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Ruins of the Forum in Rome, Italy

Rise RomeThe

of

451 B.C.Romans adopt theTwelve Tables

267 B.C. Rome controlsmost of Italy

27 B.C.Octavian

becomes Rome’sfirst emperor

A.D. 96Rule of theGood Emperorsbegins

500 B.C. 300 B.C. 100 B.C. A.D. 100 500 B.C. 300 B.C. 100 B.C. A.D. 100

258–

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Rome’s BeginningsPhysical geography plays a role in how civilizations develop and

decline. The civilization of Rome began on a river in Italy.Surrounded by hills, its location in central Italy helped it becomean economic and military power.

The Roman RepublicSystems of order, such as law and government, contribute to stable

societies. Rome was a republic that developed written laws and astrong government. This helped Rome survive wars and expandinto the Mediterranean.

The Fall of the RepublicAll civilizations depend upon leadership for survival. As Rome’s

territory grew, generals in the army gained political power.Eventually, they seized power and turned the republic into theRoman Empire.

The Early EmpireCivilizations with strong economies prosper and grow. Augustus and

many of his successors helped improve Rome’s economy. As Romeprospered, its empire grew larger and wealthier.

View the Chapter 9 video in the Glencoe Video Program.

Chapter Overview Visitca.hss.glencoe.com for a preview of Chapter 9.

Know-Want-Learn Make this foldable to help you organize what you know, whatyou want to know, and what you learn about the rise of Rome.

Reading and WritingBefore reading thechapter, write under thetabs of your foldablewhat you already knowabout the beginning ofRome, the rise and fall ofits republic, and theearly Roman Empire.Also write one questionyou have on each tab. Asyou read, summarizewhat you learn undereach tab.

Step 1 Fold four sheets of paperin half from top to bottom.

Step 2 On each folded paper, make acut 1 inch from the side on the top flap.

Step 3 Place the folded papers oneon top of the other. Staple the foursections together and label the topfour tabs: Rome’s Beginnings, TheRoman Republic, The Fall of theRepublic, and The Early Empire.

Cut 1 inch fromthe edge through the

top flap only.

Rome’s Beginnings

Staple here.

417

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http://ca.hss.glencoe.com

Sometimes you make

inferences by using

other reading skills,

such as questioning and

predicting.

418

When you make inferences, you draw conclusions that are notdirectly stated in the text. This means you “read between thelines.” You interpret clues and details in the text and draw uponyour prior knowledge and experience. Authors rely on a reader'sability to infer because all the details are not always given. Readthis paragraph about Roman law from Section 2.

Use this Think-Through chart to help you make inferences.

Making Inferences

Text Question Inferences

people at the Who were they? Rich landowners,top of society nobility, aristocracy?

special What kind of Right to own privileges privileges? land?

Right to vote?

people at the Who were they? Poor farmers,bottom of artisans, enslaved society peoples, non-

military people,women?

In many lands, people at the top of societyoften had special privileges and did not haveto obey the same laws or use the same courtsas people lower down. In some places, peo-ple at the bottom of society did not have anylegal rights at all.

— from page 431

416-419 Ch9 CO-868874 1/4/05 10:44 PM Page 418

Read the excerpt below about the five “good emperors” and payattention to highlighted words as you make inferences.

Read the firstparagraph of Section 4under the label TheEmperor Augustus.Write down inferencesabout what kind ofperson you thinkAugustus was. Thenread the biography ofAugustus on page 447to see if yourinferences werecorrect.

Read to Write

Create your own Think-Through chart to help you make furtherinferences about the “good emperors.” You might want to use a chartsimilar to the one on the previous page, with the same labels: Text,Questions, and Inferences. Read the rest of page 448 to see if yourinferences were correct.

Inferring can help you understand anauthor’s point of view. With a partner,read the excerpt from Cicero’s speechon page 440. Discuss what inferencesyou both made.

419

Roman coins

They presided over nearlya century of prosperity,from A.D. 96 to A.D. 180.Agriculture flourished,trade increased, and thestandard of living rose.

During this time, theemperor came to over-shadow the Senate morethan ever before. The five“good emperors” did notabuse their power, how-ever. They were amongthe most devoted andcapable rulers in Rome’shistory.

—from page448

416-419 Ch9 CO-868874 1/4/05 10:49 PM 19

Rome’s Beginnings

Looking Back, Looking AheadIn previous chapters, you learned

about the civilization of ancientGreece. Greek ways did not die withthe end of Greece’s freedom. Theywere adopted and spread widely byanother civilization, Rome.

Focusing on the • Geography played an important role

in the rise of Roman civilization.(page 421)

• The Romans created a republic andconquered Italy. By treating peoplefairly, they built Rome from a smallcity into a great power.(page 423)

Locating PlacesSicily (SIH•suh• lee)Apennines (A•puh•NYNZ)Latium (LAY•shee•uhm)Tiber River (TY•buhr)Etruria (ih•TRUR•ee•uh)

Meeting PeopleRomulus (RAHM•yuh• luhs)Remus (REE•muhs)Aeneas (ih•NEE•uhs)Latins (LA•tuhnz)Etruscans (ih•TRUHS•kuhnz)Tarquins (TAHR•kwihnz)

Content Vocabularyrepublic (rih•PUH•blihk) legion (LEE• juhn)

Academic Vocabularyisolate (EYE•suh•LAYT)capacity (kuh•PA•suh•tee)chapter (CHAP•tuhr)status (STA•tuhs)

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use adiagram to show how the Etruscansaffected the development of Rome.

c. 650 B.C.Etruscans ruleRome

509 B.C.Rome becomesa republic

267 B.C.Rome controlsmost of Italy

ITALY

AFRICASicily

Rome

650 B.C. 450 B.C. 250 B.C.650 B.C. 450 B.C. 250 B.C.

HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.7 Studentsanalyze the geographic,political, economic,religious, and socialstructures during thedevelopment of Rome.

Etruscans

420 CHAPTER 9 • The Rise of Rome

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WH6.7.1 Identify the location and describe the rise of the Roman Republic, including the importance of such mythical and historicalfigures as Aeneas, Romulus and Remus, Cincinnatus, Julius Caesar, and Cicero.

CHAPTER 9 • The Rise of Rome 421

The Origins of RomeGeography played an important role in

the rise of Roman civilization.

Reading Connection If you were founding a new

city, what natural features would influence your choice

of a building site? As you read this section, think about

the choices that the early Romans made.

Italy is in an important location in themiddle of the Mediterranean region. It is along, narrow peninsula with a distinctiveshape: it looks like a high-heeled bootextending into the sea. The heel pointstoward Greece and the toe toward theisland of Sicily (SIH • suh • lee). Across the topof the boot are the Alps, high mountainsthat separate Italy from European lands tothe north. Another mountain range, theApennines (A •puh • NYNZ), runs all the waydown the boot from north to south.

The landscape of Italy is similar to thatof Greece, but the Apennines are not asrugged as Greece’s mountains. They can becrossed much more easily. As a result, thepeople who settled in Italy were not split upinto small, isolated communities as theGreeks were. In addition, Italy had betterfarmland than Greece. Its mountain slopeslevel off to large flat plains that are ideal forgrowing crops. With more capacity to pro-duce food, Italy could support more peoplethan Greece could.

Historians know little about the first peo-ple to live in Italy. There is evidence, how-ever, that groups from the north slippedthrough Italy’s mountain passes betweenabout 1500 B.C. and 1000 B.C. Attracted by themild climate and rich soil, a small but steadystream of newcomers settled in the hills andon the plains. One group of Latin-speakingpeople built the city of Rome on the plain ofLatium (LAY•shee•uhm) in central Italy. Theybecame known as Romans.

Where Was Rome Located? Geographyplayed a major part in the location ofRome. The site chosen for Rome wasabout 15 miles (24 km) up the Tiber River(TY •buhr) from the Mediterranean Sea. TheTiber River gave the Romans a source ofwater and a way to get to the rest of theMediterranean world. At the same time,Rome was far enough from the sea toescape raids by pirates.

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Rome

Carthage

Italy 500 B.C.

1. Place Which civilization do you thinkmost influenced the Latins who settledRome? Explain your answer.

2. Location How was Rome’s locationadvantageous for the Latins’ conquest ofItaly?

Find NGS online map resources @ www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

CarthaginiansKEY

EtruscansGreeksLatins

420-425 CH 9 S1-868874 1/13/05 2:39 PM Page 421

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

In addition, Rome was built on a series ofseven hills. The Romans did this on purpose.The hills were very steep, making it easy todefend the city against enemy attack. Romewas also located at a place where peoplecould easily cross the Tiber River. As a result,Rome became a stopping place for peopletraveling north and south in western Italyand for merchant ships sailing in theMediterranean.

How Did Rome Begin? Two different leg-ends describe how Rome began. The tradi-tional story is that twin brothers namedRomulus (RAHM • yuh • luhs) and Remus(REE •muhs) founded the city. As babies, the

boys were abandoned near the Tiber River.Rescued by a wolf and raised by a shep-herd, they decided to build a city in 753 B.C.The twins quarreled, however, and Remusmade fun of the wall his brother was build-ing. In a fury, Romulus attacked Remus andkilled him. Romulus went on to become thefirst king of Rome, the new city he namedafter himself.

The seeds of Rome are traced even far-ther back in the Aeneid, a famous epic bythe Roman poet Virgil. The Aeneid is thestory of the Trojan hero Aeneas (ih • NEE •uhs). He and a band of followers are saidto have sailed the Mediterranean Sea afterthe Greeks captured Troy. After manyadventures, the Trojans landed at themouth of the Tiber. Through warfare andthen marriage to the local king’s daughter,Aeneas united the Trojans and some of theLatins (LA • tuhnz), the local people. Hethus became the “father” of the Romans.

