provided by service providers. Develop a standard format and training manual for purposes of common knowledge to avoid inconsistence. Furthermore extension staff and ser-vice providers should be provided with a trainer of trainees’ course for purposes of having an adequate approach to-wards the delivery of extension services to the farmers.

Appendices

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Appendix 1

Focus group discussion guide for the Farmer groups

1) What farmer needs are farmer groups faced with?2) How do the farmer groups solve the farmer needs/

search for advice?3) How are the farmer groups organised?4) How is the advice provided to the farmer groups

related to the farmer’s needs?5) How has the advice provided to the farmer groups

improved on the production(yields of the farmers)?6) What extension teaching methods are used to deliver

the advice and how interactive are they?7) How is gender recognised in the groups?8) Which gender is active in the farmer group activities9) How do the activities within the farmer group

consider land ownership and control as a resource for production?

10) How are the gender roles catered for within the farmer group activities?

11) What is Farmer Institutional development under NAADS?

12) Who are different stakeholders in Farmer Institutional development activities

13) How are participants within the farmer groups determined ?

14) How do the farmer groups infleunce decision making process?

15) How do the farmer groups share information within the Farmer Institutional Development activities?

16) What role do the farmer groups play in the implementation of the Farmer Institutional Development activities?

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Appendix 2 Interview guide for the technical staff

1) What position do you hold in the Organisation?2) In your capacity how have you been able to ensure

that the agricultural extension services interms of FID improve?

3) Why are there changes in the implementation approach of FID from Service providers to Extension staff?

4) What mechanism is in place to ensure that the trainings under FID are adequate and relate to the Farmer needs?

5) How have the mechanisms been evaluated to ensure that the Farmer Institutional development activities are related to FID?

6) How do the Farmer groups influence the review process of FID?

7) How have you been able to ensure that gender equality is promoted in the FID activities interms of land ownership and shared roles among the Men and Women?

8) What challenges are faced in the implementation of the FID activities?

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Appendix 3: Table showing list of technical staff interviewed

NO

TITLE LOCATION DATE

1 NAADS Coordinator Mukono District 06/08/2010

2 NAADS Coordinator Ntenjeru Subcounty 09/08/2010

3 Community Development Officer Ntenjeru Sub county 09/08/2010

4 Veterinary Officer Officer Ntenjeru Sub county 10/08/2010

5 Agricultural Officer Ntenjeru Sub county 10/08/2010

Source: Field study carried out by Researcher (2010)

Appendix 4: Table showing Farmers in a Focus group discussion

No GENDER CATEGORY PARISH TOTAL DATE1 Women Farmers Bunakija Central 6 02/08/20102 Men Farmers Bunakijja Central 5 02/08/20103 Women Farmers Saayi 5 03/08/20104 Men Farmers Saayi 6 03/08/20105 Women Farmers Ntanzi 7 04/08/20106 Men Farmers Ntanzi 4 04/08/20107 Women Farmers Nsanja 7 05/08/20108 Men Farmers Nsanja 4 05/08/2010

Source: Researcher’s field study

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