involvement of calcium oxalate degradation during programmed … · 2019. 12. 20. · perniciosa...
TRANSCRIPT
-
www.elsevier.com/locate/plantsci
Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117
Involvement of calcium oxalate degradation during programmed cell
death in Theobroma cacao tissues triggered by the hemibiotrophic
fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa
Geruza de Oliveira Ceita a, Joci Neuby Alves Macêdo a, Thais Bomfim Santos a,Laurence Alemanno b, Abelmon da Silva Gesteira a, Fabienne Micheli a,c,
Andrea Cristina Mariano d, Karina Peres Gramacho e, Delmira da Costa Silva f,Lyndel Meinhardt g, Paulo Mazzafera h, Gonçalo Amarante Guimarães Pereira i,
Júlio Cézar de Mattos Cascardo a,*a Laboratório de Genômica e Expressão Gênica, UESC, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus 45662-000, BA, Brazil
b Cirad-CP, UMR BEPC, Avenue Agropolis TA80/03, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, Francec Cirad-CP, UMR PIA, Avenue Agropolis TA80/02, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
d Departamento de Educação, UNEB, Campus VII, Rodovia Lomanto Junior s/n, Senhor do Bonfim 48970-000, BA, Brazile Laboratório de Fitopatologia Molecular, CEPEC, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 22, Ilhéus 45600-000, BA, Brazil
f Laboratório de Anatomia Vegetal, UESC, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus 45662-000, BA, Brazilg Sustainable Perennial Crops Laboratory—USDA-ARS, 10300 Baltimore Av. BARC-W, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
h Departamento de Fisiologia Vegetal—UNICAMP, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazili Departamento de Genética e Evolução—UNICAMP, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
Received 15 December 2006; received in revised form 5 April 2007; accepted 11 April 2007
Available online 19 April 2007
Abstract
Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches’ broom disease of Theobroma cacao, significantly affected cacao production in South
America and Caribbean countries. Host colonization by the pathogen exhibits a concerted succession of symptoms, starting with hypertrophic
growth and ‘‘broom’’ formation, followed by tissue degeneration and death. To understand mechanisms of host susceptibility, we investigated
fungal development during a compatible interaction with a susceptible genotype. Microscopic analysis revealed the initial fungal biotrophic
intercellular growth, followed by intracellular growth associated with the presence of an increasing number of host apoptotic nuclei and calcium
oxalate crystals, with subsequent accumulation of hydrogen peroxide and cell death. Active oxalate degradation and its possible source of origin
were detected in infected tissues. Together, these processes may increase the availability of nutrients for the fungal mycelia and may contribute to
the disease cycle in this plant–fungal hemibiotrophic interaction. Based on the histological and gene expression data, a novel role for calcium
oxalate in disease susceptibility is proposed.
# 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Apoptosis; Ascorbate; Cacao; Druses; H2O2; ROS
Abbreviations: COC, calcium oxalate crystals; DAB, 3,30-diaminobenzi-dine; DAI, days after inoculation; G-OXO, germin oxalate oxidase; HR,
hypersensitive response; APX, ascorbate peroxidase; PCD, programmed cell
death; ROS, reactive oxygen species; WBD, witches’ broom disease
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 73 3689 1082; fax: +55 73 3680 5226.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.C. de Mattos Cascardo).
0168-9452/$ – see front matter # 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2007.04.006
1. Introduction
Programmed cell death (PCD) is genetically controlled and
normally occurs during plant development and in response to
environmental stresses [1]. PCD can be seen as a counterpart of
cell division in determining shape and morphology of tissues
and organs during differentiation, and for this reason, has been
extensively studied in animal development. PCD has also been
associated with several plant processes, including senescence
mailto:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2007.04.006
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117 107
[2], organ and cell development [3], response to environmental
changes [4] and hypersensitive response (HR) to pathogen [5].
HR is a PCD-related process characterized by a rapid host
response to pathogen infection that causes growth inhibition [6]
and induces the secretion of pathogen-induced components [7].
One of the most characteristic processes of PCD is
internucleosomal DNA degradation, a phenomenon described
in both animal and plant cells [4,8,9]. PCD-induced DNA
degradation can be detected [9,10], and PCD can be
characterized by nuclear morphology alterations, apoptotic
body formation [11,12], accumulation of toxic molecules,
callose deposition [13,14] and generation of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) [15], which are believed to prevent pathogen
development and colonization [16]. Conversely, in some plant–
hemibiotrophic fungal interactions, ROS production appears to
be an important factor for fungal colonization [17,18].
The hemibiotrophic basidiomycete Moniliophthora (=Cri-
nipellis) perniciosa (Stahel) Aime & Phillips-Mora is the causal
agent of witches’ broom disease (WBD) of cacao (Theobroma
cacao L.). This disease is a serious threat to cacao production in
South America and the Caribbean. In Brazil, the annual cacao
production decreased from 400,000 to 120,000 tonnes as a
consequence of the spread of WBD in the main cacao-growing
region of Brazil [19]. Basidiospores infect meristematic tissues
(shoots, flower cushions, single flowers, and developing pods),
and induce a range of symptoms depending on the organ
infected and the developmental stage: (i) infected apical
meristem presents hypertrophic growth (‘brooms’); (ii) infected
flower cushion usually revert to vegetative shoot production and
parthenocarpic pods; (iii) pod infection can directly result in
seed loss due to a pod rot. The pathogen life cycle is completed
by basidiocarp production on necrotic plant tissues (brooms and
pods). In all infected plant organs, tissue degradation is the
most important symptom of the cacao-M. perniciosa interac-
tion [20–22]. Some of the biochemical changes occurring in
infected tissues were recently described [23], with the
generated knowledge used to develop an artificial medium to
maintain the fungus on the biotrophic phase [24]. Currently, our
group is concentrating in the M. perniciosa genome initiative
(http://www.lge.ibi.unicamp.br/vassoura/) to understand this
complex disease. In the present work, we show in planta that
PCD is triggered by M. perniciosa infection, likely involving
calcium oxalate crystal (COC) accumulation and subsequent
degradation through activation of an oxalate oxidase gene (G-
OXO) expression and H2O2 production.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Plant material
Seedlings of the susceptible cultivar Catongo and the resistant
clone TSH1188 were grown in sterile substrate in the greenhouse
of CEPEC/CEPLAC (Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau da
Comissão Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira, Ilhéus,
Bahia, Brazil) from September 2002 to January 2003 under
natural light and 90% relative humidity. Apical meristems of one
hundred and fifty-four 4-week-old seedlings were inoculated by
spraying a 105 mL�1 basidiospores suspension from the M.
perniciosa Cp1441 CEPEC/CEPLAC strain, obtained as
described [25]. After inoculation, seedlings were kept for 24 h
at 25 � 2 8C in a water-saturated atmosphere [22,26]. Fifty-sixcontrol seedlings were inoculated with sterile water and
submitted to the same conditions as the inoculated plants.