Historians are not sure how Romebegan. They think that Latins lived in thearea of Rome as early as 1000 B.C. They builthuts on Rome’s hills, tended herds, andgrew crops. Sometime between 800 B.C. and700 B.C., they decided to band together forprotection. It was this community thatbecame known as Rome.

Early Influences After about 800 B.C., othergroups came to Italy. Two of these groups,the Greeks and the Etruscans (ih • TRUHS •kuhnz), played a major role in shaping theframework of the Roman civilization.

Many Greeks came to southern Italyand Sicily between 750 B.C. and 550 B.C.,when Greece was busily building overseascolonies. From the Greeks, Romans learnedto grow olives and grapes. They alsoadopted the Greek alphabet, and theywould eventually model their architecture,sculpture, and literature after the Greeks.


The AeneidTwo legends describe the beginning of Rome.One says that after Troy was destroyed,Aeneas and the other Trojans went in search of another place to live.

“Weeping, I drew awayfrom our old country. . . .I took to the open sea,borne outward into exilewith my people, my son,my hearth gods, and thegreater gods. . . . Nowmaking landfall underthe southwind there, Iplotted out on thatcurved shore the wallsof a colony—thoughfate opposed it—and Idevised the nameAeneadae for the peo-ple, from my own.”

—adapted from Virgil, Aeneid

What type of person do you think Aeneaswas to build a new city after having thefirst one destroyed?

Virgil

Francis Schroeder/SuperStock

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Rome’s early growth was influenced most,however, by the Etruscans. The Etruscans livednorth of Rome in Etruria (ih•TRUR•ee•uh).After 650 B.C., they moved south and took con-trol of Rome and most of Latium.

The Etruscans were skilled metalwork-ers who became rich from mining andtrade. They forced enslaved people to dothe heaviest work and made their own livescomfortable. Their tomb paintings showmen and women feasting, dancing, andplaying music and sports. Some murals alsoshow bloody battle scenes, revealing theEtruscans’ military achievements.

The Etruscans changed Rome from a vil-lage of straw-roofed huts into a city ofwood and brick buildings. They laid outstreets, temples, and public buildingsaround a central square. Etruscans alsoexposed the Romans to a new style of dress,featuring short cloaks and togas—loosegarments draped over one shoulder. Moreimportantly, the Etruscan army wouldserve as a model for the mighty army theRomans eventually assembled.

Explain How did geographyhelp the Romans prosper?

The Birth of a RepublicThe Romans created a republic and

conquered Italy. By treating people fairly, they builtRome from a small city into a great power.

Reading Connection Have you heard the phrase “win-

ning hearts and minds”? It means convincing people to

support you rather than just forcing them to obey. Read on

to learn how the Romans not only conquered other people

in Italy but also won their hearts and minds.

The Etruscans ruled Rome for more than100 years. Under the Etruscans, Romebecame wealthy and powerful. However,the ruling family, called the Tarquins(TAHR •kwihnz), grew more and more cruel.

Finally, in 509 B.C., the Romans rebelled.They overthrew the Tarquins and set up arepublic (rih•PUH•blihk). A republic is a formof government in which the leader is not aking or queen but someone put in office bycitizens with the right to vote. In a republic,the citizens have the power. The rise of theRoman Republic marked the beginning of anew chapter in Rome’s history.

Etruscan murals often showed lively scenes of daily life, such as religious ceremonies orpeople enjoying music and feasts. How did the Etruscans become wealthy?

The Etruscans used a variety of metals,including copper, lead, iron, and tin to makebeautiful jewelry like the piece shown above.

(t)file photo, (b)Scala/Art Resource, NY

420-425 CH 9 S1-868874 1/4/05 11:21 PM Page 423

At the time Rome became a republic, itwas still a small city, surrounded by ene-mies. Over the next 200 years, the Romansfought war after war against their neigh-bors. In 338 B.C. they finally defeated theother Latins living nearby. Next theyattacked the Etruscans and defeated themin 284 B.C. By 267 B.C., the Romans had alsoconquered the Greeks in southern Italy.With this victory, the Romans became themasters of almost all of Italy.

Why Was Rome So Strong? Rome wasable to conquer Italy because the Romanswere excellent soldiers. In the republic’searly days, every male citizen who ownedland had to serve in the army. Disciplinewas harsh, and deserters were punished bydeath. The tough discipline helped moldRoman soldiers into fighters who did notgive up easily. In addition, they were prac-tical problem solvers.

For example, Roman armies at firstfought like Greek armies. Row upon row ofsoldiers marched shoulder to shoulder,keeping their shields together and holdinglong spears. Roman generals accuratelyassessed that this way of fighting was slowand hard to control. They reorganized theirsoldiers into smaller groups called legions(LEE • juhnz). Each legion had about 6,000men and was further divided into groups of60 to 120 soldiers. These small groups couldquickly cut through enemy lines.

Roman soldiers, or legionaries, werearmed with a short sword called a gladiusand a spear called a pilum. Each unit alsocarried its own standard—a tall poletopped with a symbol. In battle, standardshelped keep units together because the sol-diers could see them above the conflict.

Shrewd Rulers The Romans were not onlygood fighters but also smart planners. Asthey expanded throughout Italy, they builtpermanent military settlements in the areasthey conquered. Then they built roadsbetween these towns. These roads allowedtroops to travel swiftly to any place in theirgrowing territory.

To rule their new conquests, theRomans created the Roman Confederation.Under this system, Romans granted fullcitizenship to some peoples, especiallyother Latins. They could vote and partici-pate in the government, and they were


At first, the Roman army was made up of ordi-nary citizens. Later the army contained well-trained professional soldiers and was one of thebest fighting forces in the world. What was astandard, and why did the army carry them?

The long iron point on the

spear was made to bend after the spear was

thrown, preventing an enemy from

using it.

Shields were made from

sheets of wood glued together

and covered with leather or

cloth.

A soldier's armor was made of iron strips joined by leather ties.

Roman LegionaryRoman Legionary

Stock Montage

420-425 CH 9 S1-868874 1/4/05 11:23 PM Page 424

treated the same as other citizens under thelaw. The Romans granted other peoples thestatus of allies.

Allies were free to run their own localaffairs, but they had to pay taxes to therepublic and provide soldiers for the army.The Romans made it clear that loyal alliescould improve their position and evenbecome Roman citizens.

With these policies, the Romans provedthemselves clever rulers. They were awarethat conquered peoples were more loyal tothe government if they were well treated.Rome’s generosity paid off. As a result, therepublic grew stronger and more unified.

All the same, Rome was not afraid touse force if necessary. If conquered peoplesrevolted against Roman rule, their resist-ance was swiftly put down.

Describe How did Romerule its new conquests?

This mosaic, or picture made from bits of stone,shows a group of Roman legionaries. Howmany soldiers made up a legion?


Rome’s Location

Study Central Need help understandingRome’s beginnings? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com andclick on Study Central.

Reading SummaryReview the • The Romans, a Latin-speaking

people, settled the region ofRome on the west side of Italy.The region’s geography, as well asEtruscan and Greek ideas, helpedRome grow.

• In 509 B.C. the Romans overthrewEtruscan rule and established arepublic. By about 275 B.C.,Roman legions had conqueredmost of Italy.

1. Where did the Greeks live inItaly, and how did they influ-ence Roman civilization?

2. Describe the two legends thattell of the founding of Rome.Then describe how and whenRome was actually founded.

Critical Thinking3. Geography Skills Draw a

diagram like the one below. Listexamples of how geographydetermined Rome’s location.

4. How did geogra-phy affect the development ofcivilization in Greece and Italy?

5. Expository Writing Write ashort essay discussing the rea-sons Rome was so successful inits conquest of Italy.

6. MakingInferences After reading thissection, what can you inferabout the reasons for Rome’ssuccess? CA 6RC2.0

CA 6WA2.2

CA CS3.

CA CS3.CA 6RC2.4

What Did You Learn?

Prenestino Museum, Rome/E.T. Archives, London/SuperStock

420-425 CH 9 S1-868874 1/13/05 2:53 PM Page 425


Roman RepublicThe

Looking Back, Looking AheadRomans had suffered under cruel

Etruscan kings. When they had thechance to create their own govern-ment, they chose something verydifferent.

Focusing on the • Rome’s republic was shaped by a

struggle between wealthy landownersand regular citizens as it graduallyexpanded the right to vote. (page 427)

• The Roman Republic’s legal systemwas based on the rule of law.(page 431)

• Rome slowly destroyed the Carth-aginian Empire and took control ofthe entire Mediterranean region.(page 432)

Locating PlacesCarthage (KAHR• thihj)Cannae (KA• nee)Zama (ZAY• muh)

Meeting PeopleCincinnatus (SIHN•suh•NA•tuhs)Hannibal (HA•nuh•buhl)

Content Vocabularypatrician (puh•TRIH•shuhn)plebeian (plih•BEE•uhn)consul (KAHN•suhl)veto (VEE•toh)praetor (PREE•tuhr)dictator (DIHK•TAY•tuhr)

Academic Vocabularylegislate (LEH• juhs•LAYT)accommodate (uh • KAH • muh • DAYT)challenge (CHA• luhnj)

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Completea chart like the one below describingthe government of Rome.

264 B.C.Punic WarsbeginSPAIN

ITALY

GREECE

Rome

Carthage

450 B.C. 300 B.C. 150 B.C.450 B.C. 300 B.C. 150 B.C.


Officials Legislative Bodies

146 B.C.Rome destroysCarthage

451 B.C.Romans adopt theTwelve Tables


426-434 Ch9 S2-868874 1/4/05 11:48 PM Page 426


WH6.7.2 Describe the government of the Roman Republic and its significance (e.g., written constitution and tripartite government,checks and balances, civic duty).

