isi makalah widi

CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY

1.1 Problem Background

Lichens is the combination of fungi and algae that is morphologically and

physiology is a unity. In their live, lichens do not need the high live requirements and

hold out toward the lacking of water for a long time. Lichens products more than 500

uniques biochemical compound to adaptate in extrim habitat. Those compounds is used

to control the sun light, Senyawa tersebut berguna untuk mengontrol sinar terik

matahari, drive out, or repellen the herbivores, kill the microba and decrease the

competition with animals, and others.

Inspite of lichens grow well in nature in the unpriofitable condition, the lichens

is very sensitive to the air pollution and quickly loss in the bad air pollution area. A

reason that caused this is occurred that lichens can absorb a fluid and precipitate

minerals from rain water and air and they can not take it outside. Therefore, the

concentration of lethalic compound as SO2 is enter easily.

1.2 Problem Identifications

a. Lichens need the high of live requsite.

b. Lichens hold out toward the lacking of water for a long time.

c. Lichens produce more than 500 biochemical compounds.

d. Lichens can adapt in extrim habitat.

e. Lichens is very sensitive to the air pollution.

f. Lichens can quickly loss in bad air condition.

g. Lichens can absorb and precipitate the minerals from rainwater and air.

h. The lethalic compound as SO2 can enter to the lichens body easily so that

candeadly the body itself.

i. Lichens can not take out the minerals from their own body.

1 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION

1.3 Problem Formulation

a. How to know the air pollution effects by observe the lichense colony.

b. How to know the polluted and unpolluted area based on the lichens that are

observed in the several locations of observation.

c. The students do not understand yet about the varieties of lichens species that

can be used to indicate the air pollution.

1.4 Objectives of Observation

a. Students can know the effects of air pollution by observing the lichense colony

and dust particles.

b. Students can know the polluted and unpolluted area by observing the lichens

colony and compute the colony of lichense.

c. Students can know the level of pollution in several areas that are observed by

compute the dust particles.

d. Students can explain why the lichens can be used as bioindicators of air

pollution.

e. Students can understand the lichense specieses in the location of observation.

f. Students can explain why the dust particles can be used as bioindicators of air

pollution

`

1.5 Benefit of Observation

After doing the observation of lichense and dust as bioindicator of air pollution, the

students are expected to:

a. Understanding the varieties of lichens in the location of observation.

b. Understanding how the lichens reaction to respon the condition of their

environment.

c. Understanding where the polluted area and unpolluted area by observe the

lichens in the location object of observation.

d. Understanding the impact of air pollution by observe lichense in the location of

observation.


CHAPTER II

THEORY

2.1 Lichen Structure

Lichens are not plants. They are "composite

organisms" made up of two, or maybe three, completely

different kinds of organisms. It's as if you combined an animal such as

a dog with a plant such as an oak, maybe with a fungus thrown in as

well, and ended up with something very different from animal, plant

or fungus. Something that was its own thing, with its own identity and

manner of being.

Every lichen species is part fungus. Usually the other species

is a photosynthesizing alga, but sometimes it can be a

photosynthesizing bacterium known as a cyanobacterium.

Sometimes all three kinds of organisms are found in one lichen. The

above drawing gives an idea of what fungal hyphae wrapping around

alga cells might look like at the microscopic level.

In this amazing association the fungus benefits from the algae

because fungi, having no chlorophyll, can't photosynthesize their own

food. A lichen's fungal part is thus "fed" by its photosynthesizing algal

part. The alga and/or cyanobacterium benefit from the association

because the fungus is better able to find, soak up, and retain water

and nutrients than they. Also, the fungus provides the resulting lichen

shape, and the reproductive structures. This kind of relationship

between two or more organisms, where all organisms benefit, is

known as mutualism. The main body of a lichen is called a thallus.

At the left you see the British Soldier

Lichen, Cladonia cristatella. It's only about ¼-inch high (6


mm). In this common lichen the red spore-producing reproductive

structures are clearly visible. The lichen's name,Cladonia cristatella, is

actually the name of the fungus. The alga species in the lichen is

known as Trebouxia erici. However, it's customary to name a lichen

after its fungal part, so the whole lichen is known asCladonia

cristatella. British Soldiers are usually found on decaying wood, soil,

mossy logs, tree bases, and stumps. They help break down old wood

and put nutrients back into the soil where they can be used by plants.

Lichens also take nitrogen from the air and put it into the soil so

plants can use it.

The main structure on lichen is the body, called the thallus.

Lichens are put into four groups according to the shape of the thallus.