Symptoms were evaluated of the Catongo susceptible plants 4
weeks after inoculation. Disease development was monitored for
90 days. Inoculated and non-inoculated apical meristems from
Catongo and TSH1188 plants were periodically sampled for the
various analyses. For DNA extraction and ascorbic acid
determination, additional plant material from infected and
non-infected Catongo seedlings were collected from a distinct
experiment, placed in liquid nitrogen and kept at �80 8C.
2.2. Histological analysis of cacao meristems during
infection
Meristems from inoculated and non-inoculated Catongo and
TSH1188 seedlings were harvested at 1, 2, 3, 8, 13, 19, 23, 28,
33, 36, 45, 50, 57, 60, 65 and 90 days after inoculation (DAI)
and immediately fixed for at least 24 h in 0.2 M phosphate
buffer pH 7.2, containing 2% paraformaldehyde, 1% glutar-
aldehyde and 1% caffeine (w/v). Plant tissues were then
dehydrated in an alcohol series. Samples were subsequently
transferred to Technovit 7100 resin (Kulzer, Wehrheim,
Germany) for 12 days, and finally embedded in the same
material. Three mm-thick sections were double stained withnaphthol blue-black and Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS), which
were observed in a DMRXA microscope (Leica, Wetzlar,
Germany) under white and polarized light to localize calcium
oxalate crystals (COC), and photographed with a Coolpix 4500
camera (Nikon, Tokyo, Japan). COC were counted from stems
on sample surfaces of 0.4 mm2. For each day of sampling, one
to three sections were counted and for each section the crystals
were counted in three distinct areas.
2.3. Analyses of Catongo DNA degradation during
infection by M. perniciosa
DNAwas extracted from Catongo shoot tips using the CTAB
method, as described: approximately 300 mg of plant material
was frozen and ground in liquid nitrogen. After the addition of
800 ml of extraction buffer (2% CTAB; 1.4 M NaCl; 20 mMEDTA; 100 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.0; 2% PVP; 0.2% b-mercaptoethanol; 20 mg mL�1 proteinase K), samples wereincubated 40 min at 65 8C, and then centrifuged for 5 min at4000 rpm. The aqueous phase was extracted twice with 800 mlof chloroform–isoamyl alcohol (24:1), mixed for 5 min and
then centrifuged for 5 min at 14,000 rpm. DNA was pre-
cipitated with isopropanol and kept at 4 8C overnight. The DNApellet was washed twice with 300 ml of ethanol 70% and 96%,resuspended in 50 ml of TE (10 mM Tris–HCl; 1 mM EDTA,pH 8) containing 80 mg mL�1 of RNase-DNase free, and thenincubated for 30 min at 37 8C. DNA purity and concentrationwas determined spectrophotometrically (Novaspec II, Pharma-
cia Biotech). To determine DNA degradation during disease
http://www.lge.ibi.unicamp.br/vassoura/
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117108
development, calibrated samples of cacao DNA (10 mg) weresubjected to agarose gel electrophoresis (1% agarose), and
stained with ethidium bromide (0.5 mg mL�1).
2.4. In situ detection of DNA fragmentation using the
TUNEL method
For TUNEL (Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase-
mediated dUTP Nick End-Labeling) evaluation, control, 45
and 90 DAI inoculated and non-inoculated ‘Catongo’ mer-
istems were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS buffer
(10 mM NaH2PO4; 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.2) and infiltrated for
10 min under vacuum. Samples were then fixed for 75 min and
dehydrated under vacuum in graded tert-butanol concentrations
(70%, 85%, 95% and 100% for 30 min at each step). The
samples were immersed in absolute tert-butanol for 8 h, and
then in 50% tert-butanol and paraffin for 2 h at room
temperature, and then for 2 h at 60 8C. Samples were incubatedtwice for 2 h in paraffin at 60 8C. Transverse sections of 12 mmwere obtained using a Leica RM 2145 microtome, and mounted
onto slides and kept for 2 days at 45 8C.Sections were deparaffinized (2� 10 min in xylene;
2� 5 min in 100%, 95%, 75% ethanol and 3 min in distillatedwater), washed five times with PBS buffer, incubated for
30 min at room temperature in a PBS solution containing 4%
pectinase and 2% cellulase Onozuka R-10 (Merck), washed for
5 min in PBS, incubated for 20 min in 1% acetic acid in
methanol, washed for 5 min in PBS, incubated with proteinase
K (20 mg mL�1 in 10 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.5) for 15 min at37 8C, washed twice for 2 min in PBS, followed by immersionin TDT buffer (30 mM Tris base; 140 mM Na-cacodylate;
1 mM cobalt chloride, pH 7.2).
To detect DNA fragmentation, the TUNEL procedure was
applied, using the In situ Cell Death Detection Kit (Boehringer,
Mannheim) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. DNA
fragmentation was detected directly after the TUNEL reaction
by examining slides using an Axiovert microscope (Carl Zeiss,
Oberkochen, Germany) with a filter set for fluorescein
isothiocyanate (FITC), and photomicrographs were taken with
KODAK Ultra ASA 400 film.
Several slides were mounted; the pictures represent
accurately the average of the observed. As the differences
were striking, the apoptotic nuclei were not counted. A negative
control, incubated only with the labeling buffer, was included
in the experiment, whereas the positive control was permea-
bilized sections of non-inoculated meristems incubated with
DNase I (1 mg mL�1) for 10 min at room temperature before
processing.
2.5. Ascorbic acid determination
Dried healthy and infected plant samples were ground in a
knife mill, and extracted (300 mg per 3 mL) with cold 4 mM
H2SO4 containing 5 mM dithiothreitol and 0.01% polyvinyl-
polypyrrolidone (w/v) as described in [27]. Samples were
analyzed on the same day of extraction. The extracts were
centrifuged and filtered through 0.22 mm, and analyzed using a
Shimadzu HPLC equipped with a diode array detector,
operating at 190–370 nm. Ascorbic acid was separated on a
Supelcosil LC-18 reversed phase column (Supelco,
4 mm � 250 mm, 5 mm) using 1% aqueous acetic acid (solventA) and methanol (solvent B) in the following gradient: 0–25%
solvent B for 6 min; 25–100% solvent B for 1 min; 100%
solvent B for 12 min. The flow rate was set to 0.8 mL min�1 and
the detector was adjusted to monitor ascorbic acid elution at
210, 250 and 280 nm. Sample ascorbic acid was identified by
comparing elution time with pure standard, by co-injection of
the samples with the standard, and by the UV absorbance
spectrum obtained by the detector. Ascorbic acid concentration
in samples was determined by comparing the signals acquired
at 250 nm and integrated at the workstation (Class VP,
Shimadzu) with signals obtained from pure ascorbic acid
analysis at known concentrations.