Rome’s GovernmentRome’s republic was shaped by a strug-

gle between wealthy landowners and regular citi-zens as it gradually expanded the right to vote.

Reading Connection Do you know where our word

republic comes from? It is made up of two Latin words

meaning “thing of the people.” Read on to learn about

the republican government that early Romans created.

Early Romans were divided into twoclasses: patricians and plebeians. The patricians (puh • TRIH • shuhnz) were wealthylandowners. These nobles made up Rome’sruling class. Most of Rome’s people, how-ever, were plebeians (plih • BEE • uhnz). Thisgroup consisted of artisans, shopkeepers,and owners of small farms.

Both patrician and plebeian men wereRoman citizens. They had the right to voteand the duty to pay taxes and serve in thearmy. However, plebeians had less socialstatus. They could not marry patricians andcould not hold public office.

How Did Rome’s Government Work?Rome had a tripartite, or three-part, government. One group of people ran the government, another group made laws, and a third group acted as judges. It had checks and balances so that one groupcould not get too strong, but it did not separate powers like our government does today. Judges also helped run the government, and some leaders who ran the government also helped make laws.

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Growth of the Roman Republic 500–146 B.C.

1. Movement What major islandsdid Rome conquer?

2. Human/Environment InteractionWhy do you think Rome did notexpand farther north?

Roman consul

Rome, 500 B.C.

Territory added by 264 B.C.

Territory added by 146 B.C.

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In the Roman Republic, the top govern-ment officials were the consuls (KAHN• suhlz).Two consuls—both patricians—were chosenevery year. They headed the army and ranthe government. Because they served suchshort terms, there was little risk that theywould abuse their power. The consuls alsokept each other in line because each couldveto (VEE• toh), or reject, the other’s decision.The word veto is Latin for “I forbid.” Romealso had other important officials calledpraetors (PREE • tuhrz). Their core task was tointerpret the law and act as judges in courtcases.

Rome’s most important legislative, orlawmaking, body was the Senate. This was

a select group of 300 patrician men whoserved for life. In the beginning, the Senateonly gave advice to the consuls. Over time,the power of the Senate grew. By the 200s B.C., it could propose laws, holddebates, and approve building programs.

Another legislative body was theAssembly of Centuries. It elected the con-suls and praetors, and passed laws. Like theSenate, the Assembly of Centuries was con-trolled by the patricians.

Plebeians Against Patricians As youmight predict, plebeians complained abouthaving so little power in the Roman Republic.After all, they fought alongside patricians inthe army, and their tax payments helped therepublic thrive.

In 494 B.C. many plebeians went onstrike. They refused to serve in the army.They also left the city to set up a republic oftheir own. These moves frightened thepatricians into agreeing to share power.

The patricians accommodated the ple-beians by allowing them to have their ownbody of representatives, called the Council ofthe Plebs, in 471 B.C. The assembly electedtribunes who brought plebeian concerns tothe government’s attention. The tribunes alsowon the right to veto government decisions.In 455 B.C. plebeians and patricians wereallowed to marry, and in the 300s B.C., ple-beians were allowed to become consuls.

The most far-reaching political reformcame in 287 B.C. In that year, the Council ofthe Plebs finally was granted the power topass laws for all Romans. Now all male cit-izens had equal political standing, at leastin theory. In practice, a few wealthy patri-cian families still held most of the power,and women remained without a voice in government. The Roman Republic hadbecome more representative, but it was farfrom a full-fledged democracy.


A Roman TriumphSometimes military leaders returning toRome after a victory took part in a greatparade called a triumph. “Thus arrayed [decoratively dressed], they entered the city, having at the head of the procession the spoilsand trophies and fig-ures representing thecaptured forts, cities,mountains, rivers,lakes, and seas—everything, in fact,that they had taken. . . .[When] . . . the victori-ous general arrived atthe Roman Forum . . .he rode up to theCapitol. There he performed certain rites and made offerings.”

—Zonaras, “A Roman Triumph”

Why do you think the military leaders andtheir troops were dressed decorativelybefore the triumph?

Roman soldiers

Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection

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Roman Dinner Parties Before Romebecame a powerful empire, Romans ate simple meals of porridge, driedvegetables, and greens. People rarelyate meat or seafood. After Rome’sconquests, the dining habits of wealthyRomans changed. Newly rich Romansshowed off their wealth with expensivefeasts that included exotic foods andlively entertainment for their guests.

At Roman dinner parties, guestsreclined on couches. The enslavedservants served the food, which wouldbe carried into the banquet room ongreat silver platters. Roman dishesmight include boiled stingray garnishedwith hot raisins; boiled crane withturnips; or roast flamingo cooked withdates, onions, honey, and wine.

A wealthy Roman womanreclining on a couch

Connecting to the Past1. Whose eating habits changed after Rome

became wealthy and powerful?

2. Describe how their eating habits changed.

Who Was Cincinnatus? An unusual fea-ture of the Roman Republic was the officeof dictator (DIHK • TAY • tuhr). Today wedefine a dictator as an oppressive rulerwith complete control over the state.Roman dictators also had complete con-trol, but they only ruled on a temporarybasis during emergencies. The Senateappointed a dictator in times of great dan-ger. As soon as the danger was past,Roman dictators gave up their power.

The best-known early Roman dictator isCincinnatus (SIHN • suh • NA • tuhs). About 460 B.C., a powerful enemy had surroundeda Roman army. Officials decided that Romeneeded a dictator and that Cincinnatus wasthe man for the job. Cincinnatus left hisfarm and gathered an army. He defeatedthe enemy in short order and returned toRome in triumph. Although he probablycould have continued ruling, Cincinnatusdid not want power. Having done his duty,he returned to his farm and gave up his dic-tatorship.

Romans strongly believed in civic duty,or the idea that citizens have a responsibil-ity to help their country. Cincinnatus was apopular example of someone doing hisduty as a citizen. He was widely admired inhis generation and in later ages. GeorgeWashington, for one, took inspiration fromhis example. Like Cincinnatus, Washingtonwas a farmer when he was asked to head anarmy: the Continental Army in theAmerican War for Independence. Afterleading the Americans to victory, Wash-ington returned to his plantation home.Only later, and with some reluctance, didhe agree to become the first president of theUnited States.

Explain What checks and balances existed in the Roman Republic’s government?

The

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WH6.7.1 Identify the location and describethe rise of the Roman Republic, including theimportance of such mythical and historicalfigures as Aeneas, Romulus and Remus,Cincinnatus, Julius Caesar, and Cicero.

430

LUCIUS QUINCTIUSCINCINNATUS

c. 519–438 B.C.

The loyal devotion of Cincinnatus greatlyimpressed the Roman historian Livy. In hisHistory of Rome, Livy advised his readers tolisten to the worthwhile story of Cincinnatus,whose virtue rose high above any rewards thatwealth could bring.

According to Livy, Cincinnatus lived in Romebut owned and worked a four-acre field on theother side of the Tiber River. On the day thatthe officials looked for Cincinnatus, they foundhim hard at work in his field, covered with dirtand sweat. Cincinnatus was surprised when theofficials asked him to put on his toga and listenas they explained the wishes of the RomanSenate.

The officials explained the emergencysituation to Cincinnatus. He agreed to theSenate’s request that he become a dictator.Cincinnatus and the officials crossed the TiberRiver to Rome. The next morning, before daylight,Cincinnatus went to the Forum and gathered hisforces to attack the enemy.

The story of Cincinnatus was important to the ancient Romansfor several reasons. He wasvictorious in battle and quickly gave up the dictatorship. Perhapsmore importantly, he did his civicduty by responding to a call toserve.

Name a modern-day leader that you thinkhistorians will write about with greatadmiration. Explain why.

“The city was in the grip of fear.”

—Livy, The Rise of Rome

Cincinnatus is asked to lead Rome.

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WH6.7.2 Describe the government of the Roman Republic and its significance (e.g., written constitution and tripartite government,checks and balances, civic duty).

WH6.7.8 Discuss the legacies of Roman art and architecture, technology and science, literature, language, and law.

Roman LawThe Roman Republic’s legal system was

based on the rule of law.

Reading Connection Have you ever heard the phrase

“innocent until proven guilty”? Read to learn how Rome intro-

duced this idea that we still use in our courts today.

One of Rome’s major gifts to the world wasits system of law. The legal system of the UnitedStates owes much to the Roman system.

Rome’s first code of laws was the TwelveTables, adopted about 451 B.C. Before this time, Rome’s laws were not writtendown. As a result, plebeians claimed thatpatrician judges often favored their ownclass. They demanded that the laws be putin writing for everyone to see.

The patricians finally agreed. They had thelaws carved on bronze tablets that were placedin Rome’s marketplace, or the Forum (FOHR•uhm). The Twelve Tables became the basis forall future Roman laws. They established theprinciple that all free citizens had the right tobe treated equally by the legal system.

The Twelve Tables, however, appliedonly to Roman citizens. As the Romans tookover more lands, they realized that newrules were needed to solve legal disputesbetween citizens and noncitizens. They cre-ated a collection of laws called the Law ofNations. It stated principles of justice thatapplied to all people everywhere.

These standards of justice included ideasthat we still accept today. A person was seenas innocent until proven guilty. Peopleaccused of crimes could defend themselvesbefore a judge. A judge had to look at theevidence carefully before making a decision.

The idea that the law should apply toeveryone equally and that all people shouldbe treated the same way by the legal systemis called the “rule of law.” In the age of

Rome, the rule of law was still a new con-cept. In many lands, people at the top ofsociety often had special privileges and didnot have to obey the same laws or use thesame courts as people lower down. In someplaces, people at the bottom of society didnot have any legal rights at all.

The rule of law is one of the key ideasthat the Romans gave to the world. Itremains the basis of our legal system today.

Identify What is the “ruleof law” and why is it important?