Foliose

lichensflat, leaf-like structure

Fruticose

lichensbushy structure

Squamulose

lichens

tiny, scale-like

squamules


http://helios.bto.ed.ac.uk/bto/microbes/lichen.htm#crest


Crustose

lichens

flat crust on or below

rocks or under the bark

of a tree

2.2 Lichen Ecology

Ecologically, lichens are important because they often occupy

niches that, at least sometime during the season, are so dry, or hot, or

sterile, that nothing else will grow there. For example, often the only

plant growing on a bare rock will be a crustose lichen.

That crustose lichen will be patiently collecting around and beneath itself tiny

amounts of moisture, and mineral and organic fragments. When freezing temperatures

come, the lichen's collected water will expand as it forms ice and maybe this expanding

action will pry off a few more mineral particles from the rock below the lichen, thus

making more soil. The water itself is a bit acidic, plus humic acids from the organic

matter collected by the lichen will also be acidic, so these acids will likewise eat away

at the stone.

Over a period of perhaps many years, even centuries, the lichen gathers an

extremely thin and fragile hint of a soil around it. As the lichen grows the soil-

producing processes speeds up and takes place over an ever-larger area.. Eventually

other more complex plants, perhaps a foliose or fruticose lichen, or mosses or ferns, or

even some form of flowering plant, may take root in the modest soil and replace the

crustose lichen.

Thus crustose lichens on bare rock often begin a succession of communities, as

described on one of our ecology pages. And when your heel dislodges a patch of lichen

from a rock, you may be undoing the patient work of centuries...



Certain lichens live on leaves, sometimes as parasites. These special leaf-living

lichens are known as foliicolous lichens (not foliose). You might enjoy downloading a

free, well-illustrated field guide to foliicolous lichens, in PDF format, presented by the

Field Museum of Chicago.

2.3 Lichen Reproduction

Lichens reproduce in two main ways:

The fungus part produces reproductive structures that further produce spores. If

a spore lands and germinates, and the resulting hypha finds the right species of

alga in the neighborhood, the hypha will grow through the algal cells and a new

lichen will start developing.

By asexual (vegetative) techniques. One asexual strategy is that of

fragmentation, which simply involves a piece of a lichen breaking off and this

fragment then grows into a new lichen. Lichens also produce on their surfaces

microscopic, dust-like particles composed of one or several algal cells closely

enveloped by fungus hyphae. These are known assoredia. Each soredium can

produce a new plant. Lichen fragments and soredia can be transported great

distances by wind and water.

2.4 Lichen Symbiosis

The dual nature of lichen organisms was first proposed in 1869 by the Swiss

botanist Simon Schwendener. Soon afterwards an imaginative Scottish priest described

the dual relationship as ‘the unnatural union between a captive algal damsel and a

tyrant fungal master’! This remark had a great effect on the Scottish psyche that has

lasted to this day. See Scottish Lichenology.

Lichens are the result of a physiological relationship between a fungus and a

photosynthesising partner termed the photobiont. The photobiont is either green algae


http://uk.groups.yahoo.com/group/scottish_lichenology/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Schwendener

or bacteria that use blue-green pigment to photosynthesise; such bacteria are called

cyanobacteria.

The photobiont supplies food in the form of carbohydrate to the fungal partner;

the fungal or mycobiont partner provides a home and some nutrients for the photobiont.

Working together they take on the form and functionality of lichen. In the case of the

photobiont being a green algae, when both are separated and grown separately, they

form an amorphous mass unlike the original lichen form. This enforces the idea that the

partnership is one of equality and not, as some writers have suggested, that the algae is

prisoner to the fungus.

An interesting element of the symbiotic relationship is that in each lichen

species the mycobiont is different, whereas the photobiont is one of a few algae or

cyanobacteria. Because of the individuality of each fungus to a lichen, the naming of

lichens is derived from the fungus. Most of the fungal partners come from the Class

Ascomycetes. The photobiont is frequently one of the following:

Green algae: Trebouxia, Myrmecia, Stichococcus, Heterococcus and Trentepohlia.

Cyanobacteria: Stigonema, Chroococcus, Nostoc, Gloeocapsa and Scytonema.

2.5 Lichen As Bioindicator

Lichens are widely used as environmental indicators or bio-

indicators. If air is very badly polluted with sulphur dioxide there may

be no lichens present, just green algae may be found. If the air is

clean, shrubby, hairy and leafy lichens become abundant. A few

lichen species can tolerate quite high levels of pollution and are

commonly found on pavements, walls and tree bark in urban areas.