2.6. Cacao RNA extraction and semi-quantitative RT-PCR
analysis
Total RNA from infected (3, 30 and 60 DAI) and non-
infected control ‘Catongo’ tissues was isolated [28]. RNA
samples were treated with DNase RNase-free (Invitrogen).
First strand cDNA was synthesized from 2 to 5 mg total RNAusing SuperScript II Kit (Invitrogen) according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. PCR assays were performed with
TC-G-OXO (GenBank accession No. EF191355) specific
primers (forward: 50-CATTAGCATCGGCCTTTGACCC- 30
and reverse: 50-GCCCTCCACGACCACTAGG-30). TC-APX(GenBank accession No. EF533885) specific primers (forward:
50- ATGACGAAGTGTTACCCGACTG-30 and reverse: 50-GCTTGTCCTCTCTTCCGGGG- 30). As an internal controlfor the T. cacao transcript level, specific primers for the TC-S-
18 (GenBank accession no. EF140885) ribosomal protein were
used (forward: 50- CAAGCGATCTTTTCGTAGGC-30 andreverse: 50-CGAAGATAAAATCCGAGCTTGT-30). All geneswere identified in cDNA library with highly significative e-
values of 1e�44, 3e�83, and 3e�26, respectively. RT reactions
contained 2 ml of the reverse transcription reaction, 200 mM ofeach dNTP, 5 pmol of each gene-specific primer, 1� PCRbuffer (10 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.3; 50 mM KCl, 2.5 mM MgCl2)
and 1 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen) in a total volume
of 25 ml. Presence of contaminating DNA was assessed incontrol reactions made without reverse transcriptase. Ampli-
fication reactions were performed for 35 cycles at the suitable
annealing temperatures for each set of primers. All of the
reaction products were resolved by electrophoresis on 1.2%
agarose-TBE gels, stained with ethidium bromide and
visualized under UV illumination.
2.7. H2O2 detection by DAB-uptake method
Necrotic brooms, as well as non-inoculated meristems of
Catongo plants were harvested and immersed in 1 mg mL�1
3,30- diaminobenzidene (DAB)-HCl, pH 3.8 (Sigma), infiltratedunder a vacuum for 4 h. Control samples were infiltrated and
incubated with distilled water. Samples were cleared in boiling
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117 109
ethanol (96%) for 20 min, then hand-sectioned with a razor
blade, mounted in 50% glycerol and examined using a DMRA-
2 microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany). Images were
obtained using a computer assisted image analysis. H2O2was visualized as a reddish-brown coloration.
3. Results
3.1. Disease symptom evaluation in compatible interaction
Disease symptoms on susceptible Catongo seedlings were
observed in the greenhouse (Fig. 1A). The first symptoms
appeared 30 days after inoculation (DAI), and corresponded to
wilting and partial necrosis of a few young leaves (Fig. 1C).
Symptoms of green-broom (stem swelling and axillary bud
elongation) were observed 45 DAI (Fig. 1D). Infected tissues
Fig. 1. Witches’ broom disease symptoms. (A) Culture conditions for the cacao plan
plantlets. (C) First symptoms 30 days after the inoculation with M. perniciosa spore
green brooms with petiole swelling (white arrows), 45 DAI. Black arrow: hypertrophy
60 DAI. (F) Completely dried brooms with dried leaves, 90 DAI. Bar = 2 cm.
(brooms) started to dry 60 DAI and reached their final stage at
90 DAI (Fig. 1E), with necrotic tissues with dried brown leaves
in heavily infected plants (Fig. 1E and F). Disease symptoms
were not found in any non-inoculated control seedlings
(Fig. 1B) or on inoculated resistant TSH1188 (not shown).
3.2. Histological analysis of M. perniciosa penetration and
development in susceptible Catongo tissues
In susceptible Catongo tissues, hyphae were first detected
2 DAI (Fig. 2A). Hyphae were located just under the epidermal
stem cells, far below the apical meristem, suggesting a
penetration through the stem epidermis. Colonization by
mycelium proceeded through the intercellular space of the
cortex (Fig. 2B and C), the sclerenchyma (Fig. 2D), vascular
tissues (Fig. 2E), and finally reaching the pith (Fig. 2F) around
tlets in the greenhouse at CEPLAC/CEPEC (Bahia, Brazil). (B) Non-inoculated
s: wilt and necrosis of the young leaves (white arrows). (D) Terminal and axial
of the apical meristem and formation of axial brooms. (E) dry broom formation,
-
Fig. 2. Penetration and progression of M. perniciosa mycelia into meristems and stems of susceptible Catongo plants. (A) The first hyphae observed were under the
epidermis of the stem 2 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (B) Penetration of the fungus into the stem cortex 13 DAI (bar = 60 mm). (C) Intercellular progression of the fungus
(bar = 30 mm). (D) Shows the fungus close to sclerenchyma cells, 36 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (E) Progression of the fungus through the vascular tissues as seen in
transversal section, 36 DAI (bar = 60 mm). (F) Fungal mycelium between medulla cells in a longitudinal section, 36 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (G) Colonization of the
fungus inside the medulla, 50 DAI (bar = 60 mm). (H) Shows an increase in the hyphal diameter, 50 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (I) Signs of differentiation within the stem,
50 DAI (bar = 120 mm). (J) Transversal section of a stem showing phenolics and necrosis, 50 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (K) Necrosis inside the medulla, 50 DAI
(bar = 60 mm). (L) Longitudinal section of a control meristem, 57 DAI (bar = 240 mm). (M) Longitudinal section of an inoculated meristem, 57 DAI (bar = 240 mm).
(N) No starch grains in cortex cells of an inoculated plant, 65 DAI (bar = 60 mm). (O) Presence of starch grains in the cortex of a control plant, 65 DAI (bar = 60 mm).
(P) Necrosis and proliferation of the fungus 90 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (Q) Presence of both biotrophic and saprophytic fungal hyphae, 90 DAI (bar = 30 mm). (R) Clamp
connection 90 DAI (bar = 30 mm). AM: apical meristem; CC: clamp connection; CW: cell wall thickening; Ep: epidermis; Hp: biotrophic hyphae; HpN: necrotrophic
hyphae Ne: necrosis; Sc: sclerenchyma; SG: starch grain; SP: saprophytic phase; Ph: phenolics; PP: parasitic phase; VT: vascular tissues.