Twelve Tables c. 451 B.C.

The Twelve Tables were laws writtenon tablets that described the rights ofeach person in the Roman Republic. Thelaws were the first written rules to govern Rome. Writing the lawsdown and putting them on publicdisplay ensured that everyone knew the laws and that judges did notapply the laws differently to differentpeople.

The laws on the Twelve Tablesexplained a person’s rights concerningproperty, wills, public behavior, familylaw, and court actions. The TwelveTables were the first step toward equal rights for citizens of all classesin ancient Rome. They were also a first step toward the idea of the ruleof law that we still uphold today.

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WH6.7.3 Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories and expansion of theempire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of currency and trade routes.

Rome ExpandsRome slowly destroyed the Carthaginian

Empire and took control of the entire Mediterraneanregion.

Reading Connection When you achieve a victory—

whether it is in academics, sports, or some other field—do

you then strive for more success? That may have been

how the Romans felt once they had taken over Italy. Read

on to learn how they continued to expand their power.

While Rome developed its government,it also faced challenges abroad. The Romanshad completed their conquest of Italy.However, they now faced a powerful rival inthe Mediterranean area. This enemy was thestate of Carthage (KAHR• thihj) on the coast ofNorth Africa. It had been founded around

800 B.C. by the Phoenicians. As you learnedearlier, the Phoenicians were sea traders fromthe Middle East.

Carthage ruled a great trading empirethat included parts of northern Africa andsouthern Europe. By controlling the move-ment of goods in this region, Carthagemade itself the largest and richest city in thewestern Mediterranean.

The First Punic War Both Carthage andRome wanted to control the island of Sicily.In 264 B.C. the dispute led to war. The warthat began in 264 B.C. is called the FirstPunic War. Punicus is the Latin word for“Phoenician.” The war started when theRomans sent an army to Sicily to prevent aCarthaginian takeover. The Carthaginians,

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The Punic Wars 264 –146 B.C.

1. Location From what direction didHannibal attack Rome?

2. Movement Why do you thinkHannibal took the route he didinstead of sailing straight acrossto Rome?

Rome at the start of1st Punic WarCarthaginian EmpireHannibal’s routeScipio’s routeBattle

KEY

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In December 218 B.C., Hannibal’s forces and the Roman army met in bat-tle near the Trebbia River in northern Italy. In a well-planned attack, theCarthaginian forces badly defeated the Romans. Hannibal made good useof his elephants in the attack, but most died following the battle. Atwhat other battle in Italy were the Romans defeated by Hannibal?

who already had colonies on the island,were determined to stop this invasion.

Up until then, the Romans had foughttheir wars on land. They soon realized theycould not defeat a sea power like Carthagewithout a navy. They quickly built a largefleet of ships and confronted their enemy atsea. The war dragged on for more than 20years. Finally, in 241 B.C., Rome crushedCarthage’s navy off the coast of Sicily.Carthage was forced to leave Sicily and paya huge fine to the Romans. The island thencame under Roman rule.

The Second Punic War To make up for itsloss of Sicily, Carthage expanded its empireinto southern Spain. Roman leaders werenot happy about Carthage gaining land

on the European mainland west of Rome.They helped the people living in Spainrebel against Carthage. Of course,Carthaginians were angry. To punish Rome,Carthage sent its greatest general,Hannibal (HA •nuh •buhl), to attack Rome in218 B.C. This started the Second Punic War.

Hannibal’s strategy was to take thefighting into Italy itself. To do this,Hannibal gathered an army of about 46,000 men, many horses, and 37 elephants.He landed his forces in Spain and thenmarched east to attack Italy.

Even before reaching Italy, Hannibal’sforces suffered severe losses crossing thesteep, snowy Alps into Italy. The brutalcold, gnawing hunger, and attacks bymountain tribes killed almost half of the

433

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soldiers and most of the elephants. Theremaining army, however, was still a pow-erful fighting force when it reached Italy.

The Romans suffered a severe loss in216 B.C. at the Battle of Cannae (KA •nee) insouthern Italy. Even though Hannibal’s armywas outnumbered, it overpowered the Ro-man force and began raiding much of Italy.

The Romans, however, raised anotherarmy. In 202 B.C. a Roman force led by ageneral named Scipio (SIH • pee • OH) in-vaded Carthage. Almost all of Carthage’stroops were with Hannibal. Scipio’s inva-sion forced Hannibal to head home todefend his city.

At the Battle of Zama (ZAY•muh), Scipio’stroops defeated the Carthaginians. Carthagegave up Spain to Rome. It also had to give up its navy and pay a large fine. Rome nowruled the western Mediterranean.

More Conquests While Carthage was nolonger a military power, it remained atrading center. In 146 B.C. Rome finallydestroyed its great rival in the Third PunicWar. Roman soldiers burned Carthage andenslaved 50,000 men, women, and chil-dren. Legend says that the Romans evenspread salt on the earth so no crops wouldgrow. Carthage became a Roman province,or regional district.

During the Punic Wars, Rome success-fully battled states in the eastern Med-iterranean. In 148 B.C. Macedonia cameunder Roman rule. Two years later, the restof Greece became Roman. In 129 B.C. Romegained its first province in Asia. It was nowonder that the Romans began to call theMediterranean mare nostrum—”our sea.”

Describe How did Romepunish Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War?

RomeInvadesSicily

Study Central Need help understanding howRome expanded? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Reading SummaryReview the • During the Roman Republic, the

government changed as the ple-beians, or lower classes, and thepatricians, or ruling class, strug-gled for power.

• Rome introduced the idea of therule of law treating all citizensequally in court.

• Beginning in 264 B.C., Romefought and won a series of warswith Carthage and other powersand gained control of theMediterranean region.

1. Who were the top governmentofficials in the Roman Republic,and what were their duties?

2. What does mare nostrummean, and why did the Romansuse the term?

Critical Thinking3. Sequencing Information

Draw a diagram to describe the sequence of events fromthe start of the First Punic Warto the start of the SecondPunic War.

4. Geography Skills Where wasCarthage located, and why didit compete with Rome?

5. Summarize What other conquests did Rome carry out during the period of thePunic Wars?

6. How did the cre-ation of the Twelve Tableschange the legal system inRome?

7. Persuasive Writing Write aspeech demanding equal rightsfor plebeians in the earlyrepublic. CA 6WA2.5

CA HI2.

CA 6RC2.4

CA CS3.CA 6RC2.0

CA CS1.

What Did You Learn?

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The Fall of the

Republic


CHAPTER 9: The Rise of Rome 435

Looking Back, Looking AheadBy the end of the Third Punic

War, Rome ruled the Mediterraneanworld. All was not well, however.Closer to home, the republic facedincreasing dangers that would soonlead to its end.

Focusing on the • The use of enslaved labor hurt

farmers, increased poverty andcorruption, and brought the armyinto politics. (page 436)

• Military hero Julius Caesar seizedpower and made reforms. (page 438)

• The Roman Republic, weakened bycivil wars, became an empire underAugustus. (page 440)

Meeting PeopleJulius Caesar

(jool•yuhs SEE•zuhr)Octavian (ahk•TAY•vee•uhn)Antony (AN•tuh•nee)Cicero (SIH•suh•ROH)Augustus (aw•GUHS•tuhs)

Locating PlacesRubicon (ROO•bih•KAHN)Actium (AK•shee•uhm)

Content Vocabularylatifundia (LA•tuh•FUHN•dee•uh)triumvirate (try•UHM•vuh•ruht)

Academic Vocabularydespite (dih•SPYT)estate (ihs•TAYT)sole (SOHL)foundation (fown•DAY•shuhn)

Reading StrategyFinding the Main Idea Use a chart likethe one below to identify the main ideasof Section 3 and supporting details.

Main Idea

Supporting Supporting SupportingDetail Detail Detail

Supporting Supporting SupportingDetail Detail Detail

82 B.C.Sulla becomes dictator ofRome

44 B.C.Group ofsenators murderJulius Caesar

27 B.C.Octavianbecomes Rome’sfirst emperorASIA

MINOR

GAUL

ITALY

GREECE

SPAIN Rome

100 B.C. 60 B.C. 20 B.C.100 B.C. 60 B.C. 20 B.C.


F

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Trouble in the RepublicThe use of enslaved labor hurt farmers,

increased poverty and corruption, and brought thearmy into politics.

Reading Connection Poverty, corruption, unemploy-

ment, crime, and violence are problems we hear about

today. Read on to learn how the Romans struggled with

these same issues 2,000 years ago.

Rome’s armies were victorious wher-ever they went. Yet problems were buildingat home. As you read in Section 2, most of the people who ruled Rome were patricians—rich people who owned largefarms. These rich landowners ran the Senateand held the most powerful governmentjobs. They handled Rome’s finances anddirected its wars. Despite some gains for theplebeians, many people became veryunhappy about this situation.

Problems for Farmers Rome had fewprivileged citizens compared with themany Romans who farmed small plots ofland. In the 100s B.C., however, these farm-ers were sinking into poverty and debt.Why? Many of them had been unable tofarm because they were fighting in Rome’swars. Others had suffered damage to theirfarms during Hannibal’s invasion of Italy.

Moreover, owners of small farms couldnot compete with the new latifundia (LA •tuh•FUHN•dee•uh), or large farming estatescreated by wealthy Romans. The latifundiawere tended by a new source of labor—thethousands of prisoners captured during

Rome’s wars. By using enslaved labor, thelatifundia could produce cheap crops anddrive small farms out of business.

Faced with debts they could not payoff, many farmers sold their land andheaded to the cities, desperate for work.However, jobs were hard to find, andwages were low. Enslaved people did mostof the work. These conditions createdwidespread anger.