The most sensitive lichens are shrubby and leafy while the most

tolerant lichens are all crusty in appearance. Since industrialisation

many of the shrubby and leafy lichens such as Ramalina,

Usnea and Lobaria species have very limited ranges, often being


confined to the parts of Britain with the purest air such as northern

and western Scotland and Devon and Cornwall.

Lichens traditionally have the name of indicating that the

environment is clean. This is a simplistic view however. Some lichens

will only survive in a clean environment, while others flourish with

certain pollutants.

For example, some species of the genus Xanthoria establish and

grow abundantly in nitrogen rich areas, such as near farms or

chemical factories, while species of the genus Usnea are sensitive to

the amount of sulphur in the air and will only grow in areas where the

air sulphur content is low.

Lichens, unlike most living organisms, are unable to ‘refuse’ entry

to many chemicals into their bodies. This means that chemicals can

freely invade them and interfere with their metabolic processes, often

killing the lichen, but sometimes increasing their growth rate. Also,

lichens are unable to excrete or secrete these chemicals and so they

accumulate within the thallus. The lichen is therefore an excellent

bioaccumulator. Lichenologists can monitor pollution levels in a

habitat by looking at the species present and analysing specific

species to see which toxins have accumulated.

An important study into the effect of air pollution on lichens was

carried out by Hawksworth and Rose (1970) and Gilbert (1970). These

lichenologists divided lichen sensitivity to air borne sulphur dioxide

into 10 zones. This 10 zone system is still in use today, although it

has been modified and developed since its creation.

Ten Point Hawksworth-Rose Sulphur Dioxide Pollution Scale. one

for acid bark and one for eutrophic bark. Highest levels of pollution

are indicated by 0 and lowest levels by 10. With reference only to the

acid bark scale the following species are good indicators.

2.6 Some Pofile of Lichens


2.6.1 Lepraria incana

Ach.(as morphospecies)

Thallus a diffuse, thin, powdery crust, lacking a

medulla or any marginal differentiation into lobes, pale

grey to distinctly blue-grey, apothecia unknown. In

shaded places on acid rocks, walls and tree-trunks,

widespread and evidently common, but part of a

complex of species that require thin-layer chromatography for certain

identification. (Photograph shown here is named on morphological grounds.)

2.6.2 Ochrolceria tartarea

Thallus crustose, coarsely warted, cream, pale grey or

tinged with buff, soredia absent; apothecia usually

abundant, with thick, notched, flexuous margins and

pale pink- to yellow-brown disks. Can be very similar

to O. androgyna, with which it grows, but lacks

soredia; it differs from variants of O. parella with non-pruinose disks in being

more coarsely granular, and can be confirmed by its thallus context testing red

with sodium hypochlorite. Mainly in upland areas and in the north and west, on

base-poor rocks and nutrient-poor tree bark.

2.6.3 Candelariella vitellina

Thallus of dispersed to densely aggregated, minute, ±

flat, yellow to yellow-orange granules, non-reactive

with KOH; apothecia bright yellow, asci with 12-32

ascospores. Widespread and very common on rocks

and walls. States with a dispersed thallus are liable to

be confused with C. aurella, but the latter has 8-spored asci. Species of

theCaloplaca citrina group may also look similar but react purple with potassium

hydroxide (KOH).


2.6.4 Cladonia sp

Podetia tall, erect, very variable in shape, usually with

one or more erect branches, often forming irregular,

perforate cups that continue to proliferate from the

margins, patchily corticate and densely covered with

small, incised, peeling squamules, soredia absent,

basal squamules much incised and fan-like, often in dense clumps; apothecia

small, brown, in clusters on tips of short branches. Widespread and locally

common in woodland, in heathland and on moorland, on rotting wood, on

degraded peat and on boulders.

The usual variant, var. squamosa, fluoresces white under UV light and is

negative to usual chemical tests. Var. subsquamosa (Nyl. ex Leight.) Vain. is a

probably minor chemical variant, K+ yellow-orange, PD+ orange, and UV

negative, said to be possibly more robust, also widespread.

2.6.5 Caloplaca ferruginea

Thallus greenish- or greyish-yellow to yellow, or

infrequently tinged orange, placodioid with marginal

lobes usually long and finger-like, pruinose, inner parts

of thallus surface becoming covered by dense, globose or

flattened-globose isidia; apothecia rare. Generally on

nutrient-enriched coastal rocks, often below below sea-bird colonies, in the north and

west. Potentially can be confused with C. decipiens, which can occur on coastal

rocks, but which is brighter orange and has globose soredia developing from soralia

initially on the lobule margins, whereas C. verruculifera has globose isidia

developing directly from the thallus surface.