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117110
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117 111
36 DAI. Mycelium also spread progressively toward the apical
meristem. From 45 to 65 DAI, the fungus continued to grow
and colonize all the tissue (Fig. 2G), while hyphal diameter
increased (Fig. 2H). Concurrently, the infected tissues showed
evidences of differentiation, such as cell wall thickening, cortex
necrosis (Fig. 2I and J) and pith necrosis (Fig. 2K). At the
green-broom stage (up to 50 DAI), meristems of inoculated
seedlings were significantly larger than the controls (Fig. 2L
and M). Infected stem cortical tissues lacked starch reserves
(Fig. 2N) when compared to control tissues (Fig. 2O).
Differentiation and necrosis increased up to 90 DAI, when
brooms dried, and cell necrosis was commonly observed in the
tissues (Fig. 2P). The majority of the mycelia changed from
monokaryotic hyphae to the dikaryotic phase (Fig. 2P),
concurrent with a tissue disarrangement, typical of the
necrotrophic phase. Tissue areas with both mycelia phases
of the fungus were also observed (Fig. 2Q), as well as clamp
connections (Fig. 2R), which are markers of dikaryotization in
this basidiomycete [21,29,30].
Neither mycelium nor morphological or histological
modifications, typical of the disease symptoms, were observed
in control or inoculated resistant seedling (TSH 1188; not
shown). Other morphological and anatomical modifications
were observed during tissue colonization by the fungus, such as
cell wall thickening and cell necrosis. Phenolic compounds,
which have been associated with other fungal infections [23],
were observed in both inoculated and non-inoculated plant cells
(Fig. 2I and J).
3.3. Analysis of DNA degradation and in situ detection of
DNA fragmentation in meristems infected by M. perniciosa
DNA integrity during disease development was evaluated by
agarose gel electrophoresis. Meristems of non-infected control
plants showed minor DNA degradation (Fig. 3A, lane 1), in
Fig. 3. (Left panel) Analysis on electrophoresis gel of the DNA degradation in Caton
branch. Lane 2: initial stage of the green broom formation (45 DAI). Lane 3: late st
panel) Analysis of meristematic tissue sections from Catongo using the TUNEL meth
45 DAI, 100� (C); infected meristematic tissues 90 DAI, 100� (D); non-inoculatecellular contour remains (black arrows), 200� (F).
contrast to DNA from infected meristems, which showed a
remarkable higher level of degradation, proportional to
symptom severity (Fig. 3A; lane 2 = 45 DAI; lane 3 =
90 DAI). DNA degradation culminated at the dry broom stage,
reaching a typical DNA ladder pattern (Fig. 3, lane 3 and
arrows).
TUNEL analysis was applied to thin meristem sections to
verify the occurrence of cell death events during the witches’
broom disease development. Nuclei undergoing DNA
fragmentation appeared yellow-green under UV fluorescence
[10]. Sections of non-inoculated tissues did not show any
positive TUNEL reactions (Fig. 3B). In non-inoculated
meristem cells treated with DNase I (positive control), a
large number of fluorescent nuclei were observed, indicating
extensive nuclear DNA degradation (Fig. 3C). Sections of
susceptible meristems analyzed at 45 DAI (Fig. 3D) and
90 DAI (Fig. 3E) displayed intense yellow-green fluores-
cence, corresponding to TUNEL positive nuclei. The amount
of these positive nuclei at the final stage of the infection
(90 DAI) was significantly higher than at 45 DAI, indicating
an increase in DNA degradation.
3.4. Calcium oxalate crystal accumulation and degradation
during infection of susceptible cacao by M. perniciosa
Cacao can accumulate high amounts of calcium oxalate, as
previously described [31]. In agreement with this observation,
we detected large quantities of COC in stem tissues of the non-
inoculated susceptible Catongo seedlings. COC were located
mostly in the cortex (Fig. 4A and B), but also in the pith (Fig. 4C)
of mature stem tissue, distant from the apical meristem. In the
region closest to the apical meristem, only a few COC were
present and these were restricted to cortex cells (Fig. 4D). The
amount and localization pattern of the crystals remained more or
less constant over time in control plants (Fig. 4F and N).
go meristematic tissues during witches’ broom disease (A). Lane 1: non-infected
age of the dry broom formation (90 DAI). (M) 1 kb ladder (Invitrogen). (Right
od: non-inoculated meristematic tissue, 100� (B); infected meristematic tissuesd meristematic tissue, DNase treated (positive control), 100� (E); evidence of
-
Fig. 4. Localization of calcium oxalate crystals in the meristems and stems of susceptible Catongo and resistant TSH1188 using polarized light. T. cacao inoculated
with M. perniciosa. (A) Stem cortex of a control Catongo plant, 2 DAI. (B) COC in the cortex of a control Catongo plant, 3 DAI. (C) Stem medulla of a control
Catongo plant, 2 DAI. (D) Transversal section of a control Catongo stem showing the localization of COC outside the vascular bundles, 2 DAI. (E) Apical region of a
Catongo control plant, 19 DAI without COC. (F) Decrease of COC in the cortex of a control Catongo plant, 57 DAI. (G) Presence of many COC in the cortex of an
inoculated Catongo plant, 2 DAI; (H) in the medulla of an inoculated Catongo plant, 2 DAI. (I) Higher magnification of COC in the cortex of an inoculated Catongo
plant, 2 DAI. Absence of COC (J) in the cortex of an inoculated Catongo plant, 50 DAI; (K) in the medulla of an inoculated Catongo plant, 42 DAI; (L) in the cortex of
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117112
-
Fig. 5. Ascorbic acid content was determined by HPLC (250 nm traces) in health shoots (A), green broom (B) and dried broom (C) from plants growing in the field.
Ascorbic acid was identified in the samples by its UVabsorbance spectrum, elution time (D) and by co-injection with standards. Ten microlitres of each sample were
injected into the HPLC. Arrows indicate ascorbic acid retention time in the samples. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR of oxalate oxidase (G-OXO) and ascorbate peroxidase
(APX) genes throughout disease development (0, 3, 30 and 60 DAI). The constitutive expressed TCS-18 gene was used as internal control for semi-quantitative RT-
PCR calibration (E). SP (catongo) and RT (TSH 1188).
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117 113
In the inoculated susceptible plants, the amount of COC
increased rapidly in both cortex (Fig. 4G–N) and pith cells
(Fig. 4H, I and N) until around 36 DAI. After day 36,
corresponding to overwhelming plant colonization by the
mycelium, the amounts of crystal progressively decreased.