Roman politicians quickly turned thesituation to their advantage. To win thevotes of the poor, they began providingcheap food and entertainment. This policyof “bread and circuses” helped many dis-honest rulers come to power.

Why Did Reform Fail? Not all wealthy peo-ple ignored the problems facing the RomanRepublic. Two prominent officials whoworked for reforms were Tiberius and GaiusGracchus (GRA•kuhs). These brothers thoughtthat many of Rome’s problems were causedby the loss of small farms. They asked theSenate to take back public land from the richand divide it among landless Romans.

This issue concerned many senators whohad claimed parcels of public land. Puttingtheir own interests above the general wel-fare, they rejected the Gracchus brothers’proposals. A band of senators even went sofar as to kill Tiberius in 133 B.C. Twelve yearslater, Gaius met the same fate.

The Army Enters Politics For most ofRome’s history, the army had stayed out ofpolitics. This changed when a general namedMarius became consul in 107 B.C. Previously,most soldiers were owners of small farms.Now because this type of farmer was disap-pearing, Marius began to recruit soldiersfrom the poor. In return for their service, hepaid them wages and promised them theone thing they desperately wanted—land.


Web Activity Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 9—Student Web Activity tolearn more about the rise of Rome.

The Art Archive/Archeological Museum Aquileia/Dagli Orti

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Marius changed the Roman army fromcitizen volunteers to paid professional sol-diers. The new troops, however, felt loyalto their general, not to the RomanRepublic. This gave individual generals agreat deal of influence and good reason tobecome involved in politics. Their goalwas to get laws passed that would providethe land they had promised their soldiers.

Marius’s new military system led tonew power struggles. It was not long beforeMarius faced a challenge from a rival gen-eral with his own army, a man named Sulla.

In 82 B.C. Sulla drove his enemies out ofRome and made himself dictator.

Over the next three years, Sulla changedthe government. He weakened the Councilof the Plebs and strengthened the Senate.After he left power, Rome plunged into anera of civil wars for the next 50 years.Ambitious men saw how Sulla used anarmy to seize power. They decided to fol-low the same path.

Explain What change didMarius make to the Roman army?

Farmworkers have facedproblems throughout history. In the

United States, farmworkers in theSouthwest were paid very low wages. In

the 1960s and 1970s, César Chávezorganized the United Farm Workers union. He

used strikes, boycotts, and protest marches toconvince farm owners to deal with the union.Why do you think farmers and farmworkersoften have economic problems?

Rights for FarmersTiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius

believed Rome’s problems could be solved by giving poorpeople their own farms. Gaius also wanted to givetax money to owners of small farms. Wealthylandowners opposed this idea because mosttax money came from taxes on their largefarms. When Roman leaders tried toundo the Gracchi reforms, riots erupted,and both brothers were killed.

Tiberius Gracchus

César Chávez

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WH6.7.4 Discuss the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Rome's transition from republic to empire.

438 CHAPTER 9: The Rise of Rome

Julius CaesarMilitary hero Julius Caesar seized

power and made reforms.

Reading Connection Did you know that George

Washington, Andrew Jackson, William H. Harrison, Zachary

Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, and Dwight D. Eisenhower all com-

manded armies before becoming president? Read to learn

about a famous Roman who made a similar jump from mil-

itary leader to political leader.

After Sulla left office, different Romanleaders battled for power, supported bytheir loyal armies. In 60 B.C. three men wereon top: Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar(jool • yuhs SEE • zuhr). Crassus was a mili-tary leader and one of the richest men inRome. Pompey and Caesar were not as rich,but both were successful military men.Drawing on their wealth and power, theyformed the First Triumvirate to rule Rome.A triumvirate (try • UHM • vuh • ruht) is apolitical alliance of three people.

Caesar’s Military Campaigns The mem-bers of the Triumvirate each had a militarycommand in a remote area of the republic.Pompey was in Spain, Crassus in Syria, andCaesar in Gaul (modern France). While inGaul, Caesar battled foreign tribes andinvaded Britain. He became a hero toRome’s lower classes. Senators and othersback home in Rome feared that Caesar wasbecoming too popular and might seizepower like Sulla.

After Crassus was killed in battle in 53 B.C., the Senate decided that Pompeyshould return to Italy and rule alone. In 49 B.C. the Senate ordered Caesar to give uphis army and come home. Caesar faced adifficult choice. He could obey the Senateand perhaps face prison or death at thehands of his rivals, or he could march onRome with his army and risk a civil war.

Caesar decided to hold on to his 5,000loyal soldiers. He marched into Italy bycrossing the Rubicon (ROO • bih • KAHN), a

A scene showing a battle between Romans and Gauls

Pompey

Caesar

Crassus

Caesar was part of the First Triumvirate,whose members are shown below.

Caesar’s Rise to PowerCaesar’s Rise to Power

(tl)Archaeological Museum, Venice/E.T. Archives, London/SuperStock, (bl)Louvre, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library, (c)Reunion des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, NY, (r)Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection

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Caesar crossing the Rubicon

Brutus (left) was one ofthe senators who killedCaesar. Antony (above)supported Caesar andhis nephew Octavianand fought againstCaesar’s assassins.

small river at the southern boundary of hiscommand area. By doing so, Caesar knewthat he was starting a civil war and that therewas no turning back. The phrase “crossingthe Rubicon” is used today to mean makinga decision that you cannot take back.

Pompey tried to stop Caesar, but Caesarwas the better general. He drove Pompey’sforces from Italy and then destroyedPompey’s army in Greece in 48 B.C.

Caesar’s Rise to Power In 44 B.C. Caesarhad himself declared dictator of Rome forlife. This broke with the Roman traditionthat allowed dictators to hold power foronly short periods of time. To strengthen hishold on power, Caesar filled the Senate withnew members who were loyal to him.

At the same time, Caesar knew thatreforms were needed. He granted citizen-ship to people living in Rome’s territoriesoutside the Italian peninsula. He started newcolonies to provide land for the landless andcreated work for Rome’s jobless people. Heordered landowners using slave labor to hire

more free workers. These measures madeCaesar popular with Rome’s poor.

Caesar also created a new calendar with12 months, 365 days, and a leap year. TheJulian calendar, as it was called, was usedthroughout Europe until A.D. 1582. Thatyear it was modified slightly to become theGregorian calendar. This calendar, based onthe birth of Christ, has been used in theUnited States since its beginning and isused by most countries in the world today.

While many Romans supported Caesar,others did not. His supporters believed hewas a strong leader who brought peace andorder to Rome. His enemies, however,feared that Caesar wanted to be king. Theseopponents, led by the senators Brutus andCassius, plotted to kill him. Caesar ignoreda famous warning to “beware the Ides ofMarch” (March 15). On that date in 44 B.C.,Caesar’s enemies surrounded him andstabbed him to death.

Explain Why did Brutus,Cassius, and others kill Caesar?

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Rome Becomes an EmpireThe Roman Republic, weakened by civil

wars, became an empire under Augustus.

Reading Connection Have you ever been in a traffic

jam and wished that a police officer would show up to

get things moving? Read on to learn how Romans wel-

comed the arrival of a strong new ruler.

Caesar’s death plunged Rome intoanother civil war. On one side were forcesled by the men who had killed Caesar. Onthe other side was Caesar’s grandnephewOctavian (ahk • TAY • vee • uhn), who hadinherited Caesar’s wealth, and two ofCaesar’s top generals, Antony (AN • tuh •nee) and Lepidus. After defeating Caesar’sassassins, these three men created theSecond Triumvirate in 43 B.C.

The Second Triumvirate The members ofthe Second Triumvirate began quarrelingalmost at once. Octavian soon forcedLepidus to retire from politics. Then thetwo remaining leaders divided the Romanworld between themselves. Octavian tookthe west; Antony took the east.

In short order, though, Octavian andAntony came into conflict. Antony fell inlove with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VIIand formed an alliance with her. Octaviantold the Romans that Antony, withCleopatra’s help, planned to make himselfthe sole ruler of the republic. This alarmedmany Romans and enabled Octavian todeclare war on Antony.

In 31 B.C., at the Battle of Actium (AK •shee • uhm) off the west coast of Greece,Octavian crushed the army and navy of


This excerpt is from Cicero’s sixthspeech about the struggle betweenOctavian and Antony (MarcusAntonius):“Therefore, when I saw that a nefarious [evil] war was waged against the republic, Ithought that no delay ought to be inter-posed to our pursuit of Marcus Antonius; andI gave my vote that we ought to pursue withwar that most audacious [bold] man, who . . .was at this moment attacking a general ofthe Roman people. . . . I said further, that . . .the garb of war should be assumed by thecitizens, in order that all men might applythemselves with more activity and energy toavenging the injuries of the republic.”

—Cicero, “The Sixth Oration ofM.T. Cicero Against

Marcus Antonius”

Why did Cicero want Rome to fightAntony?

Cicero Calls for War Cicero

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Antony and Cleopatra. The couple then fledto Egypt. A year later, as Octavian closed in,they killed themselves. Octavian, at the ageof 32, now stood alone at the top of theRoman world. The period of civil wars wasover, but so was the republic. Octavianwould lay the foundation for a new systemof government—the Roman Empire.

Who Was Augustus? Octavian couldhave made himself dictator for life, likeJulius Caesar did. He knew, though, thatmany people favored a republican form ofgovernment. One such person was Cicero(SIH • suh • ROH), a political leader, writer, andRome’s greatest public speaker. Cicero hadargued against dictators and called for a rep-resentative government with limited powers.

Cicero’s speeches and books swayedmany Romans. Centuries later, his ideas

would also influence the writers of the UnitedStates Constitution.

Although Cicero did not live to see Octavianrule, he had supported him, hoping he wouldrestore the republic. In 27 B.C. Octavianannounced that he was doing just that.