2.6.6 Usnea sp


Fruticose, much branched, prostrate or pendulous, often

detached and draped over branches, continuing to grow,

grey-green, not blackened at the base, branches smooth to

minutely nodulose or sparsely spinulose, main branches

becoming articulated into inflated, sausage-like sections.

Formerly widespread in southern and western Britain but highly pollution sensitive

and now rare except in the extreme south-west, on branches in tree canopies ond on

hedges, sometimes terrestrial.

2.6.7 Graphis scripta

A thin, smooth, pale crust with prominent, long, very

narrow, curved, often forked apothecia (lirellae), with a

grey hymenium and raised, black, unfurrowed margins;

spores colourless, with transverse septa only. Widespread

and often common on smooth bark. Generally the

commonest of a group of very similar species, including species

of Graphina and Phaeographis (pages pending), that require microscopic

examination for certain identification.

2.6.8 Usnea dasypoga

Fruticose, tufted, much branched, variable, grey- to blueish-

green, paler in well-lit situations, not blackened at the base,

branches generally constricted or annulate at their junctions,

finer branches sorediate and isidiate, small lateral branches

rather rigid and curved, claw-like. Western and southern

Britain, locally common, on trees and rocks.

2.6.9 Pertusaria corallina

Thallus whitish grey to grey, surface usually covered by

abundant, cylindrical to coralloid isidia, but these can

become eroded (weathering, being sat on) to reveal the

cracked-areolate thallus beneath; apothecia rare. Common


in the north and west on exposed, base-poor boulders.

2.6.10 Addition


2.6.11 Common Lichen Air Pollution Indicators

a. Lichens Of Polluted Areas :

Buellia punctata

Cladonia coniocraea

Cladonia macilenta

Desmococcus viridis (algae)

Diploicia canescens

Lecanora conizaeoides

Lecanora dispersa

Lecanora expallens

Lepraria incana

Xantoria parietina


b. Lichens of Moderate Pollution :

Evernia prunastri

Foraminella ambigua

Hypogymnia physodes

Lecanora chlarotera

Lecidella elaeochroma

Parmelia glabratula

Parmelia saxatilis

Parmelia sulcata

Physcia adscendens

Physcia tenella

Plastismatia glauca

Ramalina farinacea

c. Lichens of Slight Pollution :

Anaptychia ciliaris

Bryoria fuscescens

Graphis elegans

Graphis scripta

Opegrapha varia

Parmelia acetabulum

Parmelia caperata

Phaeophyscia orbicularis

Physcia aipolia

Physconia distorta

Physconia enteroxantha

Pseudevernia furfuracea

d. Lichens of Clean Air

Degelia plumbea

Lobaria pulmonaria

Lobaria scrobiculata


Pannaria rubiginosa

Permelia perlata

Ramalina calicaris

Ramalina fastigiata

Ramalina fraxinea

Teloschistes flavicans

Usnea articulata

Usnea florida

Usnea rubicunda

Usnea subfloridana

CHAPTER III

OBSERVATION METHOD

3.1 Location and Time of Observation

a. Location

1. Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk.

2. The main street throughout the Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk until the Tahura.

3. Tahura (Taman Hutan Raya)

b. Time

Day, date : Saturday, May, 5th , 2012


Time : 10.00 – end

3.2 Preparation of Observation

a. Preparing the rules and meters to measure the bounded area of tree and measure

the diameter of the tree.

b. Preparing the camera to take the picture of lichenes that observe.

c. Preparing the stationary such as written board, pen, pencil and notebook to write

the number of lichenes colony on the tree according to the area bounded.

3.3 Prosedure of Observation

1. Preparing the tools and materials.

2. Visiting the roads that passed by public transport as: bus, spot or pedicab,

private transportation, etc. In this chance, we visit several locations: Simpang

Si Debuk-Debuk, main street throughout Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk until

Tahura, and the last is Tahura.

3. Looking for trees (not lump or bushes) then measure the height of the tree

about 1 m from the under of tree.