Forty-five DAI, only a few crystals were observed in the
infected tissues (Fig. 4J, K and N). The most juvenile stem
tissue near the apical meristem was always devoid of crystals in
healthy and infected plants whatever the disease stage, a pattern
that was also observed in the susceptible control. No COC were
observed in the resistant control genotype (Fig. 4L and M)
under the experimental conditions for all of the evaluated
periods. The pattern of the T. cacao oxalate oxidase (G-OXO)
gene expression in the susceptible genotype followed the
accumulation and degradation of COC (Fig. 5E, SP).
Conversely, in the resistant TSH 1188 (Fig. 5E, RT), G-
OXO expression remained high for up to 60 DAI.
Only 0.126 mg mg�1 of ascorbic acid was detected in non-inoculated shoots (Fig. 5A), while an increase in accumulation
an inoculated TSH1188 plant, 2 DAI; (M) in the medulla of an inoculated TSH1188
control (dashed line) and inoculated (thick line) Catongo plants. The transition pha
fungus phase, which is not synchronized in the infected tissues. Error bars represent s
counted and for each section the crystals were counted in three distinct areas. AM: a
starch grain; VT: vascular tissues. Bar = 60 mm in B and I, and 120 mm in all oth
was detected in infected tissues, when compared to control
plants (Fig. 5B). The ascorbate amount in green brooms
(Fig. 5B) was significantly higher (averaging 2.135 mg mg�1)than in dried brooms (ascorbate almost non-detectable;
0.015 mg mg�1; Fig. 5C). A contrasting expression patternof cacao ascorbate peroxidase gene (APX) between Catongo
and TSH1188 plants could also be observed, with an increased
expression in the resistant plants (Fig. 5E, SP and RT,
respectively).
3.5. In situ detection of H2O2
Tissues from non-inoculated and inoculated susceptible
control plants at 42 DAI, when infiltrated with distilled water
did not present any positive reaction to H2O2 (Fig. 6A and B).
Samples from non-inoculated susceptible controls, infiltrated
with DAB were also free of brown precipitates (Fig. 6C), while
those from inoculated susceptible plants infiltrated with DAB,
displayed an intense overall reddish-brown precipitate,
plant, 2 DAI. (N) Number of COC per surface unit (0.4 mm2) in the cortex of
se corresponds to the major transition from the biotrophic to the necrotrophic
tandard error of the mean for 0.4 mm2. For each point, one to three sections were
pical meristem; COC: calcium oxalate crystal; Ep: epidermis; Hp: hyphae; SG:
er pictures.
-
Fig. 6. In vivo DAB reaction of susceptible cacao 45 DAI. (A) Non-infected susceptible cacao infiltrated with distilled water (control), 100�. (B) Infected susceptiblecacao infiltrated with distilled water (control), 100�. (C) Non-infected susceptible cacao infiltrated with DAB, 100�. (D) Infected susceptible cacao infiltrated withDAB, 100�, cortex (CX). (E) Non-infected susceptible cacao infiltrated with DAB (cortex region), 400�. White arrows: COC. (F) Infected susceptible cacaoinfiltrated with DAB, 400�.
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117114
corresponding with the presence of H2O2 (Fig. 6D). The brown
staining was more intense in the epidermis, cortex and pith
(Fig. 6D), and it was generally co-localized near the regions
containing COC, particularly the cortex (Fig. 6F). Noteworthy,
H2O2 diffusion was not homogeneous, but it appeared to be
dispersed from defined sites, possibly from the idioblasts
(Fig. 6F, arrows). In samples from non-inoculated susceptible
control plants infiltrated with DAB, some COC were observed
(as in Fig. 4), but no H2O2 could be detected (Fig. 6E).
4. Discussion
The morphological characteristics of the infected suscep-
tible plants were identical to those previously described
[22,23]. We observed hyphal development in susceptible plant
tissues, both from the stem base to the apical meristems, and
from the external (epidermis and cortex) to the inner tissues
(vascular bundles), confirming the observation of [30]. In our
experimental inoculation conditions, M. perniciosa penetrated
stem and leaves, probably by stomata or wounding, and
invaded the tissues around the apical meristems, where the
main disease reactions occurred. During the early phase of
tissue colonization, the mycelia grew intercellulary, and
because they did not have appressoria, the fungus must subsist
on nutrients present in the apoplast. Between 50 and 90 DAI,
most of the hyphae became intracellular, coinciding with the
onset of the visible necrotic symptoms (Fig. 2K, P–R). This
condition correlated with the major morphological transition
of the fungus, from biotrophic to the necrotrophic phase. The
simultaneous presence of mono- and dikaryotic M. perniciosa
hyphae within the infected cacao leaf tissue was observed
during the transition from biotrophic to necrotrophic phase
(Fig. 2P), an observation consistent with the findings of [30].
This detailed morphological description of the disease is
highly relevant to the understanding of this pathosystem, since
it involves a fungal growth phase switch from biotrophic to
necrotrophic.
In a previous work [23], it was shown that during the
transition of M. perniciosa from the biotrophic to the
necrotrophic phases in infected tissues, amino acids were
converted into amides. This conversion process had been shown
to be a physiological signal for the induction of PCD [32], and it
could be interpreted as a physiological effort by the plant to
mobilize nutrients from the diseased tissues. In this work, we
provided molecular evidences of PCD in the witches’ broom
disease through the detection of DNA fragmentation, a clear
indicator of this process [9,33]. To strengthen our results, we
have identified a protein from M. perniciosa capable to induce
cell death in cacao [34].
The first evidence of fragmentation was the presence of a
DNA ladder (200 bp band multiples) in DNA extracted from
dry broom cells (Fig. 3A, lane 3). When the DNA was extracted
from other infected sample (Fig. 3A, lane 2), smears were
detected, but it was not clear whether they were the
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117 115
consequence of DNA degradation by nucleases that did not cut
at regular restriction sites [14], or due to the presence of high
gum levels in cacao [28,35], which affects the DNA migration.
Alternatively, the lack of a clear ladder in DNA extracted from
green-broom tissues could be due to a limited number of cells
undergoing PCD at this phase (Fig. 3D), which could prevent
the detection [12]. In addition, Schwartz et al. [36] suggested
that there is more than one PCD pathway and that the
activation of each pathway is directly connected to its
stimulation. For example, PCD induced by KCN leads to the
formation of a DNA ladder in plant cells, which is not
detectable when cells are treated with H2O2 [9,12]. Similarly,
Pasqualini et al. [37] observed PCD in tobacco cells treated
with ozone, but without the generation of the degraded DNA
ladder pattern.