He knew the Senate wanted this form ofgovernment. However, Octavian also knewthat the republic had been too weak to solveRome’s problems. Although he gave somepower to the Senate, he really put himself incharge. His title, imperator, translates to“commander in chief,” but it came to mean“emperor.” Octavian also took the title ofAugustus (aw• GUHS • tuhs)—“the revered ormajestic one.” From this point on, he wasknown by this name.

Explain How did the Battleof Actium affect the history of Rome?

Study Central Need help understanding howthe republic collapsed? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.comand click on Study Central.

Reading SummaryReview the • As the gap between the ruling

class and the poor in Romeincreased, a number of reformsfailed, and generals began togather power.

• Julius Caesar became dictatorand carried out reforms to aidRome’s poor. Later he was assas-sinated by members of theSenate.

• Caesar’s grandnephew Octaviandefeated Antony and Cleopatraand became Augustus, the firstRoman emperor.

1. What is a triumvirate?

2. Who was Cicero, and how didhe influence the writers of theUnited States Constitution?

Critical Thinking3. Understanding Cause and

Effect Draw a diagram like theone below. Fill in the chain ofevents that led to Julius Caesartaking power.

4. Summarize What reforms didthe Gracchus brothers suggest?

5. How did failuresin leadership help bring aboutthe fall of the republic? Whatnew leaders took power as aresult?

6. Analyze What reforms didJulius Caesar put in place thatincreased his popularity withpoor and working-class Romans?

7. Persuasive Writing Imagineyou are a Roman citizen. Decidewhether you would have beenfor or against Julius Caesar’srise to power and his reforms.Then write a newspaper edito-rial explaining your views.

CA 6RC2.1; 6WA2.5

CA 6RC2.0

CA HR5.; HI3.

CA 6RC2.4

CA CS2.

What Did You Learn?

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442

Was Caesar a Reformer or a Dictator?

During his life, Julius Caesar was

greatly admired by many people. He was

also hated and feared by many others.

Some believed he was too ambitious—

exceptionally eager for fame and power—

and that his ambition would keep him

from acting in Rome’s best interest.

Was Caesar a great reformer or an

ambitious dictator? Those who saw him as

a great leader and reformer said that he

• won the support of his soldiers

through his military leadership

and strategy

• treated many of his defeated

enemies generously and

appointed some of them—

including Brutus—to gov-

ernment positions

• ended the rule of corrupt

Roman nobles

• brought order and peace to

Rome

• restored cities that had

been destroyed by the

republic

• strengthened and

expanded the state of

Rome

• started public jobs pro-

grams to aid the poor

• granted Roman citizen-

ship to people from for-

eign countries or states.

Great Reformer

The assassinationof Julius Caesar

442

WH6.7.4 Discuss theinfluence of Julius Caesarand Augustus in Rome'stransition from republic toempire.

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AmbitiousDictator

Caesar also had many enemies,

including some who had been his

friends. They saw Caesar as a dan-

gerous dictator and thought he was

taking advantage of his growing

power. They said that he

• became an enemy when he

refused to follow the Senate’s

order to return to Rome

• started a civil war that led

to the destruction of the

republic

• increased the number

of senators to add to his

number of supporters

• treated his defeated enemies

with cruelty

• punished those who wanted

to uphold the traditions and

laws of the republic

• weakened the Senate to gain

absolute power over Rome

• kept hidden any facts that did

not make him look brave and

intelligent

• sought glory for himself at the

expense of the republic.

443

Julius Caesar

Checking for Understanding1. Define ambition. Identify some

ways ambition can be a positivecharacteristic and some ways itcan be a negative characteristic.

2. What could Caesar have done toshow his enemies that he wasnot abusing his power?

3. Do you think Caesar was a greatleader and reformer or an ambi-tious dictator? Write a briefessay that explains how youview Caesar. Use facts to support your position.

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A.D. 14Augustus dies

A.D. 96Rule of the GoodEmperors begins

A.D. 180Pax Romanaends

BRITAIN

GAULITALY GREECE

EGYPT

SPAIN

PALESTINE

Rome

A.D. 10 A.D. 110 A.D. 210A.D. 10 A.D. 110 A.D. 210

The

Early Empire

Looking Back, Looking AheadYou learned in Section 3 that

when Octavian became Augustus, theRoman world began to change. Therepublic gave way to an empire, andpeace and prosperity spreadthroughout the Mediterranean.

Focusing on the • By expanding the empire and

reorganizing the military andgovernment, Augustus created a newera of prosperity. (page 445)

• Rome’s system of roads, aqueducts,ports, and common currency madethe empire rich and prosperous.(page 446)

Locating PlacesRhine River (RYN)Danube River (DAN•YOOB)Puteoli (pyu•TEE•uh•LY) Ostia (AHS•tee•uh)

Meeting PeopleCaligula (kuh•LIH•gyuh• luh)Nero (NEE•roh)Hadrian (HAY•dree•uhn)

Content VocabularyPax Romana

(pahks roh•MAH•nah)aqueduct (A•kwuh•DUHKT)currency (KUHR•uhn•see)

Academic Vocabularysuccessor (suhk•SEH•suhr)commit (kuh•MIHT)capable (KAY•puh •buhl)

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Use a chart like the one below to show the changesAugustus made in the Roman Empireand the effect of each change.

Causes Effects



444-451 Ch9 S4-868874 1/5/05 1:19 AM Page 444


The Emperor AugustusBy expanding the empire and reorgan-

izing the military and government, Augustus cre-ated a new era of prosperity.

Reading Connection What makes a good or bad

leader? Think about this question as you read about

Augustus and other Roman emperors.

Augustus paved the way for 200 years ofpeace and prosperity in Rome. The emperorswho followed him were not all good rulers,but they helped the Roman Empire reach itspeak. For centuries, the Mediterraneanregion had been filled with conflict. UnderAugustus and his successors, the region wasunder the control of one empire. A long eraof peace began with Augustus and lasteduntil A.D. 180. It was called the Pax Romana(pahks roh•MAH•nah), or “Roman Peace.”

What Did Augustus Achieve? Uponbecoming emperor in 27 B.C., Augustus set agoal to make the empire strong and safe. Toprovide security, he built a permanent, professional army of about 150,000 men—all Roman citizens. Augustus also created aspecial unit called the Praetorian Guard.

This force consisted of about 9,000 men incharge of guarding the emperor. ThePraetorian Guard later became very influ-ential in Roman politics.

Augustus’s legions conquered new ter-ritories and added vast stretches of north-ern Europe to the empire. All of Spain and Gaul came under Roman rule, as didland in what is today Austria, Hungary,Romania, and Bulgaria.

Meanwhile, Augustus rebuilt Rome withstately palaces, fountains, and splendid pub-lic buildings. “I found Rome a city of brick,”he boasted, “and left it a city of marble.” Thearts flourished as never before, and Augustusalso imported grain from Africa to feed thepoor. He knew that a well-fed populationwould be less likely to cause trouble.

Augustus devoted much of his energy toimproving Rome’s government. During hisreign, more than 50 million people lived inthe Roman Empire. To rule this huge popu-lation, Augustus appointed a proconsul, orgovernor, for each of Rome’s provinces.

Augustus also reformed the Roman taxsystem. Previously, individual tax collectorspaid the government for the right to do thejob. To make their investment worthwhile,


The city of Rome at the height of the Roman Empire

Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library

444-451 Ch9 S4-868874 1/5/05 1:25 AM Page 445

WH6.7.3 Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories and expansion of theempire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of currency and trade routes.

tax collectors were allowed to keep some ofthe money they gathered. Many of them,however, were dishonest and took too much.Augustus solved this problem by makingtax collectors permanent government work-ers. This change made the tax system fairer.

Augustus also reformed the legal system.He created a set of laws for people in theprovinces who were not citizens. As timepassed, however, most of these peoplegained citizenship. The laws of Rome thenapplied to everyone, although the legal sys-tem traditionally stressed the authority of thegovernment over the rights of the individual.

Who Came After Augustus? After rulingnearly 40 years, Augustus died in A.D. 14.No law stated how the next emperor was tobe chosen. Augustus, however, had traineda relative, Tiberius, to follow him. The nextthree emperors—Caligula (kuh • LIH • gyuh •luh), Claudius, and Nero (NEE • roh)—alsocame from Augustus’s family. They arecalled the Julio-Claudian emperors.Unfortunately, they were not all fit to lead.Tiberius and Claudius ruled capably.Caligula and Nero, however, proved to becruel leaders.

Mental illness caused Caligula to actstrangely and to treat people cruelly. Hehad many people murdered, wasted a lot ofmoney, and even gave his favorite horse theposition of consul. Eventually, thePraetorian Guard killed him and putClaudius on the throne.

Nero was also a vicious man. Amongthose he had killed were his mother and twowives. He is best remembered for having“fiddled while Rome burned.” According tolegend, he was playing music miles fromRome when a fire destroyed much of the cityin A.D. 64. Eventually, he committed suicide.

Explain What did Augustusdo to make the empire safer and stronger?

Unity and ProsperityRome’s system of roads, aqueducts,

ports, and common currency made the empire richand prosperous.

Reading Connection Do you find that you are more

productive when you are not worried about conflicts at

home or school? Read to learn how the Roman Empire

prospered during its time of peace.

After Nero committed suicide, Romepassed through a period of serious disor-der. In not much more than a year, four dif-ferent men had taken the title of emperor.

At first the senate tried to appointNero’s successor. However, the newemperor did not pay his personal troopsenough money, and they assassinated him.The leader of this conspiracy, a man namedOtho, became the next emperor. Many ofthe legions outside of Italy did not supporthim. The troops in Gaul picked one of theirown generals to rule, a man namedVitellius. After Vitellius defeated Otho inbattle, Otho committed suicide andVitellius became emperor.