4. Measure 10 cm up and down from the first measure.

5. Measure the diameter of the tree as sample.

6. Computing the total of Lichens colony (big or small colony).

7. Taking a photo of this observation (lichens and group photos).

8. Making the data of observation result in the form of table.

3.4 Data Analysis Method

a. Present data in tabular form that is filled with observations obtained during the

data acquisition research.

b. Describes the contents of the table to explain the observations with the

datacontained in the observation table.

c. Discussion and discuss the results of research conducted


CHAPTER IV

EXPERIMENT RESULT AND EXPLANATION

4.1 Table of Observation Result

No Street Name

(Location)

Lichense Name Amount of

Lichense

Colony

Diameter of

Tree Stem

Percentage of

Lichense

Density


1. Simpang si

debuk-debuk

Tree 1Pertusaria corallina

Tree 2Parmelia sulcata Tree31.Pertusaria corallina2. Xanthoria eleganseTotal of Lichense

35

13

241539

7 cm

9 cm

6.4 cm6.4 cm6.4 cm

500%

144%

218%236%609%

2. Jln. Raya si

debuk–debuk

until Tahura

Tree 1Parmelia sulcata

Tree 2Parmelia sulcata

21

27

24 cm

21 cm

87.5%

129%

3. Taman Hutan

Raya

( TAHURA)

Tree 11. Parmelia sulcata2.Usnea Dasypoga3. Xanthoria eleganse4. Pertusaria corallinaTotal of lichense

Tree 21. Parmelia sulcata2. Pertusaria corallina3. Usnea DasypogaTotal of lichense

Tree 31. Parmelia sulcata

2. Pertusaria corallina 3. Xanthoria eleganseTotal of lichense

32403522129

8451265

2

3220 54

69 cm69 cm69 cm69 cm69 cm

35 cm35 cm35 cm35 cm

41 cm

41 cm41 cm41 cm

46%58%50%32%

187%

23%129%34%

186%

48%

78%49%

132%

4.2 Explanation and Discussion

From the table of observation result above, we can see there

are some types of lichense speciesthat found on the observation

location.Lichense species that found there are:

1. Parmelia sulcata


2. Usnea Dasypoga

3. Xanthoria eleganse

4. Pertusaria corallina

All of these lichense species live on the different trees and have

different amount in difeerent trees. Then based on the percentage on

the table above, lichense density have the value above 80%. It shows

that the air in the observation location doesnot occure serious air

pollution there. Or in the other words, the air there is health enough

and unpolluted.

We use lichense as air pollution bioindicator here because

lichense has ability to response the environment changing surround

its habitat. If on the stone or on the trees find much of lichense

colony, the condition of that area can be said has contaminate by a

little air pollution. Vice versa, if the trees or stone planted by a little

lichense colony, it can be said that area had be contamined by much

of air pollution.

Generally, we also found bryophyte, weeds, surrond the area of

tree that observed. It shows thatthe soil there is very fertil and the air

is damp.

To find the amount of lichense densityon a tree can be used the

formula below:

Lichense density = Amount of lichense colony

Diameter of tree stem x 100%

For the explanation below, it will show the amount of lichense

density percentage on every tree in the observation location:

a. Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk

Tree 1

Pertusaria corallina

Lichens density =

357

x100 %=500 %

Tree 2

Parmelia sulcata


Lichens density =

139

x100 %=144 %

Tree3



Lichens density =

396 .4

x 100%=609%

b. Jln. Raya si debuk–debuk until Tahura

Tree 1

Parmelia sulcata

Lichens density =

2124

x 100 %=87 . 5 %

Tree 2

Parmelia sulcata

Lichens density =

2721

x 100 %=129 %

c. Taman Hutan Raya ( TAHURA)

Tree 1

1. Parmelia sulcata

2. Usnea Dasypoga



Lichens density =

12969

x100 %=187 %


Based on data that be gotten, can be said that the air on the three places as areas

of research are well and are not tainted because the number of density lichens at trees in

the areas have a value of approximately 80%. Therefore, the O2 levels in all three study

sites, namely Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk, TAHURA and Jln. Raya si debuk–debuk until

Tahura are very much and the air is clean to breathe.

4.3 Picture of Experiment Result

4.3.1 Simpang si Debuk-Debuk

Unknown Tree



Tree 2

1. Parmelia sulcata


3. Usnea Dasypoga

Lichens density =

6535

x100 %=186 %

Tree 3

1. Parmelia sulcata



Lichens density =

5441

x 100 %=132 %

Bryophyta

Unknown Tree

Parmelia sulcata

Weeds

Bryophyta

Citrus sinensis

Xanthoria elegans


4.3.2 Jln. Raya si Debuk-Debuk

Casuarina sp.

Bryophyta



Casuarina sp.


Bryophyta

4.3.3 Taman Hutan Raya (TAHURA)

Altingla excelsa noronha

Bryophyta

Parmelia sulcata

Usnea comosa


Xanthoria elegans


Parmelia sulcata



Bryophyta

Usnea comosa


Bryophyta

8 Xanthoria elegans

Parmelia sulcata

Pertusaria

corallina

4.4 Lichens and Air Pollution

From the observation that we did, we found the lichens cover

the stem of tree which pecentage more than 80%. It shows that the

nature there still fresh and unpolluted (relevant with the theory in

chapter II). Because of this reason, we can conclude that lichens can

be used as bioindicator.