To further confirm DNA fragmentation, TUNEL analysis
was applied [38]. This method clearly showed an increase in the
presence of apoptotic nuclei during the progression of the
disease, reinforcing the biochemical interpretation that there
was an orchestrated cell death in the infected tissues [23].
During a comprehensive microscopic analysis of cacao
tissues, susceptible cacao plants revealed to contain COC
(Fig. 4), which were not present in the resistant cultivar
TSH1188, as well as in five other WBD resistant cacao clones
analyzed (data not shown). During the infection process, the
number of these crystals increased in susceptible seedlings,
peaking at 33 DAI, followed by a rapid decrease in the final
disease stages (50 DAI, Fig. 4N). Therefore, it appeared that
COC were associated with the progression of the WBD
symptoms. Because one of the main sources of oxalic acid in
plants is ascorbic acid [27], the formation of the COC might
be related with the accumulation of ascorbic acid in infected
tissues, as confirmed by the HPLC analyses (Fig. 5B). In
relation to the decrease of COC, recent studies in animal
systems showed that high concentrations of oxalate were toxic
to cells, not only because of crystal formation, but also
because COC degradation can produce H2O2 [39,40]. In
plants, ROS production (such as H2O2) has been observed in
response to pathogens aggression, and it has been linked to the
inhibition of plant infection [41]. Using the DAB method, we
detected an accumulation of hydrogen peroxide in infected
tissues from susceptible plants (Fig. 6D and F), which could
be a functional part of the plant defense mechanism.
Moreover, the majority of H2O2 in the cortex was found
where COC had previously been detected (Fig. 6F, arrows),
suggesting that the hydrogen peroxide was produced at
specific defined points in the tissue through the degradation of
the oxalate crystals. As described by [39,40], degradation of
COC is recognized to be due to germin oxalate oxidase
activity (G-OXO), and a corresponding T. cacao gene (G-
OXO) was identified in a cDNA library produced from mRNA
from infected tissue [42]. The expression of this gene was
analyzed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR using mRNA col-
lected from meristems of infected stems, with a significant
expression in the diseased tissues. Expression of germin
oxalate oxidase had already been observed in: (i) Gramineae
involved in an oxalate related senescence process [39]; (ii)
Arabidopsis thaliana PCD induced by an Alternaria alternata
toxin [7]; and (iii) sunflower, where the over-expression of
germin oxalate oxidase allowed a high rate of oxalate
degradation that triggered high levels of H2O2 and defense
gene activation [40]. These findings corroborated that the G-
OXO gene might be expressed in response to C. perniciosa
infection, and the corresponding enzyme might play an
important role in the production of the hydrogen peroxide
found in the infected tissues.
Despite of the observed increase of ascorbate levels on
infected tissues (Fig. 5B), we detected a decrease in the
expression of the T. cacao H2O2-detoxifying APX gene
(Fig. 5E), which might indicate a depletion of ascorbate
availability in these tissues, suggesting its conversion to oxalic
acid and subsequently to H2O2. This result corroborated recent
findings [43,44] that proposed a new role for ascorbic acid as a
pro-oxidant molecule, capable of triggering an oxidative burst.
Noteworthy, the expression pattern of G-OXO and APX genes
were opposite in the resistant genotype (Fig. 5, RT), where G-
OXO and APX gene expression increased during infection. The
higher level of G-OXO expression in the resistant genotype
must explain the absence of visible COC, due to a continuous
degradation of oxalic acid. It must be highlighted that the
pattern of APX expression of the susceptible genotype was
different, when compared to other compatible interactions [45],
but similar to the results of [46]. Our results suggested that M.
perniciosa triggers significant changes in the antioxidant
system of cacao, leading to a collapse of the protective
mechanism during the infection in susceptible genotypes.
These changes appeared to be partly due to the effect of
pathogen-promoted tissue cell death. Conversely, it has been
suggested that the degradation of oxalate to hydrogen peroxide
may have beneficial effects for the plant by counteracting the
strategy of some pathogens [47], with several roles, depending
on the tissue concentration [7,48]. Therefore, we can
hypothesize that sensitive cacao plants produced hydrogen
peroxide in a concentration that triggers PCD of some cells,
which in turn increases the availability of nutrients for the
fungal cells, which causes the biotrophic to the necrotrophic
phase conversion.
In fungal diseases, transgenic tobacco plants expressing
negative regulators of apoptosis were found to block cell death
associated with HR. Plants were resistant to necrotrophic fungi,
including Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Botrytis cinerea,
suggesting that these fungi require HR-induced cell death to
successfully infect the plants [49]. Recently, transgenic peanut
plants expressing an oxalic acid-degrading oxalate oxidase
have shown an increased resistance to the necrotrophic fungus
Sclerotinia minor [50]. Similarly, in lettuce, tobacco and
tomato, it was demonstrated that plant susceptibility to fungal
pathogens was abolished by COC elimination in transgenic
plants over-expressing a fungal oxalate decarboxylase [51,52].
Considering our data showing differences on COC amounts
between susceptible and resistant genotypes, and the recent
findings using transgenic plants, we can strongly suggest the
involvement of oxalate in the dynamics of the witches’ broom
disease.
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117116
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dr. Lise Labejof and Christine
Sanier for technical assistance, and Michel Vincentz, Nicolas
Carels, Martin Brendel, Antonio Figueira and Carter Miller
for critically reading the manuscript. G.O. Ceita and J.N.
Macêdo were supported by CAPES (Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior, Brazil); Dr.
A.S. Gesteira and T.B. Santos were supported by FAPESB
(Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado da Bahia, Brazil);
and Dr. A.C. Mariano was supported by a CNPq Post-doctoral
Fellowship. This work was supported by FAPESB and Banco
do Nordeste.
References
[1] P.V. Bozhkov, M.F. Suarez, L.H. Filonova, G. Daniel, A.A. Zamyatnin Jr.,
S. Rodriguez-Nieto, B. Zhivotovsky, A. Smertenko, Cysteine protease
mcII-Pa executes programmed cell death during plant embryogenesis,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (2005) 14463–14468.
[2] A.B. Bleecker, S.E. Patterson, Last exit: senescence, abscission, and
meristem arrest in Arabidopsis, Plant Cell 9 (1997) 1169–1179.
[3] M.C. Drew, C.J. He, P.W. Morgan, Programmed cell death and aerench-
yma formation in roots, Trends Plant Sci. 5 (2000) 123–127.
[4] M. Katsuhara, Apoptosis-like cell death in barley roots under salt stress,
Plant Cell Physiol. 38 (1997) 1091–1093.