However, the troops in Palestine did notsupport Otho or Vitellius. In July of A.D. 69,they declared the general Vespasian to beemperor. Vespasian led his soldiers back toItaly, where he defeated Vitellius and tookthe throne. Unlike the other generals,Vespasian restored peace and order. He putdown several rebellions in the empire,including the Jewish rebellion in Palestine.Troops commanded by his son Titusdefeated the Jews and destroyed the Jewishtemple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70.

During his reign, Vespasian began con-struction of the Colosseum—a hugeamphitheater—in central Rome. His sonTitus, then his other son Domitian, ruledRome after he died. Both sons oversaw anera of recovery and growth in Rome.

446 CHAPTER 9 • The Rise of Rome(t)C. Hellier/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection, (tc)Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection, (bc)The Art Archive/Museo Capitolino Rome/Dagli Orti, (b)The Art Archive/Staatliche Glypothek Munich/Dagli Orti

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447

Augustus overcame the obstacles of illness andpolitical enemies to become a great emperor.Can you think of any present-day individualswho overcame obstacles to excel at something?

AUGUSTUS63 B.C.–A.D. 14Octavian was born to a wealthy family in a

small Italian town southeast of Rome. During hisyouth, Octavian suffered a number of illnesses. Herefused to let his illnesses interfere with his life, however,showing the determination that would later make himRome’s first emperor.

Octavian’s father was a Roman senator, but it wasOctavian’s great-uncle—Julius Caesar—who firstintroduced Octavian to public life in Rome. In his lateteens, Octavian joined Caesar in Africa and then thefollowing year in Spain. At the age of 18, while Octavianwas studying at school, he learned that his great-unclehad been murdered. In his will, Caesar had adoptedOctavian as his son. Caesar had also made Octavian hisheir—a position that Antony had assumed would behis. Against his family’s advice, Octavian went to Rometo claim his inheritance. By the time he reached Rome,however, Antony had seized Caesar’s papers and moneyand refused to give them to Octavian.With remarkablepolitical savvy for someone so young, Octavian turnedthe situation around in his favor. He won the hearts ofCaesar’s soldiers and the people of Rome bycelebrating the public games that Caesar hadstarted.

In his rise to power and during his reign asEmperor Augustus, Octavian pushed himself andhis loyal followers with relentless energy. In hisprivate life, however, he lived simply and quietlyand shunned personal luxury. He was devoted to his wife, Livia Drusilla, and spent his spare time with her at their home on the outskirts of Rome.

Augustus

“I extended the frontiers of all the provinces of theRoman people.”

—Augustus, “Res Gestae: TheAccomplishments of Augustus”

WH6.7.4 Discuss the influence of JuliusCaesar and Augustus in Rome's transitionfrom republic to empire.

Robert Emmett Bright/Photo Researchers

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The “Good Emperors” At the beginningof the A.D. 100s, a series of rulers who werenot related to Augustus or Vespasian cameto power. These five emperors—Nerva,Trajan, Hadrian (HAY•dree•uhn), AntoninusPius, and Marcus Aurelius—are known asthe “good emperors.” They presided overnearly a century of prosperity, from A.D. 96to A.D. 180. Agriculture flourished, tradeincreased, and the standard of living rose.

During this time, the emperor came toovershadow the Senate more than everbefore. The five “good emperors” did notabuse their power, however. They were

among the most devoted and capablerulers in Rome’s history.

Among the achievements of theseemperors were programs to help ordinarypeople. Trajan gave money to help poorparents raise and educate their children.Hadrian made Roman law easier to inter-pret and apply. Antoninus Pius passedlaws to help orphans. All the emperorssupported public building projects. Theybuilt arches and monuments, bridges androads, and harbors and aqueducts. Anaqueduct (A • kwuh • DUHKT) is a human-madechannel for carrying water long distances.


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Expanded theempire to its

largest size; builtmany new public

works

Promoted art andscience; built new

public works;passed laws to aid

orphans

TrajanA.D. 98–117

Antoninus PiusA.D. 138–161

Extent of RomanEmpire, 146 B.C.

Extent of RomanEmpire, 44 B.C.

Extent of RomanEmpire, A.D. 14

Reformed land laws in favor of

the poor; revisedtaxes

NervaA.D. 96–98

Built Hadrian’s Wall in Britain;made Roman laws easier to

understand

HadrianA.D. 117–138

Helped unite the empire

economically;reformed

Roman law

Marcus AureliusA.D. 161–180

The Roman Empire: Trade and Expansion

The “Good Emperors” of the Pax RomanaThe “Good Emperors” of the Pax Romana

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A Unified Empire Later emperors contin-ued to conquer new territory for Rome. Theempire reached its largest size under Trajan.It spread well beyond the Mediterranean,including Britain in the north and part ofMesopotamia in the east.

Trajan’s successors, however, realizedthat the empire had grown too big to ruleeffectively. Hadrian began to pull back. Heremoved troops from most of Mesopotamia.In Europe, he set the empire’s eastern boundaries at the Rhine River (RYN) andDanube River (DAN • YOOB). He also builtHadrian’s Wall across northern Britain to

keep out the Picts and Scots—two warlikepeople who lived in northern Britain.

In the A.D. 100s, the Roman Empire wasone of the greatest empires in history. Itincluded about 3.5 million square miles (9.1 million square km). Its people spoke dif-ferent languages—mostly Latin in the westand Greek in the east. They also practiceddifferent local customs. What unified theempire, though, were Roman law, Romanrule, and a shared identity as Romans. TheRomans were also generous in grantingcitizenship. In A.D. 212 every free personwas made a Roman citizen.


From China

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ATLANTIC OCEAN

Adriatic Sea

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ARABIAEGYPTAlexandria

Sidon

Byzantium

Athens

PuteoliOstia

Rome

Carthage

MassaliaTarraco

1. Human/Environment Interaction What fea-ture made up the far northern border of theRoman Empire?

2. Movement Describe in general the trade itemsthat came from the various regions of theempire.

Roman Empire,A.D. 200

Trade route

GlasswareGrain

HorsesMarbleMetals

Olive oil

SPICES

PerfumeSilk

SpicesTimberWild animals

Wine

WoolTraded goods:

KEY

444-451 Ch9 S4-868874 1/13/05 3:12 PM Page 449

Roman Aqueducts Transporting water isa complex problem. Roman engineerssolved it by building aqueducts. Romanaqueducts carried water across a valley orhillside using gravity, aboveground stonearches, and underground pipes made ofstone or clay. Between 312 B.C. and A.D.226, 11 aqueducts were built to bringwater to Rome from as far away as 57miles. Once the water made it to Rome, itwas held in collecting tanks. Most peoplegathered water from these public tanks.Only the rich and high-ranking officialshad private water tanks in their homes.

Many Romanaqueducts still standand are used today.Engineers in ancientPersia, India, andEgypt built similarwater systemshundreds of yearsbefore the Romans.However, historiansagree that theRomans were thegreatest aqueductbuilders of theancient world.

Connecting to the Past1. How did the Romans transport water

to the city of Rome?

2. Why do you think that only the rich andpowerful had private water supplies?

A Booming Economy Most people in theRoman Empire made a living from theland. Small farms dotted northern Italy. Insouthern and central Italy, latifundia, or large estates worked by enslaved people, were common. On these estatesand in the provinces of Gaul and Spain,farmers produced grapes, olives, wine, andolive oil. In Britain and Egypt, the chiefcrops were grains. Bountiful harvests fromthese regions kept Rome’s people well fed.

Agriculture was the most importantpart of the economy, but industry wasimportant too. Potters, weavers, and jewelersproduced goods, and cities became centersfor making glass, bronze, and brass.

Traders came from all over theempire—and beyond—to ports in Italy.Two of the largest port cities were Puteoli(pyu•TEE•uh• LY) on the Bay of Naples andOstia (AHS • tee • uh) at the mouth of theTiber. The docks were lively places. Luxuryitems, including silk goods from China andspices from India, poured in to satisfy therich. Raw materials, such as British tin,Spanish lead, and iron from Gaul, went tothe workshops of Roman cities.

Roads and Money A good transporta-tion network was vital to the empire’strade. During the Pax Romana, Rome’s system of roads reached a total length of 50,000 miles (80,000 km). On the seas,the Roman navy helped to rid theMediterranean of pirates, allowing goodsto be shipped more safely.

Rome’s trade was helped by a commoncurrency (KUHR • uhn • see), or system ofmoney. For many years, Romans had mintedcoins so that merchants, traders, and otherscould buy and sell products with moneyrather than bartering.

Roman coins were accepted throughoutthe Mediterranean region by A.D. 100.

Roman aqueduct

(l)Roma, Museo Nazion/Art Resource, NY, (cr)Staatliche Glypothek, Munich, Germany/E.T. Archive, London/SuperStock, (others)Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS

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Merchants could use the same money in Gaulor Greece as they did in Italy. The Romansalso created a standard system of weights andmeasures. This made it easier for people toprice goods, trade, and ship products.

The Romans also stamped images oncoins as a way to share a message. For exam-ple, Augustus had coins made with imagesof himself and references to Julius Caesar orimages of his military victories. He wantedpeople to believe that he was a good leader.

Ongoing Inequality Roman culture hadbeen carried into every province by Romansoldiers and officials sent to govern.However, the Roman Empire’s prosperitydid not reach all of its people. Shopkeepers,merchants, and skilled workers benefited

and rich Romans lived in luxury. However,most city dwellers and farmers were poor,and many were enslaved.

Identify Who were the“good emperors,” and what did they accomplish?

Roman coins could be used throughout most ofthe empire, making trade much easier. Howelse did Rome improve trade during the empire?

Changes Under Augustus

Reading SummaryReview the • Augustus conquered new lands

and created a professional mili-tary and a system of proconsuls.He improved the tax system andthe legal system, ushering in thePax Romana.

• Under Vespasian, his sons, andthe five good emperors, Romanscontinued to be prosperous. Theybuilt an elaborate system ofroads and developed a commoncurrency that promoted tradeand economic growth.

1. What was the Pax Romana?

2. What products came from thefarms of Italy, Gaul, and Spain?

Critical Thinking3. Organizing Information

Draw a diagram like the onebelow. Add details about theimprovements and changesAugustus made to the RomanEmpire during his reign.

4. Sequencing InformationDescribe the sequence ofemperors who ruled Rome,from Augustus through the“good emperors.”

5. Why was Rome’screation of a common currencyimportant?

6. Creative Writing Write ashort play in which severalRoman citizens compare theaccomplishments of Rome’semperors.

7. Reading MapsLook at the maps on pages 448and 449. What natural featuresshaped the growth of theRoman Empire and its trade?

CA CS3.

CA 6WA2.1

CA HI6.

CA CS2.

CA 6RC2.4

What Did You Learn?

Study Central Need help understanding theprosperity of the empire? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

444-451 Ch9 S4-868874 1/5/05 1:46 AM Page 451


A Heroic Rescue Attempt

Pliny the Elder—a Roman admiral and well-known author and scientist—died attemptingto rescue people after Mt. Vesuvius erupted inA.D. 79. His nephew, Pliny the Younger,recorded his uncle’s death in a letter writtento a Roman historian named Tacitus.

Thank you for asking me to send you adescription of my uncle’s death so that youcan leave an accurate account of it for pos-terity; . . .

As he was leaving the house he washanded a message from Rectina, . . . whosehouse was at the foot of the mountain, sothat escape was impossible except by boat.She was terrified by the danger threateningher and implored him to rescue her. . . . For

a moment my uncle wondered whether toturn back, but when the helmsmanadvised this he refused, telling him thatFortune stood by the courageous. . . .

. . . My uncle tried to allay the fears ofhis companions. . . . They debated whetherto stay indoors or take their chance in theopen, for the buildings were now shakingwith violent shocks. . . .

. . . Then the flames and smell of sulphurwhich gave warning of the approachingfire drove the others to take flight. . . . Hestood . . . and then suddenly collapsed, Iimagine because the dense fumes chokedhis breathing.

—Pliny, Letters and Panegyricus

Roman PropagandaThe Romans knew the power of the written word. They

believed that history could be preserved by written records. Because of this, they often wrote their letters, histories, and other documents in a way to make themselves look good. For example, after Cicero had given some speeches, he rewrote the text of those speeches so that they were even better than the original. Each of the following passages is about a great Roman person.

Read the passages on pages 452 and 453, and answer the questions that follow.

posterity (pah•STEHR•uh•tee): futuretime

allay: calmdetention: imprisonmentexpenditures (ihk•SPEHN•dih•chuhrs):

the spending of money

principate: rule or reignexcel: be better thanmagistracy (MAH•juh•struh•see):

official duty

Reader’s Dictionary


WH6.7.4 Discuss theinfluence of JuliusCaesar and Augustus inRome’s transition fromrepublic to empire.

Cicero

452-455 Ch9 CRA-868874 7/12/05 11:01 PM Page 452


A Heroic Rescue Attempt

1. Why did Pliny the Elder sail to Mt. Vesuvius?

2. Does Pliny the Younger consider his uncle ahero? Why or why not?

Caesar ’s Story

3. How does Caesar justify his attack on theGauls?

4. How does this passage show Caesar’s abilitiesas a leader?

The Emperor Augustus

5. Why was it important that the temple doorsbe closed?

6. Do you think Augustus was being honest?Why or why not?

7. Think about what you have read in thischapter about Augustus’s authority. Why doyou think he declined to be the consul? Howdid he transfer all power back to the Senatebut still excel others in authority?

Read to Write8. Use all of these passages to answer the

following question: How are the stories ofPliny, Caesar, and Augustus exaggerated? Giveexamples of words and sentences that createthe impression these three men had goodcharacter. CA HR5.

Caesar’s Story

Julius Caesar’s military victories helped to bringhim to power. In the following passage, Caesarexplains why he thought it was important to keepthe people of Gaul under control.

“In spite of the difficulties, Caesar had sev-eral strong reasons for undertaking this cam-paign: the unlawful detention of Romanknights, the revolt and renewal of hostilitiesby enemies who had submitted and givenhostages, the large number of tribes leaguedagainst him, and above all the danger that ifthese were left unpunished others might thinkthemselves entitled to follow their example.”

—“Julius Caesar in Gaul,” J.M. Roberts,Rome and the Classical West

The Emperor Augustus

Shortly before his death in A.D. 14, Augustuswrote a document called the Res Gestae to sum-marize his career.5. . . . In the midst of a critical scarcity of grain

I did not decline the supervision of the grainsupply, which I so administered that withina few days I freed the whole people fromthe imminent panic and danger by myexpenditures and efforts. The consulship,too, which was offered to me at that time asan annual office for life, I refused to accept. . . . I refused to accept any office offered mewhich was contrary to the traditions of ourancestors.

13. The temple of Janus Quirinus, which ourancestors desired to be closed wheneverpeace with victory was secured . . . whichbefore I was born is recorded to have beenclosed only twice since the founding of thecity, was during my principate three timesordered by the senate to be closed.

34. . . . I transferred the state from my ownpower to the control of the Roman senateand people. . . . After that time I excelledall in authority, but I possessed no morepower than the others who were my col-leagues in each magistracy.

—Augustus, “Res Gestae:The Accomplishments of Augustus”

Caesar crossing the Rubicon River

452-455 Ch9 CRA-868874 7/12/05 10:05 PM Page 453

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Rome after Punic Wars, 146 B.C.

Territory added by Caesar’s death, 44 B.C.

Territory added by Augustus’s death, A.D. 14Territory added by A.D. 130Battle site

KEY

Growth of Rome


Standard WH6.7

Review Content VocabularyEach of the following statements is false.Replace each word in italics with a word thatmakes the statement true. Write the correctwords on a separate sheet of paper. ___ 1. A legion is a form of government in

which the citizens choose their leader.___ 2. Patricians included artisans and

shopkeepers.___ 3. The judge in a Roman court case was a

consul.___ 4. In early Rome, the role of praetor lasted

only until a crisis had passed.___ 5. Large farming estates that used

enslaved people to tend crops werecalled aqueducts.

___ 6. A veto was a human-made channel forcarrying water.

Review the Section 1 • Rome’s Beginnings

7. Describe the role geography played in therise of Roman civilization.

8. How did treating people fairly help Rometo increase its power?

Section 2 • The Roman Republic9. How did the roles of patricians and ple-

beians differ in Roman society?10. Explain how Rome gradually defeated the

Carthaginians. Section 3 • The Fall of the Republic11. How did slavery weaken the Roman

Republic? 12. Who were the members of the First

Triumvirate?13. How did Augustus change the Roman

Republic? Section 4 • The Early Empire14. Was Augustus a successful ruler? Explain

your answer. 15. What advances helped make Rome

wealthy and prosperous?

Critical Thinking16. Compare Cincinnatus is often compared

to George Washington. Think of anotherperson who is similar to Cincinnatus.Explain how they are similar.

17. Explain Why did Caesar fight Pompey?

18. Predict What do you think would havehappened if Hadrian had tried to furtherexpand the Roman Empire?

Geography SkillsStudy the map below and answer the follow-ing questions.19. Place Which areas did Rome control after

the Punic Wars? 20. Human/Environment Interaction What

does Hadrian’s Wall reveal about the peo-ple north of it?

21. Region Why was control of theMediterranean important to Rome?

CA CS3.

CA CS3.

CA CS3.

CA HI2.

CA 6RC2.0

CA 6RC2.2

452-455 Ch9 CRA-868874 1/5/05 2:10 AM Page 454

Self-Check Quiz To help prepare for theChapter Test, visit ca.hss.glencoe.com

Select the best answer for each ofthe following questions.

One of Rome’s most significantinfluences on the world is its_____________

A invention of paper.B creation of democracy.C establishment of the Silk Road.D system of law.

Caesar granted Roman citizenship to

A people living in Rome’s territories outside the Italianpeninsula.

B people living in the easternprovinces only.

C just the people who lived inItaly.

D members of the Senate.

29

28

Read to Write22. Persuasive Writing Suppose

you were working with Tiberius and GaiusGracchus to reform Rome. Prepare aspeech that explains why reform isneeded, what types of reforms shouldoccur, and why Rome needs strong leaderslike the Gracchus brothers.

23. Using Your Use your foldableto write a series of questions about thechapter. With a partner, take turns askingand answering questions until you havereviewed the entire chapter.

Using Academic Vocabulary24. Match the word in Column A with its

opposite in Column B.

Building Citizenship25. Making Connections Use the Internet

and your local library to research theTwelve Tables. Work with your classmatesto design a similar series of laws, andrecord them, using modern language.How is your law code similar to and dif-ferent from the Twelve Tables?

Reviewing Skills

26. Analyzing Primary SourcesReread the Primary Source feature on page 440. Write a paragraph that answersthe following questions. Is this a speech offact or opinion? Who is Cicero attacking inhis speech? How might the speech be dif-ferent if Cicero were a friend of Antony? Isthe speech effective in changing your opin-ion of Antony? CA HR5.; HR2.

CA 6WA2.3

CA HR1.

CA 6WA2.5

27. Making Inferences Readthe following passage from page 439:“. . . Caesar knew that reforms were needed.He granted citizenship to people living inRome’s territories. . . . He started new coloniesto provide land for the landless and createdwork for Rome’s jobless people. He orderedlandowners using slave labor to hire more freeworkers.”

What can you infer about Caesar’s lead-ership from these sentences? Write anessay describing his leadership. CA 6WA2.2


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