“For example, some species of the genus Xanthoria establish

and grow abundantly in nitrogen rich areas, such as near farms or

chemical factories, while species of the genus Usnea are sensitive to

the amount of sulphur in the air and will only grow in areas where the

air sulphur content is low” (Theory). We found Xanthoria elegans and


Usnea comosa. It shows that our observation location are rich of

nitrogen and content just low of sulphur.

4.5 Economical Benefits of Lichens

4.5.1 Lichens as Medicine

Many lichens have been used medicinally across the world. A lichen's

usefulness as medicine probably usually comes from the lichen

secondary compounds that are abundant in most lichen thalli. Different

lichens produce a wide variety of these compounds, most of which are

unique to lichens. The exact use of these lichen compounds is still being

debated, but some lichen compounds can act as antibiotics, fungicides,

and herbivore deterrents. This undoubtedly gives the lichen some

protection, and probably endows the lichen with some medicinal

characters as well.

Sharnoff (1997) estimates that 50% of all lichen species have antibiotic

properties. The scientific search for antibiotics in lichens started in 1944

when Burkholder found that extracts from 27 out of the 42 different

species of lichen that he tested inhibited the growth of certain

bacteria. Lichen compounds have been found to act as anti-tumor agents

(Kupchan and Kopperman 1975; Takai et al 1979), antibiotics

(Burkholder 1944; Vartia 1973), and anti-inflammatories (Handa et al.

1992; Skidmore and Whitehouse 1965).

Research to develop pharmaceuticals from lichens continues, especially

in Japan (Sharnoff 1997). There is currently work being done to

genetically engineer lichens so that lichen products could easily be

produced in the lab (Miao et al. 2001). Patent Number 6132984 (issued

on October 17th, 2000 to J. E. Davies, B. Walters, and G. Saxena from

TerraGen Discovery Inc.) is for a method for inhibiting eukaryotic

protein kinase activity (and thus the sporulation of Streptomyces) with

vulpinic acid or usnic acid (two lichen compounds).


Some of the most widely studied lichen compounds are usnic acid,

vulpinic acid, atranorin, and protolichesterinic acid. Usnic acid is found

in large quantities in Usnea spp., as well as in several other lichen

genera. It is a fairly wide spectrum antibiotic and is the most active

antibiotic to be characterized from lichens (Abo-Khatwa et al. 1996;

Shibamoto and Wei 1984; Rowe et al. 1991; Dobrescu et al.

1993). Usnic acid and diffractaic acid (a derivative of usnic acid) have

both been demonstrated to be analgesic when tested on mice (Okuyama

et al. 1995). And a mixture of usnic acid and isolichenin has been

demonstrated to have moderate activity against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich

tumor cells (Periera et al. 1994).

There is some research to indicate that protolicheresterinic acid may be

valuable in the treatment of ulcers and cancers, and in AIDS

prevention. It has been documented that protolicheresterinic acid has in

vitro activity against Helicobacter pylori (Ingolfsdottir et al. 1997) and

DNA polymerase activity of human immunodeficiency virus-1 reverse

transcriptase (Pengsuparp et al. 1995). Protolicheresterinic acid was also

found to be antiproliferative and cytotoxic to T-47D and ZR-75-1 cell

lines cultured from breast carcinomas, and to K-562 from erythro-

leukemia (Ogmundsdottir et al. 1998). Protolichesterinic acid may

perform these functions by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase, and this would

also contribute to protolichesterinic acid's reported anti-inflammatory

actions (Ogmundsdottir et al., 1998).

Vulpinic acid also has some mild antibiotic properties, but it is not as

strong of an antibiotic as usnic acid. It is, however, a significant

herbivore deterrent and has been found to be toxic to animals in large

doses (Lawrey 1986). Atranorin has been found to be much less

biologically active than the above mentioned compounds (Lawrey 1986),

but it is still a bit of a herbivore deterrent (Abo-Khatwa et al. 1996).

Another property of lichens that had them being used for medicines is

their cool little shapes. According to the 'Doctrine of Signatures' of the

15th century Europe a plant could be used to treat whatever ailment it


most looked like. This use was mostly obsolete be 1800 (Llano 1944b),

but some of these uses have persisted. Some lichens commonly used

according to the Doctrine of Signatures include species

of Cladonia, Evernia, Lobaria, Parmelia, Peltigera, Pertusaria, Physcia,

Roccella, Usnea, and Xanthoria.