[5] J.L. Dangl, R.A. Dietrich, M.H. Richberg, Death don’t have no mercy: cell
death programs in plant–microbe interactions, Plant Cell 8 (1996) 1793–
1807.
[6] J.T. Greenberg, N. Yao, The role and regulation of programmed cell death
in plant–pathogen interactions, Cell. Microbiol. 6 (2004) 201–211.
[7] T.S. Gechev, I.Z. Gadjev, J.Q. Hillie, An extensive microarray analysis of
AAL toxin induced cell death in Arabidopsis thaliana brings new insights
into the complexity of programmed cell death in plants, Cell. Mol. Life
Sci. 61 (2004) 1185–1197.
[8] S.B. Ning, L. Wang, Z.Y. Li, W.W. Jin, Y.C. Song, Apoptotic cell death
and cellular surface negative charge increase in maize roots exposed to
cytotoxic stresses, Ann. Bot.-London 87 (2001) 575–583.
[9] D. Ryerson, M.C. Heath, Cleavage of nuclear DNA into oligonucleosso-
mal fragments during cell death induced by fungal infection or by abiotic
treatments, Plant Cell 8 (1996) 393–402.
[10] Y. Gavrielli, Y. Sherman, S.A. Ben-Sasson, Identification of programmed
cell death in situ via specific labeling of nuclear DNA fragmentation, J.
Cell. Biol. 119 (1992) 493–501.
[11] J. Cheng, T.S. Park, L. Chio, A.S. Fischl, X.S. Ye, Induction of apoptosis
by sphingoid long chain bases in Aspergillus nidulans, Mol. Cell. Biol. 1
(2003) 163–167.
[12] F. McCabe, A. Levine, J. Meijer, N.A. Tapon, R. Pennell, A programmed
cell death pathway activated in carrot cells cultured at low cell density,
Plant J. 12 (1997) 267–280.
[13] G. Fellbrich, A. Romanski, A. Varet, B. Blume, F. Brunner, S. Engelhardt,
G. Felix, B. Kemmerling, M. Krzymowska, T. Nürnberger, NPP1, a
Phythophthora-associated trigger of plant defense in parsley and Arabi-
dopsis, Plant J. 32 (2002) 375–390.
[14] R. Mittler, Cell death in plants, in: R.A. Lockshin, Z. Zakeri, J.L. Tilly
(Eds.), When Cells Die, Wiley-Lis, New York, 1998, pp. 147–174.
[15] M.D. Jacobson, Reactive oxygen species and programmed cell death,
Trends Biochem. Sci. 21 (1996) 83–86.
[16] H. Lu, J. Higgins, The effect of hydrogen peroxide on the viability of
tomato cells and of the fungal pathogen Cladosporium fulvum, Physiol.
Mol. Plant P 54 (1999) 131–143.
[17] E.M. Govrin, A. Levine, The hypersensitive response facilitates plant
infection by the necrotrophic pathogen Botrytis cinerea, Curr. Biol. 10
(2000) 751–757.
[18] A.M. Mayer, R.C. Staples, N.L. Gil-Ad, Mechanisms of survival of
necrotrophic fungal plant pathogens in hosts expressing the hypersensitive
response, Phytochemistry 58 (2001) 33–41.
[19] J.H. Bowers, B.A. Bailey, P.K. Hebbar, S. Sanogo, R.D. Lumsden, The
impact of plant diseases on world chocolate production, Plant Health
Program, doi:10.1094/PHP-(2001) 2001-0709-01-RV.
[20] T. Andebrhan, A. Figueira, M.M. Yamada, J. Cascardo, D.B. Furtek,
Molecular fingerprinting suggests two primary outbreaks of witches’
broom disease (Crinipellis perniciosa) of Theobroma cacao in Bahia,
Brazil, Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 105 (1999) 167–175.
[21] L.H. Purdy, R.A. Schmidt, Status of cacao witches’ broom: biology,
epidemiology, and management, Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 34 (1996)
573–594.
[22] S.D. Silva, E.D.M.N. Luz, O.C. Almeida, K. Gramacho, J.L. Bezerra,
Redescrição da sintomatologia causada por Crinipellis perniciosa em
cacaueiro, Agrotropica 1 (2002) 1–23.
[23] L.M. Scarpari, L.W. Meinhardt, P. Mazzafera, A.W. Pomella, M.A.
Schiavinato, J.C.M. Cascardo, G.A.G. Pereira, Biochemical character-
ization of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) infected by Crinipellis perni-
ciosa, causal agent of witches’ broom disease, J. Exp. Bot. 56 (2005)
865–877.
[24] L.W. Meinhardt, C.M. Bellato, J. Rincones, R.A. Azevedo, J.C.M.
Cascardo, G.A.G. Pereira, In vitro production of Biotrophic-like
cultures of Crinipellis perniciosa, the causal agent of witches’
broom disease of Theobroma cacao, Curr. Microbiol. 52 (2006) 191–
196.
[25] G.R. Niella, M.L.V. Resende, H.A. Castro, G.A. Carvalho, L.H.C.P. Silva,
Aperfeiçoamento da metodologia de produção artificial de basidio-
carpos de Crinipellis perniciosa, Fitopatologia Brasileira 24 (1999)
523–527.
[26] G.A. Frias, L.H. Purdy, R.A. Schmidt, An inoculation method for eval-
uating resistance of cacao to Crinipellis perniciosa, Plant Dis. 79 (1995)
787.
[27] S.E. Keates, N.M. Tarlyn, F.A. Loewus, V.R. Franceschi, L-Ascorbic acid
and L-galactose are sources for oxalic acid and calcium oxalate in Pistia
stratiotes, Phytochemistry 53 (2000) 433–440.
[28] A. Gesteira, F. Micheli, C.F. Ferreira, J.C.M. Cascardo, Isolation and
purification of functional total RNA from different organs of cocoa tree
during its interaction with the pathogen Crinipellis perniciosa, Biotech-
niques 35 (2003) 494–500.
[29] T.A. Clark, J.B. Anderson, Dikaryons of the basidiomycete fungus
Schizophyllum commune: evolution in long-term culture, Genetics 167
(2004) 1663–1675.
[30] A. Kilaru, K.H. Hasenstein, Development and pathogenicity of the fungus
Crinipellis perniciosa on interaction with cacao leaves, Phytopathology
95 (2005) 101–107.
[31] M. Lagemann, D. Anders, V. Graef, R.H. Bodeker, Effect of cocoa on
excretion of oxalate, citrate, magnesium and calcium in the urine of
children, Monatsschr Kinderh 133 (1985) 754–759.