The importance of this use is evident when one looks at the origin of the

word 'lichen'. 'Lichen' comes from the Greek word 'Leprous' and refers

to the use of some lichens for treating cutaneous diseases due to their

peeling-skin appearance (Llano 1944b).

4.5.2 Lichens as Food

Dr. Hansteen, who was the chief lecturer in the Agricultural School at

Aas, Norway in 1911, prophesized that lichen was to become the great

popular food of the masses, because of its cheapness and nutritive

properties (Swartz 1911). This didn't happen, but lichens have

frequently been used as food by people. They have often been used as

famine food, but there are also many peoples who have used lichens for

food on a more regular basis. Lichens are sometimes even been used as

a delicacy (like Umbilicaria esculenta in Japan) or a dessert

(like Cetraria islandica in Scandinavia).

There are two problems that people have generally encountered when

eating lichens. The first problem is the secondary lichen compound

often found in lichens. Most lichens contain a variety of secondary

compounds. These compounds are generally unique to lichens and

because of this are referred to as 'lichen compounds'. Lichen compounds

are usually acids and thus have an acrid flavor. Only two lichen

compounds have been found to be poisonous, vulpinic acid and pinastric

acid, and these compounds would have to be ingested in significant

amounts to be fatal for humans. But many other lichen compounds are

herbivore deterrents, and can be very bad tasting, a digestive irritant, and


would could probably even be toxic if eaten in large quantities for

extended periods of time.

The second problem with eating lichens is that the complex

carbohydrates in lichens are not easily broken down in the human

digestive tract. Lichens contain a variety of polysaccharides. They

usually contain lichenin (soluble in hot water) and/or isolichenin

(soluble in cold water, turns iodine purple), and can often also contain

other lichen polysaccharides such as evernin and usnin (Swartz

1911). Lichens can also often contain small quantities of

polysaccharides often found in other plants, such as cellulose and inulin

(Perez-Llano 1944). Lichen carbohydrates were fairly well studied over

a century ago, after Külz suggested in 1874 that they could be eaten as

substitute carbohydrates by diabetics (Swartz 1911). They did not

discover a cure for diabetes, but they did discover that these lichen

polysaccharides were not digestible by humans, dogs, or rabbits (Swartz,

1911). However, if lichenin and isolichenin are hydrolyzed, they yield

glucose and other readily digestible simple sugars.

People have traditionally used various preparation methods to make

lichens edible by removing the lichen secondary compounds and

hydrolyzing the lichen polysaccharides. The most frequently used

preparation technique is boiling or steaming. This has been used by

groups of people from North America, Europe, and India. Boiling would

help to hydrolyze the lichen polysaccharides into digestible forms. It

would also help to remove many lichen compounds. It is often recorded

that people would boil the lichen and discard the water, which indicates

that the boiling water was being used to remove the lichen compounds.

The lichen was also often soaked or rinsed with water. This could have

removed some lichen compounds as well, but they are generally not very

soluble in pure water. Both the Iroquois and northern Europeans are

recorded to have soaked the lichens in ash water. Wood ash is alkaline,

and so it would have been a lot more effective in removing the acidic


lichen compounds. Alkali could also help to hydrolyze lichen

polysaccharides.

The addition of dilute acid, or acidic things like onion, is common when

cooking lichen. Acids could possible have helped to hydrolyze lichen

polysaccharides, or they might make some lichen compounds more water

soluble.

The value of lichens as a food stuff is probably usually just as a source of

carbohydrates. The nutrient composition of lichens varies widely

between different species of lichens but they are generally high in

carbohydrates and low in most other nutrients.

Lichens may also provide some other nutrients. Lal and Ranganatha

Rao (1956) found calcium and iron levels to higher in lichens than

cereals and more comparable to green leafy materials. The calcium to

phosphorus ratio they found was from 2 to 14, showed that lichens could

serve as a good source of calcium. Peltigera canina has been found to

be relatively high in protein and essential amino acids. Various studies

have shown lichens to contain some vitamins, but results have not been

consistent.

The various findings have not been consistent. This variation probably

partly arises from variation in nutrient composition between and within

species. Some of the variation is also likely experimental error as some

of the studies are quite old.

Lichens can also accumulate toxins from their environment. Cetraria

islandica and Cladina spp. have been found to contain particularly high

levels of lead, cadmium, and mercury. Parmelia saxatilis and Xanthoria

parietina have been found to absorb enough beryllium from their

environment to harmful to animals (Perez-Llano 1944). In some

areas Parmelia molliusculacan contain toxic levels of selenium salt

(Perez-Llano 1944). And the natural radionuclides Po-210 and Pb-210

both accumulate in lichens, as well as Cs-137 and Sr-90 from nuclear test

explosions (Airaksinen et al. 1986).


4.5.3 Lichens as Dyes

Lichens are frequently used as dyes. The lichen dye can be extracted by

boiling the lichen in water or by fermenting the lichen in

ammonia. Traditionally urine was often used as an ammonia source, and

the lichen would be fermented for at least 2 to 3 weeks. There is no

record of the ammonia fermentation method being used in North

America. It seems to be restricted to Europe. This is an incomplete

list. For more complete information on the subject, refer to Brough

(1984, 1988), Casselman (1999), and Kok (1966).

CHAPTER V

CLOSING

5.1 Conclution

1. Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution and quickly disappeared in the areas

that have levels of air pollution levels are heavy. This proves that lichens can be

used as a bioindicator air pollution in a particular area as a measure of the level

of air pollution with a natural and simple way, namely through the presence or

absence of lichens

2. All species of lichens, that lives in the different trees, has a number of lichens

too. Then, based on the percentage that have been searched, density in the area

has a dominant total above 80%. It is proved, that the air in the area as a

research site did not have enough air pollution that worrying. That said, the air

in the area quite well and are not tainted because the number of density of

lichens at the trees in the area has much less value above 80%.

3. We found Xanthoria elegan in observation location. So it shows

that this area is rich of nitrogen.


4. We found Usnea comosa in observation result.. It shows that

our observation location have low content of sulphur.

5. From our observation, we can conclude that lichens can be used as

bioindicator. Beside that, it also can be used for the other purposes. Such as

medicine, food and dyes.

5.2 Suggestion

There are some suggestions that we asked after doing research about lichens ,those

are:

a. Doing counseling - Educate the public about the importance of keeping nature

and do not ruin it, especially lichens

b. Local governments should make funding for the researchers to can make local

community be maximally in using the lichens

c. Protect the environment to keep them clean of pollution so can ensure the life

of lichen survive.

d. Protect the continuity of lichense so that our grandchildren will be able to know

what the lichen vegetation.

e. Lichen serves as bioindicator pollution in a particular area, should really be

used as a measuring of the level pollution .

f. Lichen can be used to fulfill of human needs such as pharmaceuticals, flavor and

aroma enhancer, can be made litmus paper, and so forth, for it must be

preserved.

g. The content contained in plants should be more examined and researched so

that the content in plants can be used as raw materials that more useful.

h. Lichens can be exported to overseas if the benefits contained in be well known

and used well . so of course add to state revenues and local revenues.


REFERENCES

Brodo, Irwan M. 2001. Lichens of North America. London: Yale University Press.

Hale, Mason E. 1988. Lichens of California. London: University of California Press.

Nash, Thomas H. 1996. Lichens Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

http://www.backyardnature.net/lichens.htm

http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/archive/jdeacon/microbes/lichen.htm

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/fungi/lichens.htm

http://www.lichens.ie/lichens-as-biomonitors/

http://web.uvic.ca/~stucraw/part1.html


http://web.uvic.ca/~stucraw/part1.html

http://www.lichens.ie/lichens-as-biomonitors/

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/fungi/lichens.htm

http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/archive/jdeacon/microbes/lichen.htm

http://www.backyardnature.net/lichens.htm

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

1. Dewi Bakara


Dewi as her nickname. Was born in Sidikalang, January 5 th

1993. She comes from SMA N 1 Sidikalang. Now she gets her

education on Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class with

4113111018 as her identity number there.

2. Mahendra Galang

Known as Galang. Was born in Sidoarjo, May 6th 1993. Has

him senior high school at SMA N 1 Panai Hulu. Now she gets

her education on Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class

with 4113312009 as him identity number there.

3. Rizky Nurul Hafni

Famous as Aci. Was born in Medan, on February, 9th 1992. She

is from MAN 2 Model Medan. Now she gets her education on

Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class with 4113111066

as her identity number there.

4. Tika Mindari

Tika Mindari, was born in Sidamanik, October 17th 1993.

She comes from MAN Pematangsiantar. Now she gets her

education on Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class with

4113111076 as her identity number there.

5. Widi Aulia Widakdo


Everyday call as Widi, was born in Medan, November 10th

2011. Before has collage, she goes to school at SMA N 1

Batam. Now she gets her education on Bilingual Mathematics

Education 2011 class with 4113111076 as her identity number

there.


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