[32] J.L. Dangl, R.A. Dietrich, H. Thomas, Senescence and programmed cell
death, in: Buchanan, et al. (eds.), Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of
Plants, 2000, pp. 1044–1100.
[33] S.B. Ning, Y.C. Song, P.V. Damme, Characterization of the early stages of
programmed cell death in maize root cells by using comet assay and the
combination of cell electrophoresis with annexin binding, Electrophoresis
23 (2002) 2096–2102.
[34] O. Garcia, J.N. Macedo, R. Tibúrcio, G. Zaparoli, J. Rincones, L.M.C.
Bittencourt, G.O. Ceita, F. Micheli, A. Gesteira, A.C. Mariano, M.A.
Schiavinato, F.J. Medrano, L.W. Meinhardt, G.A.G. Pereira, J.C.M.
Cascardo, Characterization of necrosis and ethylene-inducing proteins
(NEP) in the basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal
agent of witches’ broom in Theobroma cacao, Mycol. Res. 111 (2007)
443–455.
[35] A. Figueira, Partial characterization of cacao pod and stem gums, Carbo-
hyd. Polym. 24 (1994) 133–138.
[36] L.M. Schwartz, S.W. Smith, M..E.E. Jones, B.A. Osborne, Do all pro-
grammed cell deaths occur via apoptosis? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90
(1993) 980–984.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PHP-(2001)%202001-0709-01-RV
-
G. de Oliveira Ceita et al. / Plant Science 173 (2007) 106–117 117
[37] S. Pasqualini, C. Piccioni, L. Relae, L. Ederli, G.D. Torre, F. Ferranti,
Ozone-induced cell death in tobacco cultivar Bel W3 plants. The role of
programmed cell death in lesion formation, Plant Physiol. 133 (2003)
1122–1134.
[38] A. Kladnik, K. Chamusco, M. Dermastia, P. Chourey, Evidence of
programmed cell death in post-phloem transport cells of the maternal
pedicel tissue in developing caryopsis of maize, Plant Physiol. 136 (2004)
3572–3581.
[39] E.L. Deunff, C. Davoine, C.L. Dantec, J.P. Billard, C. Huault, Oxidative
burst and expression of germin/oxo genes during wounding of ryegrass
leaf blades: comparison with senescence of leaf sheaths, Plant J. 38 (2004)
421–431.
[40] X. Hu, D.L. Bidney, N. Yalpani, J.P. Duvick, O. Crasta, O. Folkerts, G. Lu,
Overexpression of a gene encoding hydrogen peroxide-generating oxalate
oxidase evokes defense responses in sunflower, Plant Physiol. 133 (2003)
170–181.
[41] J.M. Jennings, P.C. Apel-Birkhold, N.M. Mock, C.J. Baker, J.D.
Anderson, B.A. Bailey, Induction of defense responses in tobacco by
the protein Nep 1 from Fusarium oxysporum, Plant Sci. 161 (2001)
891–899.
[42] A.S. Gesteira, F. Micheli, N. Carels, A.C. da Silva, K.P. Gramacho, I.
Schuster, J.N. Macêdo, G.A.G. Pereira, J.C.M. Cascardo, Comparative
analysis of expressed genes from cacao meristems infected by Moni-
liophthora perniciosa, Ann. Bot. 100 (2007) 129–140.
[43] M.A. Green, S.C. Fry, Vitamin C degradation in plant cells via enzymatic
hydrolysis of 4-O-oxalyl-L-threonate, Nature 6433 (2005) 83–87.
[44] S. Debolt, V. Mellino, C.M. Ford, Ascorbate as a biosynthetic precursor in
plants, Ann. Bot. 99 (2007) 3–8.
[45] G.K. Agrawal, N. Jwac, H. Iwahashid, R. Rakwalb, Importance of
ascorbate peroxidases OsAPX1 and OsAPX2 in the rice pathogen
response pathways and growth and reproduction revealed by their tran-
scriptional profiling, Gene 322 (2003) 93–103.
[46] E. Kuzniak, M. Skłodowska, Fungal pathogen-induced changes in the
antioxidant peroxisomes from infected tomato plants, Planta 222 (2005)
192–200.
[47] S.G. Cessna, V.E. Sears, M.D. Dickman, P.S. Low, Oxalic acid, a
pathogenicity factor for Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, suppresses the oxidative
burst of the host plant, Plant Cell 12 (2000) 2191–2200.
[48] L. Costet, S. Dorey, B. Fritig, S.A. Kauffman, Pharmacological approach
to test the diffusible signal activity of reactive oxygen intermediates in
elicitor treated tobacco leaves, Plant Cell Physiol. 1 (2002) 91–98.
[49] M.B. Dickman, Y.K. Park, W.L. Clemente, R. French, Abrogation of
disease development in plants expressing animal antiapoptotic genes,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 120 (2001) 6957–6962.
[50] D.M. Livingstone, J.L. Hampton, P.M. Phipps, E.A. Grabau, Enhancing
resistance to Sclerotinia minor in peanut by expressing a barley oxalate
oxidase gene, Plant Physiol. 137 (2005) 1354–1362.
[51] B.B.A. Dias, W.G. Cunha, L.S. Morais, G.R. Vianna, E.L. Rech, G.
Capdeville, F.J.L. Aragão, Expression of an oxalate decarboxylase gene
from Flammulina sp. in transgenic lettuce (Lactuca sativa) plants
and resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Plant Pathol. 55 (2006)
187–193.
[52] M. Kesarwani, M. Azam, K. Natarajan, A. Mehta, A. Datta, Oxalate
decarboxylase from Collybia velutipes. Molecular cloning and its over-
expression to confer resistance to fungal infection in transgenic tobacco
and tomato, J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 7230–7238.
Involvement of calcium oxalate degradation during programmed cell �death in Theobroma cacao tissues triggered by the hemibiotrophic �fungus Moniliophthora perniciosaIntroductionMaterials and methodsPlant materialHistological analysis of cacao meristems during infectionAnalyses of Catongo DNA degradation during infection by M. perniciosaIn situ detection of DNA fragmentation using the TUNEL methodAscorbic acid determinationCacao RNA extraction and semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysisH2O2 detection by DAB-uptake method
ResultsDisease symptom evaluation in compatible interactionHistological analysis of M. perniciosa penetration and development in susceptible Catongo tissuesAnalysis of DNA degradation and in situ detection of DNA fragmentation in meristems infected by M. perniciosaCalcium oxalate crystal accumulation and degradation during infection of susceptible cacao by M. perniciosaIn situ detection of H2O2
DiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences