introduction to the old testament€¦ · jewish old testament (hebrew scriptures)- 39 books...
TRANSCRIPT
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Introduction to the
Old Testament
Matthew R. Schwartz
Parish Success Group
Theological Consultant and Coach
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The Bible
Means “biblia” or books. Contains many literary forms or genres such as: history, poetry,
drama, philosophy, letters, visions, advice, songs, prophecy, law.
The term “Jewish Scriptures” and “Hebrew Bible” both refer to a collection of books
considered sacred in Judaism. Many of these writings were regarded as holy even before Jesus’
day, especially the first five books, the “Torah.” About a century after Jesus, the collection of
books we know as the Old Testament was fixed.
Who wrote the Bible?
- Various authors, most are unknown. They wrote to communicate God’s message
When was the Bible written?
- Over a period of about 1100 years (1000 BC- 100 AD) even though the people and
events cover the times from 1800 BC to 100 AD.
- BC- Before Christ, BCE- Before Common Era, AD- Anno Domini (in the year of
the Lord), CE- Common Era.
Who are the people in the Bible?
“Hebrews” in the earliest times
“Israelites” when living in Israel
“Jews” from Jesus’ time till now
Catholic Old Testament- 46 books
Jewish Old Testament (Hebrew Scriptures)- 39 books
Protestant Old Testament- 39 books
Christian New Testament- 27 books
It will be hard to read the Old Testament and not keep thinking about the New
Testament. In other words, by no fault of our own, we will be reading the Old Testament
through the lens of the New Testament.
Apocrypha- Old Testament books not contained in the Jewish canon. Catholics call them the
name deuterocanonical. Tobit, Judith, I and II Maccabees, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, and Baruch
is not in Protestant OT’s. They are not included because they were written in Greek to Greek-
speaking Jews in Alexandria. The other 39 books are written in Hebrew or Aramaic. These 7
books were listed in the canon of local churches in North Africa in the fourth century and
referred to at the Council of Hippo in 393, Cartage in 397. They were given solemn approval
until 1546 at the Council of Trent. All seven of these books are referred to in the New
Testament.
Dead Sea Scrolls- found in 1948 in the ancient Qumran community close to the Dead Sea in
Palestine. Written between 170 BC and 68 AD. Fragments of all Old Testament texts are
found- mostly Deuteronomy, Isaiah and Psalms. In terms of the New Testament, they
contain no trace of any of the principal doctrines of Christianity: i.e. the Incarnation of
Messianic Kingdom. Rather, the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal the existence of an ascetical
community, the Essenes, in first century Palestine.
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Vulgate- the “common or vulgar” Latin translation of the Bible by St. Jerome in 382 AD. The
Council of Trent in the 16-century declared that the vulgate is authentic and to be used.
Basically, they said that this translation is to be used.
Septuagint- The most important translation of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek. It was
used by Greek-speaking Jews in Alexandria and became popular in Palestine. “Sept” refers to
the 70 scholars who translated the books from Hebrew. Includes the deuteroncanonical books.
Didache- the Teachings of the Twelve Apostles. A first century document written before 100
AD and is divided into three parts. 1) Way of Life and Way of Death, 2) liturgical meaning of
baptism, fasting, confession and Holy Communion, 3) how to do ministry.
Types of Biblical Study
1) Biblical Criticism- various methods of scientific study that have their goal in
establishing the text, understanding the content and literary style of the books, and
determining their origin and authenticity.
2) Literary Criticism- attends to the words and images, the characters and relationships,
the structure and progress of thought, the literary form, and the meaning.
3) Historical-Critical Method- uses literary criticism to find out about the origin and
growth of the biblical documents.
4) Source Criticism- finds out where previously existing material has been used by a later
author.
5) Form Criticism- seeks to clarify literary devices and to isolate the historical settings in
which the forms developed and functioned before they became part of the context.
6) Redaction Criticism- deals with the ways biblical authors used sources, changed them
to address the problems of their time
7) Historical Criticism- the reality of an event behind the text rather than the meaning
of the event.
Canon- “measuring stick”. An established rule for guidance, a standard, or a list of rules. In
biblical use it is the catalogue of inspired writings known as the Old and New Testaments,
identified by the Church. Determined, in part, by usage and habit. In the act of canonization,
the Church declares that certain books are divinely enabled testimony to a divinely given
revelation.
The Inspiration and Inerrancy of Scripture
Did God command certain individuals to write? Did God dictate into the ears of the writers?
Was the writer in a hypnotic state, in ecstasy, or even possessed by God?
When speak of the inspiration of Scripture, we speak of the Holy Spirit assisting human
authors to write sacred books. The reader must take into account the conditions of the time
and culture, the literary genres of the time and the modes of feeling. Human faculties are
employed to bring out the full message of the book. Christianity is not merely a religion of the
book (Catechism of the Catholic Church 101-141). If the writer were in a hypnotic state, the
Bible in its literal sense would not exist because the human author’s intention would be void.
No relationship would exist between the author and his contemporaries and history would be
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vacant. If the writer were in an ecstatic state or even possessed by God, it would seem that
the event of ecstasy would be vital to the writing.
When we speak of inerrancy, we are saying that the Bible is free from error in the sense that
the meaning intended by the writers is itself free from error. Investigation of the literary form
will help one to judge what the meaning was, while the doctrinal affirmation of the meaning
will not be overthrown by growth in historical understanding. The intention of the author
must be judged in terms of the book’s relevance to human salvation. Since the Bible is a
response to revelation and revelation is a process, so too the human understanding of an
unfolding relationship changes. The inerrant truth of Scripture is the inerrant saving truth.
Palestine- current name for the Holy Land, Canaan, Land of Israel. This is the place the
original twelve tribes of Israel settled. Palestine is separated by the Jordan River. The Jordan
River is 65 miles long and connects the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.
Talmud- a collection of laws, regulations and other materials that, after the Hebrew
Scriptures, is the authoritative religious document of Judaism. It is includes Misnah, a
collection of legal interpretations and practices from the Pharisees and other respected
teachers. The Gemara is a commentary on the Misnah. Finally collected and arranged during
the fourth century AD.
Western Wall, or “Wailing Wall”- The Western Wall in the midst of the Old City in
Jerusalem is the section of the Western supporting wall of the Temple Mount that has
remained intact since the destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple (70 C.E.). It became
the most sacred spot in Jewish religious and national consciousness and tradition by virtue of
its proximity to the Western Wall of the Holy of Holies in the Temple, from which, according
to numerous sources, the Divine Presence never departed. It became a center of mourning
over the destruction of the Temple and Israel's exile, on the one hand, and of religious - in
20th century also national - communion with the memory of Israel's former glory and the
hope for its restoration, on the other. Because of the former association, it became known in
European languages as the "Wailing Wall". From 1948- 1967, Jews were not allowed to pray
at the Wall. The Six-Day War in June of 1967 liberated the Wall for Jews. Since 1968, many
excavations have revealed clues to past structures along the Wall.
HISTORY OF ISRAEL
We normally think of history as recounting, “what happened”, but we must recognize that
there is no history that simply recounts what happened. All history involves the selection,
organization and interpretation of events. The writers of the Bible tell the history of Israel
from their perspective. They have a message to get across.
Jewish culture- has a great sense of history and Judaism reaches through a long stretch of
history. Secular viewpoint of Jewish culture- not really unusual, just a small mid-east culture
that is not unique and not very impressive
OT is scared history because the meaning of life is disclosed
All events are interpreted through the light of faith- makes it revelation
Revelation: 1) found out who God really was
2) Found God’s identity and our response to his revelation.
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3) Disclose God’s activity in history
ABRAHAM and Period of Patriarchs (1850 BC- 1250 BC)
Genesis 12:1-9
God elects a race or a clan of Abram. God chooses Abram over all peoples.
12:1-3 God promises Abraham 3 Things:
1) Nation
2) Land
3) That nation will be a blessing to all other nations.
12:7 builds an altar, something to mark the event.
12:4-9 about the land.
15:1-6 special race will be from a wife, not a slave.
15: 7-8 God’s presence is a flaming torch.
17: 1-14 promises, circumcision is a physical mark that can be sealed without a land or a
nation, a personal covenant.
17: 15-22 Abraham and Sarah’s son is called Isaac that means, “He laughs” because they
laughed at God’s request to have children at such an old age. The covenant will extend to
Isaac as well.
22:1-8 a test of Abraham’s faith- sacrifice Isaac. Instead, use animal sacrifice.
EXODUS EVENT (1300 BC- 1250 BC)
1750 BC- 1550 BC Hebrews settle in Egypt. The Book of Genesis ends with the Hebrews
settling in the prosperous land of Goshen, a fertile section of the Nile Delta nearest to
Palestine. In 1550 BC, King Ahmose overthrew the Hyksos leader and began a new dynasty.
Exodus opens during the 19th Egyptian dynasty under Seti I and Ramses I around 1310 BC.
A date for the Exodus in the reign of Ramses II sometime between 1300 and 1270 BC seems
most likely. Ramses II enslaved the Israelites to build the towns of Pithom and Raamses, as
Exodus 1: 11 states and it are most likely that an escape (or Exodus) could be done as
refugees kept moving around. Therefore, it is possible that shifts of Israelites left over the
period of thirty years. There are varying theories and dates associated with the Exodus.
Exodus 2- Birth of Moses
Exodus 3 and 4
Call scene, flees to Midian after killing an Egyptian
1) Identity- “I am the God of your fathers…”
2) Character- “I have seen the affliction of my people…”
3) Call- “You will go to Egypt…”
Theophany- divine visitation, direct communication or appearance by God.
God appears to Moses in the burning bush in Exodus 3:2-6
Not a matter of how, but why.
Moses resists and rejects the call by God (says he is not worthy, can’t speak, etc.)
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“I am who am”= Yahweh= 1st person singular= “to be,” means Yahweh is an active
present being. Jews never say the name of God (Yahweh) because it is too sacred. In
the Old and New Testaments, he is simply called, “the Lord”
Gospel of John- Jesus uses this name for himself. “I am” the bread of life, light of the world,
sheepgate, good shepherd, resurrection and the life, way, truth and life, true vine. Jesus uses
these words for the same reason Yahweh says it in Exodus- to show what the relationship
should be like. John 18: 1-14
4: 1-17 God proves his presence 3 ways:
1) Staff to snake
2) Hand turned leprous
3) Nile to blood
Again, Moses gives excuses as to why he does not want to go. God uses Aaron, his brother, to
speak on his behalf.
Confrontation with Pharaoh
Plague happens and a pattern of events always follows.
Exodus 9: 27-35
1) Moses asks for release
2) Pharaoh refuses
3) Plague occurs (Hebrews not affected)
4) Pharaoh’s meeting (he backs down)
5) Plague ends, Pharaoh changes his mind.
10TH PLAGUE- PASSOVER
Shows God has control over life and death. Passover- each family slays and roasts a lamb, eat
unleavened bread, ready to leave the city, put blood on the doorpost so angel of death can
Passover. Jews celebrate this feast today as a reminder of how God saved them. In the NT,
the Last Supper was Passover. It was not uncommon that Jesus celebrated this feast with the
12 apostles or that he washed their feet. They thought they were celebrating Passover. Even
though it was not on the exact day, we also do the same thing. Exodus 12: 1-20, 13: 1-16
Passover celebration with a new ritual- consecration of the firstborn.
In terms of covenant, Passover is the decisive saving event in the history of Judaism. In
Genesis where humans are co-creators with God in word, now they are co-creators with God in
deed.
Exodus 13: 17-22, 14: 10-22
Passover- The Sea Event
Decisive saving event, Israel becomes the people of Yahweh, not so much about
nature, but rather a sign of the saving presence of Yahweh. 2 versions of the event: 1)
Exodus 14- prose 2) Exodus 15- poetry hymn, Song of Miriam. This song is sung or
the reading is read at the Easter Vigil.
Wilderness Journey
1) Shows their lack of faith- “Why did you bring us out here to die…”
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2) Shows how God provides and cares- manna and quail.
Positive effects of the Wilderness Journey
1) Exodus 16: 1-8 quail and manna.
2) Exodus 17: 1-7 water from the rock.
Negative effects of the Wilderness Journey
1) Numbers 11: 4-15 complaining about lack of food, Moses’ anguish- was a time of
weakness
2) Numbers 14: 2-4 want to choose a new captain and go back to Egypt, want power
Exodus 19- Arrival at Mt. Sinai/Mt. Horeb
- The worship and religion of Yahweh now becomes the national religion
- Theophany #1- covenant/law make up the Sinai event. God delivers the law.
- Theophany #2- natural things like thunder, lightening and wind. Exodus 19: 16-
24.
Exodus 19:3-6 Eagle’s Wings= wilderness leading- explains how to live out vocation/mission
and call- be God’s priestly kingdom and holy people.
Exodus 24: 1-2, 9-11
2 traditions for the ratification of the covenant
1) Meal at the top of the mountain eaten by representatives of the people.
2) Blood sacrifices
Why? Because these two things were popular at the time.
God’s law for the relationship
1) The relationship will be like a marriage
2) The pledge will be like wedding vows
The law was seen as a blessing, not a burden. It is saying “thanks” for the
relationship.
Covenant:
1) A solemn agreement made with a religious ritual.
2) Can be made between individuals or nations.
3) Considered valid for all time
Pentecost
Shavout (or Pentecost) is a festival that commemorates the day on which God gave the Ten
Commandments at Mt. Sinai as terms of a covenant. This festival takes place in the early
summer.
You shall count for yourselves -- from the day after the Shabbat, from the day when
you bring the Omer of the waving -- seven Shabbats, they shall be complete. Until the
day after the seventh sabbath you shall count, fifty days... You shall convoke on this
very day -- there shall be a holy convocation for yourselves -- you shall do no
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laborious work; it is an eternal decree in your dwelling places for your generations. -
Leviticus 21:15-16, 21
Shavu'ot, the Festival of Weeks, is the second of the three major festivals with both historical
and agricultural significance (Passover is first and Sukkot is third). Agriculturally, it
commemorates the time when the first fruits were harvested and brought to the Temple, and
is known as Hag ha-Bikkurim (the Festival of the First Fruits). Historically, it celebrates the
giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai, and is also known as Hag Matan Torateinu (the Festival
of the Giving of Our Torah)
The period from Passover to Shavu'ot is a time of great anticipation. We count each of the
days from the second day of Passover to the day before Shavu'ot, 49 days or 7 full weeks,
hence the name of the festival. The counting reminds us of the important connection between
Passover and Shavu'ot: Passover freed us physically from bondage, but the giving of the
Torah on Shavu'ot redeemed us spiritually from our bondage to idolatry and immorality.
Shavu'ot is also known as Pentecost, because it falls on the 50th day.
Deuteronomy 6: 4-9 Summary of Law
Mezuzah
“And you shall write [the words that I command you today] on the doorposts of your house
and on your gates. -Deuteronomy 6:9, 11:19”
On the doorposts of traditional Jewish homes you will find a small case. This case is
commonly known as a mezuzah (Heb.: doorpost), because it is placed upon the doorposts of
the house. The mezuzah is not, as some suppose, a good-luck charm, nor does it have any
connection with the lamb's blood placed on the doorposts in Egypt. Rather, it is a constant
reminder of G-d's presence and G-d's mitzvoth (blessing).
The mitzvah to place mezuzah on the doorposts of our houses is derived from Deut. 6:4-9, a
passage commonly known as the Shema (Heb: Hear, from the first word of the passage). In
that passage, G-d commands us to keep His words constantly in our minds and in our hearts
by (among other things) writing them on the doorposts of our house. The words of the Shema
are written on a tiny scroll of parchment, along with the words of a companion passage, Deut.
11:13-21. On the back of the scroll, a name of G-d is written. The scroll is then rolled up and
placed in the case, so that the first letter of the Name (the letter Shin) is visible (or, more
commonly, the letter Shin is written on the outside of the case). The scroll must be
handwritten in a special style of writing and must be placed in the case to fulfill the mitzvah.
Every time you pass through a door with a mezuzah on it, you touch the mezuzah and then
kiss the fingers that touched it, expressing love and respect for G-d and his mitzvot and
reminding yourself of the mitzvot contained within them.
Gospel of Matthew: Chapters 5-7 “Sermon on the Mount”
Just as Moses went up the mountain to get the law, Jesus goes up a mountain to give the Law.
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Exodus 32 Golden Calf Incident
Story of rebellion, Aaron makes the calf; Moses gets so angry he breaks the tablets on the calf.
God promises punishment later: 1) Deut. 9: 7-28 (Moses’ reflection)
2) Deut. 10: 1-10 (build ark)
Books of Leviticus and Numbers
Continuation of the law presented at Sinai up to the point where the Hebrews enter the
Promised Land. The focus of all the stories is legal lists on either preparations for the journey
or problems encountered on the journey, or on attitudes that threaten the journey. The
central theme of Leviticus is holiness in the ordinary areas of life such as food, clothing,
sickness, moral ethics and regular worship. Numbers intensifies these expectations and
stresses the need for dedication and total commitment to God for Israel to succeed as a nation.
Its goal is to live prosperously in the Holy Land.
The final pilgrimage festival is Succot (also spelled Sukkot, also known as the Feast of Booths,
the Feast of Tabernacles, or simply Booths or Tabernacles). This festival commemorates how
God protected the Israelites in the desert after Pentecost and before they entered the
Promised Land.
The Festival of Sukkot begins on Tishri 15, the fifth day after Yom Kippur. It is quite a
drastic transition, from one of the most solemn holidays in our year to one of the most joyous.
Sukkot is so unreservedly joyful that it is commonly referred to in Jewish prayer and
literature as the Season of our Rejoicing.
Historically, Sukkot commemorates the forty-year period during which the children of Israel
were wandering in the desert, living in temporary shelters. Agriculturally, Sukkot is a harvest
festival and is sometimes referred to as the Festival of Gathering.
The word "Sukkot" means "booths," and refers to the temporary dwellings that we are
commanded to live in during this holiday in memory of the period of wandering. The Hebrew
pronunciation of Sukkot is "Sue COAT.” The name of the holiday is frequently translated
"Feast of Tabernacles," which, like many translations of Jewish terms, isn't very useful. This
translation is particularly misleading, because the word "tabernacle" in the Bible refers to the
portable Sanctuary in the desert, a precursor to the Temple, called in Hebrew "mishkan." The
Hebrew word "sukkah" (plural: "sukkot") refers to the temporary booths that people lived in,
not to the Tabernacle.
Building a Sukkah
You will dwell in booths for seven days; all natives of Israel shall dwell in booths. -
Leviticus 23:42
In honor of the holiday's historical significance, we are commanded to dwell in temporary
shelters, as our ancestors did in the wilderness. The temporary shelter is referred to as a
sukkah (which is the singular form of the plural word "sukkot").
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The commandment to "dwell" in a sukkah can be fulfilled by simply eating all of one's meals
there; however, if the weather, climate, and one's health permit, one should spend as much
time in the sukkah as possible, including sleeping in it.
A sukkah must have at least two and a half walls covered with a material that will not blow
away in the wind. Why two and a half walls? The "walls" of the sukkah do not have to be
solid; canvas covering tied or nailed down is acceptable and quite common in the United
States. To fulfill the commandment, sekhakh must be something that grew from the ground
and was cut off, such as tree branches, corn stalks, bamboo reeds, sticks, or two-by-fours.
Sekhakh must be left loose, not tied together or tied down. Sekhakh must be placed sparsely
enough that rain can get in, and preferably sparsely enough that the stars can be seen, but
not so sparsely that more than ten inches is open at any point or that there is more light than
shade.
It is common practice, and highly commendable, to decorate the sukkah. In the United
States, Jews commonly hang dried squash and corn in the sukkah to decorate it, because
these vegetables are readily available at that time for the American holidays of Halloween
and Thanksgiving. Many families hang artwork drawn by the children on the walls. Building
and decorating a sukkah is a fun family project, much like decorating the Christmas tree is for
Christians. It is a sad commentary on modern American Judaism that most of the assimilated
Jews who complain about being deprived of the fun of having and decorating a Christmas tree
have never even heard of Sukkot.
Deuteronomy- mostly speeches by Moses, very different in style and language.
Speeches by Moses
1) Numbers 20: 10-13 why didn’t Moses enter the Promised Land? He struck the
rock twice.
2) Numbers 27: 12-20 Moses is told by God to choose Joshua as the new leader
because Moses will die.
3) Deut. 2: 23-29 Joshua will enter the Promised Land, Moses will not.
4) Deut. 31: 1-8 Moses commissions Joshua.
Moses’ Farewell Tour
- He tells them to remain faithful. He outlines the blessings and curses they can
expect depending upon their commitment to Yahweh
1) Deut. 28: 1-15 blessings- stand in awe, give and receive
2) Deut. 28: 15-68 curses
3) Deut. 30: 15-20 final speech- choose life and not death.
4) Deut. 32: 48-52 Moses sees the Promised Land, but can’t enter.
5) Deut. 32-33 prayers and blessings
6) Deut. 34 death of Moses
JOSHUA
The book of Joshua presents that first step, the conquest and distribution of land; the
succeeding stages of development, ultimately unsuccessful because of Israel’s failure to obey
the law.
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“The New Moses”
Joshua 3
1) Moses leads people across the Red Sea, Joshua will lead them across the Jordan
River
2) Moses had a staff of powers; Joshua has the Ark of the Covenant (both are sacred
objects).
3) Moses’ theophany was a burning bush; Joshua had a vision of an angel.
Settling in the Promised Land
Joshua 2: 1-24 Rahab and the Spies
Joshua 5: 5:1-15 Israel in the Promised Land
Joshua 6: 1-19 Siege at Jericho
Joshua 7: 1-26 Defeat at Ai for breaking the ban
Ban- total destruction without taking any possessions for yourself
Joshua 24: 1-33 Personality and death of Joshua
AGE OF JUDGES (1130 BC- 1020 BC)
Judge- temporary leaders of the 12 tribes assigned by Moses before his death. When the
Israelites settled in the Promised Land, they were assigned by tribes and each tribe had a
leader called a Judge. This represents the period between the death of Joshua and the days of
Samuel. Judges were mostly military leaders sent by God to aid and relieve his people in time
of external danger. These are stories of how God raises up deliverers to save Israel when, after
settled in the Promised Land, is unfaithful and overcome by enemies. Whenever the people
were obedient, things went well. When they were disobedient, pagan nations attacked them.
The book of Judges was formed from many independent sources of stories about certain
people. They are hero sagas related to us by local tribe leaders. They are usually embellished
and exaggerated stories compiled many years later with one major theme: sin brings
punishment and repentance brings deliverance.
Major Judges: Othniel, Ehud, Barak, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson
Note on the following books of Joshua, Judges, I & II Samuel, I & II Kings:
The ancient authors used stories and traditions that already existed; each major work covers
many centuries of history, and therefore it cannot be an eyewitness account by one person.
The ancient authors created the final form of each work. Sometimes they took over older
accounts with little or no change; sometimes they rewrote the source. It is important,
however, to pay attention both to the older materials (they tell important things about
ancient traditions) and to the final form of the documents (they tell us what the authors
thought was important and therefore emphasized). The Bible often tells the same story from
different points of view (crossing the Red Sea, parables and miracles of Jesus); this gives clues
to that perspective, and not just the story. An example of this is a saga like tale of David and
Goliath while, on the other hand, David’s household is pure history.
So, Deuteronomy- II Kings was written long after the time they actually happened and is
considered one long narrative. Most likely, Genesis through Numbers and Deuteronomy
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through II Kings were finally assembled in the years subsequent to the destruction of
Jerusalem in 586 BC. The stories were there, they just were not written down yet.
Book written at this time:
Ruth
AGE OF MONARCHY (1120- 587 BC)
SAMUEL
Presented as the final judge and first prophet. Tries to keep the traditions of God
alive. Samuel is a guiding personality among all Judges- people lost faith, Samuel rallied them
up.
I Samuel 2: 12-36, 3:1-21 Call of Samuel
I Samuel 5:6-7 Attack of the Philistines
- Loss of the ark because they could not handle its power
- Philistines had bad luck with it as well and simply return it (hemorrhoids).
A King for Israel
1) Anti- Monarchy I Samuel 8:6-22, 10: 17-27, 12: 13-18
Monarchy would break the covenant with God
2) Pro- Monarchy I Samuel 11: 1-15
Need a king to be a blessing to other nations.
Problem: Traditionally, Israel’s king was Yahweh himself. Others believed that a human
leader was essential for many reasons- war, enemies, diplomacy, and immediate decisions.
Remember, this is being done for the first time so errors were going to be made. One of the big
problems was unity among the nation because allegiance till this point was tribal.
I Samuel 12:18-25 Assistance Promised
Warnings for the people about sin. God should be first and the king should be second.
KING SAUL (1020-1000 BC)
I Samuel 10: 17-27 Saul hides. He is a tall, reluctant king
I Samuel 14: 16-23 Saul will be a warrior-king
Saul is the first king of Israel from the tribe of Benjamin. Saul was very successful at first with
his military. Saul leads people into battle with the Philistines, their enemy, and wins. Saul
builds a strong army and is successful in battle. Politically, Saul could care less about a
centralized government He had no military draft. No hierarchy in court, no court officials.
At the end of his reign, Saul was faced with two difficult situations:
1) Continual pressure from the Philistines.
2) Military success of a young man named David.
Saul spent so much time trying to hunt down and kill David that he
eventually lost to the Philistines.
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Saul’s Downfall
Battle with the Amalekites (ancient enemies from Exodus 17: 8-16). “Holy War” was
waged by God’s command. No sex, no loot, no property but rather give everything as
an offering to God. I Samuel 15: 1-35 Saul broke the ban on keeping treasures. They
beat the Amalekites, but Saul spares the life of the king (Samuel had to kill him) and
some livestock. Saul also offers a sacrifice reserved for priests.
KING DAVID (1000- 961 BC)
I Samuel 18: 6-16
David’s Rise to Fame
1) I Samuel 16: 14-23 Brought into court of Saul as a musician.
2) I Samuel 17: 50- 18:5 Victory over Goliath
Saul’s jealousy towards David clouds his mind so much that the nation falls apart.
Jonathan, Saul’s son, who liked David, told him of his father’s plan to kill him. David goes to
hide out with Samuel. Saul kicks Jonathan out of his court so he goes to stay with David. In
battle, Saul leaves camp to search out and kill David. Instead, David catches Saul and spares
his life. Saul asks for mercy for his descendants from David. David agrees. Samuel dies.
David gathers an army of resistance against Saul because he wants to become king. David
gathers Saul-haters from the south (Judah). II Samuel 2: 1-14. After the death of Saul, David
is named King of Judah. Now David has the opportunity to rule North and Saul (keep in
mind Saul did a terrible job of uniting North and South).
Abner, Saul’s general and cousin, took Ishbaal, Saul’s son, and made him king over the tribes
in the North (Israel). Later, Ishbaal accuses Abner of sleeping with his concubine so he defects
to the side of David. Joab, David’s armor-bearer, or right-hand-man, becomes upset with
David for letting Abner, as he thought, deceive him.
Joab seeks Abner out and kills him mostly because Abner had killed Joab’s brother Asahel
before when Abner was on Saul’s side. When David learns that Abner is leaving to come to his
side, he asks Abner to bring his wife Michal back with him.
Michal was the daughter of Saul and she had warned David of Saul’s deadly plan against him.
Saul has her marry someone else so David has no times to the throne. David had married her
when he and Saul got along- but he had fled to save his life. To prevent further problems,
Michal stayed behind with her father, Saul.
While away from Michal, David marries Abigail I Samuel 25: 18-43. Meanwhile, his own men-
brothers Rechab and Baanah kill Ishbaal, Saul’s son who wants to become king. When they
bring the head of Ishbaal to David hoping for a reward, David has them killed for killing
Ishbaal. David buries Ishbaal’s head next to Abner’s. David becomes king of North and
South.
Meribaal, who is Jonathan’s son and Saul’s grandson, is restored inheritance by David and he
lives in protection in the palace.
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David as King
2 Important Political Moves:
1) Changes the capital city from Hebron to Jerusalem.
2) Brings the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem
David makes Jerusalem the center of politics and religion. David does this on purpose to
give his kingdom a theological foundation…and it was good for business. This is called Royal
Theology- how David combines politics and religion. From now on, the king will always have
a special relationship with God. However, David did not just walk into Jerusalem and set up
shop, he had to destroy the Jebusites who lived there.
Jerusalem- known as “City of God”, “City of David”, and “City of Zion”
Davidic Covenant- II Samuel 7: 1-17
Promise to establish a kingdom that will never end. The basis for royal theology-
David is now a moderator between God and people. David wants to build a temple for
the ark, but God wants to build a dynasty for David and his successors.
Yahweh Promises 4 Things in Davidic Covenant
1) Make David a dynasty
2) Dynasty will last forever
3) Davidic king will be like a son to Yahweh
4) God’s loyalty will last in this covenant even if people disobey
II Samuel 5: 17-25; 5: 6-16
David once and for all defeats the Philistines
Messiah- Yahweh’s anointed one.
The messiah is a future Davidic king who will reestablish the kingdom of David. What will
that messiah be like? 1) Isaiah 11: 1-9 2) Isaiah 9: 1-6
Downfall of David
The point of the story is that the Davidic King is not above the Law of Moses.
David and Nathan
Nathan is what is known as a personal prophet.
Nathan announces the Davidic Covenant in II Samuel 7
II Samuel 11: 1-27 David and Bathsheba
Consequence: God will punish him at a later date
Parable of Nathan: II Samuel 12: 13-25. Nathan says that God will forgive him, but future
generations will suffer and also that the child conceived will die. Bathsheba bears a son who is
sickly and dies soon after birth. But she has another son, whom God blesses. Nathan names
him Jedidiah, but is later called Solomon.
3 Theological Points to the Bathsheba Story
1) King is not above the Law of Moses
2) Explains why David’s house will fall
3) Emerging role of prophecy
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Consequences of Bathsheba Sin
Amnon, David’s first son who is ruled by lust rapes his (Amnon’s) half-sister Tamar. Amnon
is David’s firstborn and hence the heir to the throne. Absalom, who is Tamar’s full brother, is
enraged. David is also angry with Amnon, but does nothing to punish him. Two years later,
Absalom invites Amnon to a royal feast and has him murdered. This means that now
Absalom is first in line to be the next king. David is caught in grief over the death of Amnon
and his love for Absalom, who has since gone into exile. Joab forces David find Absalom and
bring him back into his house. David does and he and Absalom reconcile.
However, Absalom revolts against David and gains popularity by going to Hebron in the
North and declaring himself king. David, fearing Absalom, flees himself. After Absalom revolt
is thwarted, David goes on a retreat away from the city and meets many people who bless and
curse him.
II Samuel 16: 20- 18:4. II Samuel 19: 1-10. While gone, Absalom rallies troops to go find
David and kill him. David quickly wants to fight back, but is torn because he would be
fighting his son. David’s tells his advisors to be gentle with Absalom when they defeat him.
However, Joab ends up killing Absalom and becomes furious with David when he shows grief
at the death of Absalom. Joab reminds him that his commitment is to the city.
II Samuel 20. During this war within the royal family, Sheba, a follower of Saul from the tribe
of Benjamin recruits Amasa, the late Absalom’s general, to organize a group from the North
to invade the South. Joab kills Sheba.
What did God promise Abraham? Are they a blessing to other nations?
Book written at this time:
Psalms
It is during this time that David writes the Psalms, particularly Psalms 1-41.
Scramble for the Throne
I Kings 1:28-37 & I Kings 2, 10-12, 14.
Solomon and Adonijah want to both be king. David chooses Solomon to be king
KING SOLOMON (961- 930 BC)
I & II Kings contain the history of Judah and Israel from the time Solomon (961 BC) through
the destruction of both the Northern and Southern Kingdom into the period of the Exile (561
BC.). It is about the ascension and reign of Solomon, the history of the two kingdoms and the
Kingdom of Judah after the fall of Israel.
Solomon was not a soldier or a military man. He was an educated man. God grants Solomon
the gift of wisdom- I Kings 3: 1-14
4 Areas of National Development
1) Foreign Policy- peaceful relations with neighbors, formed alliances with other nations
by marrying their king’s daughters.
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2) Defense- large army with superior weapons
3) Trade- invited ships and merchants into the land
4) Cultural Flourish- fine arts, literature, history, music (psalms), philosophy (proverbs).
Construction of the Temple of Yahweh I Kings 5-7
Took seven years to build. Housed ark of covenant, combined politics and religion like
his father David and he used it as a tourist attraction. I Kings 8: 9-14 was considered
the holiest place on earth. God said that if Solomon and his descendants forsake the
covenant, he would destroy the temple.
Solomon’s Downfall- Idolatry
I Kings 11: 1-4 Solomon’s marriage to all of the pagan women that God asked him not to
marry. Solomon began to perform their rituals to keep them happy and turned away from
God. Beyond that, he let pagan gods be worshipped in the temple of Yahweh.
Punishment Speech I Kings 11: 1-43
Solomon’s son will have the kingship fall, but God will leave one tribe (faithful
remnant). Solomon broke #1 commandment by worshipping other gods because of his
intermarriage. Solomon blamed his old age.
Problems with Solomon’s Reign in the North
1) High taxes- Solomon broke the country into twelve tax districts that were split up in
tribal fashion. North did not want to pay for the military, Solomon’s court and
harem.
2) Forced labor I Kings 5:27-32- Solomon had many construction projects. He had
30,000 Israelites in labor camps and 80,000 in stone quarries.
Rosh Hashanah: “Head of the Year”
The New Year (Rosh Hashana) and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) are serious- though
not sad- occasions, marking the beginning of the Ten Days on Penitence. The Ten Days
themselves round of the yamin noraim, or Days of Awe, a forty day penitential period which
begins a month before the New Year (A bit like Lent, but in the late summer). (Solomon, 62)
The blowing of the shofar, or ram's horn, on the Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year,
Hebrew although not exclusively limited to a ram's horn, as almost any natural bovid horn
serves the purpose, excepting a cow's horn, is an injunction that is mentioned in the Hebrew
Bible (Leviticus 23:24) in undefined terms, without divulging how this was to be done:
“Speak unto the children of Israel, saying: In the seventh month, in the first day of
the month, shall be a solemn rest unto you, a memorial proclaimed with the blast of
horns, a holy convocation.”
The shofar is a ram's horn which is blown somewhat like a trumpet. One of the most
important observances of this holiday is hearing the sounding of the shofar in the synagogue.
A total of 100 notes are sounded each day. The shofar's sound is a call to repentance…to wake
up from your sin. The shofar is not blown if the holiday falls on Shabbat. The Torah defines
Rosh Hashanah as a one-day celebration, and since days in the Hebrew calendar begin at
sundown, the beginning of Rosh Hashanah is at sundown at the end of 29 Elul.
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Ten days after Rosh Hashanah is Yom Kippur, also known as Day of Atonement. It is the
holiest day of the year for the Jewish people. Its central themes are atonement and
repentance. Jewish people traditionally observe this holy day with an approximate 25-hour
period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue services.
Teshuva, or pentinence, is not only the major theme of Yom Kippur, but a leading concept in
Judaism. It is a “return” to God, and consists of the recognition of sin, regret and confession,
and renewed commitment to the right path. No sacrifice or intermediary is required to
complete this process, which depends on God’s grace alone. (Norman, 63)
"Kol nidre" means "all vows," and in this prayer, we ask G-d to annul all personal vows we
may make in the next year. It refers only to vows between the person making them and G-d,
such as "If I pass this test, I'll pray every day for the next 6 months!"
Confession of the sins of the community, which is inserted into the Shemoneh Esrei (Amidah)
prayer. Note that all sins are confessed in the plural (we have done this, we have done that),
emphasizing communal responsibility for sins.
There are two basic parts of this confession: Ashamnu, a shorter, more general list (we have
been treasonable, we have been aggressive, we have been slanderous...), and Al Cheit, a longer
and more specific list (for the sin we sinned before you forcibly or willingly, and for the sin we
sinned before you by acting callously...) There's also a catch-all confession: "Forgive us the
breach of positive commands and negative commands, whether or not they involve an act,
whether or not they are known to us."
It is interesting to note that these confessions do not specifically address the kinds of ritual
sins that some people think are the be-all-and-end-all of Judaism. There is no "for the sin we
have sinned before you by eating pork, and for the sin we have sinned against you by driving
on Shabbat" (though obviously these are implicitly included in the catch-all). The vast
majority of the sins enumerated involve mistreatment of other people, most of them by
speech (offensive speech, scoffing, slander, and swearing falsely, to name a few). These all
come into the category of sin known as "lashon ha-ra" (lit: the evil tongue), which is
considered a very serious sin in Judaism.
The concluding service of Yom Kippur, known as Ne'ilah, is one unique to the day. It usually
runs about 1 hour long. The ark (a cabinet where the scrolls of the Torah are kept) is kept
open throughout this service, thus you must stand throughout the service. There is a tone of
desperation in the prayers of this service. The service is sometimes referred to as the closing of
the gates; think of it as the "last chance" to get in a good word before the holiday ends. The
service ends with a very long blast of the shofar.
The final service the following day, as the fast ends, is Ne’ilah (the closing of the gates).
Worshippers are attuned to the fact that the gates of heaven are open for a little while longer.
JEROBOAM- First King of North (922- 901 BC)
Leader of the revolt of the North. Used to work for Solomon and now wants to over
through him. He and his personal prophet Ahijah feel God will give kingship to
Jeroboam. Solomon’s army beats him in battle and Jeroboam flees to Egypt.
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Death of Solomon- 922 BC buried next to David in Jerusalem.
Books written at this time:
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Tobit
REHOBOAM- First King of South (922- 915 BC)
Sheckem Incident I Kings 12:1-20
Rehoboam, Solomon’s son, travels north to get anointed king. With Jeroboam gone, the
leaders of the North plead with Rehoboam to ease taxes and stop forced labor. Rehoboam
does not take advice too well and instead promises to increase taxes and labor. Therefore, the
Northern 10 tribes succeed from the kingdom. Jeroboam, meanwhile, returns from Egypt to
take over the North. Rehoboam is advised not to attack the North.
Israel/North- Jeroboam
Judah/South- Rehoboam
Jeroboam makes two shrine towns in the North called “High Places” at Dan and Bethel. High
Places were temples built in the North where northerners could go worship. He makes golden
calves and puts them in the shrine towns. Now, northern worship will be focused on these two
sites. The writers of Kings say that the North is committing idolatry and that is the reason
they are conquered. However, Jeroboam was once again using a popular symbol for God- a
bull on a stool. Politically, he set up the shrine towns so the people of the North would not
travel to the South and spend money in Jerusalem, or worship in Jerusalem. He believed in
Yahweh, he just hated the South.
Is it idolatry? I Kings 12: 25-30. Hosea 8:1-6, 10:5-6
What did God promise David? Is it over?
Faithful Remnant- small number of people from the tribe Judah who were always faithful to
Yahweh even though they will suffer exile and conquering. This is the group that will be
restored.
That is why in the Bible during this time the North is always considered bad and the South,
which is where the remnant is from, is always regarded as good.
Zephaniah- 630 BC- The Day of the Lord will bring judgment upon the people
followed by a blessing to the people. God will restore the remnant. 3: 12-20.
The Prophet Elijah
I Kings 17- 19
Elijah and the Prophets of Baal- who owns the fertility rights? Baal or Yahweh?
Israel did not abandon the Lord, but worshipped Baal in addition to Yahweh. Why?
Because Yahweh was not a God of fertility to a nomad people. Elijah convinces the
people that Yahweh is also a fertility god. Later, Elijah goes back to Mt. Horeb to
learn that Yahweh has not deserted his people.
Some words about prophets:
1) Only concerned with the present, not the future. They are not fortunetellers.
2) Their goal is to remind people of the covenant made with Yahweh now, not later.
3) Prophets feel they are called by God but are usually not willing.
4) Use words like, “Thus says the Lord…”
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5) Southern Prophets- Covenant with David
Northern Prophets- Covenant with Moses
Written to Israel in the North:
Amos- 750 BC. 7: 10-15. Amos confronts Amaziah, a professional prophet and tells
him that Assyria will attack. Amaziah disagrees. Amos calls Israel to social justice-
3:1-2.
Hosea- 745- 725 BC. Hosea says the covenant is like a marriage and the bride (Israel)
has been unfaithful to Yahweh. In the meantime, Hosea’ wife, Gomer, has been
unfaithful to him. Hosea says that if Israel returns to Yahweh, they could have a
honeymoon all over again. 14: 1-9.
Written to Judah in the South:
Joel- 835 BC- a recent plague of locusts illustrates the far more terrifying Day of the
Lord.
Written to Edom
Obadiah 840 BC
Written to Judah in the South:
Isaiah 1-39- 740 BC- Isaiah is called (6:1) the same year Azariah dies. Two-fold
message of condemnation (1-39) and consolation (40-66). God judgment on the sins of
Judah by the surrounding nations, and the world, followed by salvation and
restoration. Vineyard image 5: 1-7, faithful remnant 10: 20-27, rule of Immanuel 11:
1-9, 9:2-8.
Written to Assyria
Jonah 760 BC
Written to Judah in the South:
Micah- 735 BC- In spite of judgment by God to lands of Israel and Judah, God’s
covenant will be restored in the Messiah’s future kingdom.
Written to Assyria
Nahum 660 BC
Reign of Josiah (640- 609 BC)- positive, got rid of pagan images, destroys High Place
at Bethel. Dies in Battle. Establishes public worship in Jerusalem.
Sometimes compared to David.
The Book of Deuteronomy and Josiah
Josiah had a hope to reunite the North and the South. Egypt is now gaining power and has
weakened Assyria. Josiah works with the Pharaoh, Necho, to build an alliance so the south
could stay a nation. Josiah was very successful in ridding the land of pagan images and
worship. But Josiah finds something in the temple that could unite the North and South to
become one nation to stand up to their neighbors- The Book of Deuteronomy. Some scholars
say it was written by the temple priests during the reign of Josiah, but II Kings says it was
found. Most likely it was written by Northern scribes who fled to the South after Assyria
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conquered the North. Some scholars speculate that Josiah commissioned its writing in the
spirit of religious reform to unite the North and South under the Law of Moses. Either way, in
622 BC, Josiah decided to repair the temple and spared no expense in doing so. Politically, the
unification of the North and South would provide Josiah with a stronghold on the land.
However, the Assyrians occupied the land to the North. So, he promised the Assyrians that
he would be a caretaker of the people in the North. To the Assyrians, Josiah kept up the
appearance of loyalty to them, but in reality he wanted to reconvert the North to the Law of
Moses and Covenant with David. With Deuteronomy, Josiah could entice the North to join
them in a fight against neighbors. One problem faced was the fact that the Northern Israelites
were intermarrying with the Assyrians so their allegiance would be mixed. Josiah saw himself
as a new Joshua- a new conqueror and he is presented that way in the Bible. Josiah hopes it
would motivate North and South just as David did by bringing the ark to Jerusalem.
However, after Josiah dies, the whole plan in over.
The style of the Book of Deuteronomy is that, although put into the mouth of Moses, the
homilies are directed at a people living long after the events of the exodus, people who are
urged to recall and keep the teachings of Moses. The book looks back at the conquest of the
holy land as a completed event, and its legal ideas presuppose the highly developed
government set up by David and Solomon. Because the outlook of the book comes from the
7th century and not the 13th century, Deuteronomy’s teaching does not center so much on
warning against the dangers ahead as it does on returning to covenant and learning to be
more faithful than their ancestors.
Look at Dt. 30:15-18. The author is looking back at a very special situation that has already
happened and he knows that God asked for obedience and Israel has many times disobeyed
and turned away. In other words, Deuteronomy is more of an explanation, in the mouth of
Moses, for Israel’s troubles- failed kings, idolatry, injustices, etc. It says has Israel could have
been if the people had taken the covenant seriously.
Look again at Dt. 6:4-9.
Written to Judah in the South:
Jeremiah- 627 BC- Declaration of certain judgment of God against Judah. But
promises to establish a new covenant with his people.
Zephaniah- 630 BC- The Day of the Lord will bring judgment upon the people
followed by a blessing to the people. God will restore the remnant. 3: 12-20.
Written to Judah in the South:
Habakkuk- 607 BC- troubled with God’s plan to use Babylon as his judgment tool,
Habakkuk praises God for gaining a better respect for him.
Written to Judah in the South:
Lamentations- 586 BC- series of five lament poems is a funeral dirge for a fallen city of
Jerusalem.
BABYLONIAN EXILE 587-539 BC
Here is where the religion of Judaism becomes a religion of the Book because in order to
maintain the religion, everything in their history had to be written down. It becomes a
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religion that is written instead of oral. It is during the exile that a majority of the Pentateuch
and history is compiled and organized, edited and produced. It is written in sequence. Those
who had put together the history of Deuteronomy (and Jeremiah), also write and assemble
Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings. It is often called the Deuteronomistic
History because these works are assembled in the spirit of the book of Deuteronomy. In one
sense, the whole history was organized to explain why the nation had failed and why their
punishment had been deserved. Notice how each of the heroes- Joshua, David, Samuel,
Solomon and Moses all give long speeches, from their own mouth. When linked together,
these narratives follow a theological vision of the relationship between God and man-
especially how man has failed. There are consequences for sin, forgiveness and mercy followed
by more sin.
Tzitzit, Tallit (in Hebrew)Tzitzit and Tallit
“They shall make themselves tzitzit on the corners of their garments throughout their
generations, and they shall place on the tzitzit of each corner a thread of techeilet.
And it shall be tzitzit for you, and you will see it, and you will remember all the
mitzvot of the L-RD and do them and not follow your heart or your eyes and run
after them.” -Numbers 15:38-40
The Torah commands us to wear tzitzit (fringes) at the corners of our garments as a reminder
of the mitzvot, kind of like the old technique of tying a string around your finger to remember
something.
To fulfill this mitzvah, adult men wear a four-cornered shawl called a tallit during morning
services, along with the tefillin. In some Orthodox congregations, only married men wear a
tallit; in others, both married and unmarried men wear one. In Conservative, Reform and
Reconstructionist synagogues, both men and women may wear a tallit, but men are
somewhat more likely than women to do so. A blessing is recited when you put on the tallit.
There is no particular religious significance to the tallit (shawl) itself, other than the fact that
it holds the tzitzit (fringes) on its corners. There are also very few religious requirements with
regard to the design of the tallit. The tallit must be long enough to be worn over the shoulders
(as a shawl), not just around the neck (as a scarf), to fulfill the requirement that the tzitzit be
on a "garment." Likewise, it should be draped over the shoulders like a shawl, not worn
around the neck like a scarf, though that is commonly done. A longer tallit is commonly
folded over the shoulders, to prevent the tzitzit from dragging on the ground. The tallit may
be made of any material, but must not be made of a combination of wool and linen, because
that combination is forbidden on any clothing. (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:11).
Tefillin (in Hebrew)Tefillin
Bind [the words that I command you today] as a sign on your arm, and they shall be
ornaments between your eyes. -Deuteronomy 6:8
The Shema also commands us to bind the words to our hands and between our eyes. We do
this by "laying tefillin," that is, by binding to our arms and foreheads leather pouches
containing scrolls of Torah passages.
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The word "tefillin" is usually translated "phylacteries.” "Phylacteries" isn't very enlightening
if you don't already know what tefillin are, and the word "phylacteries" means "amulet,"
suggesting that tefillin are some kind of protective charm, which they are not. The word
"tefillin," on the other hand, is etymologically related to the word "tefilah" (prayer).
Like the mezuzah, tefillin are meant to remind us of G-d's mitzvot. We bind them to our head
and our arm, committing both our intellect and our physical strength to the fulfillment of the
mitzvot. At weekday morning services, one case is tied to the arm, with the scrolls at the
biceps and leather straps extending down the arm to the hand, then another case is tied to the
head, with the case on the forehead and the straps hanging down over the shoulders.
Appropriate blessings are recited during this process. The tefillin are removed at the
conclusion of the morning services.
Like the scrolls in a mezuzah, the scrolls in tefillin must be hand-written in a special style of
writing. A good, valid set of tefillin can cost a few hundred dollars, but if properly cared for
they can last for a lifetime. Organization of the Jewish Religion
The whole religion is starting to change into the religion it was during Jesus’ time and even
today. It is at this time that the prophet Jeremiah tells the exiles that Yahweh is everywhere,
not only in Jerusalem. The exile produced the Bible. The Torah is written in response to exile.
It is an attempt to recapture and salvage the origins of the faith. Does this mean that no part
of the OT was written prior to this? No. However, this is the time that much was written and
edited using prior sources.
Christians in the first few centuries employed the same technique. In other words, the church
preceded the New Testament. Therefore, everything written is meant to explain the
experience, not necessarily the content of the faith. Their goggles of resurrection experiences
forced them to ask and answer questions that you and I take for granted. Is Jesus human and
divine? When did Jesus become divine? Some of the stories in the Gospels (and other early
writings) try to explain unanswered questions about Jesus. An example of this is the birth
narratives. Biblical scholars readily agree that the birth stories in Matthew and Luke are
meant to explain how Jesus is divine and human and both Gospels take very different angles.
Matthew’s is like the Bourne Identity and Luke’s is like Mary Poppins. Keep in mind that his
hometown did not understand him, so it is reasonable to say that they did not know the
infancy stories. Truths about Jesus put into the Gospels were not readily understood during
his lifetime.
Prophets during the Exile
Ezekiel- 592 BC- ministry to Jewish captives in Babylon after the fall of Jerusalem.
Says Judah is a rebellious house, the exile will be temporary, God will renew his
covenant, and reminds the people of their past unfaithfulness. Why will God restore
the people? Not out of compassion or because they deserve it, but rather to preserve
his holy name.
Daniel- 605 BC- Outlines God’s plan for the Gentile nations and portrays Israel during
a time of Gentile domination.
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Isaiah 40-55 written 550-530 BC
II Isaiah is a very pivotal text in the OT. It is exilic literature and has many differences in
style, language, thought and vocabulary from I Isaiah. An obvious example of this is that II
Isaiah mentions Cyrus of Persia (who lets the exiles back) as an anchor and hope to the
Israelites. Isaiah of Jerusalem (I Isaiah), writing in the 8th century would not know who
Cyrus was.
II Isaiah is a community which has experienced a major disaster from which it still suffers. It
is a disaster which has reduced the community to political impotence. The motif of
hopelessness is a running theme in II Isaiah. The prophet addresses the people with a message
of hope; he promises early deliverance, which will be fulfilled in the restoration of Judah and
Jerusalem.
The community is being prepared for a new exodus and a new march through the desert,
themes which reoccur so frequently and so obviously. II Isaiah 41: 17-20, 43: 1-7, 16-21.
There is no period of Israelite history known to us which offers a suitable background in
which such a community could exist except the period between the fall of Jerusalem to
Babylon in 587 BC and the surrender of Babylon to Cyrus of Persia in 539 AD. The
prophecies read intelligibly as addressed to the Babylonian community in exile.
Other Writings During the Exile
Genesis 1-11
Overall Message of Genesis 1-11: The stories in Genesis 1-11 have disturbed modern historians
for years. They no particular facts that can be located at a given time, no eyewitness reports
and no direct connection to the events are known. It is set in time that is considered before
human history. Its exact place is vague- somewhere to the East. The people are like symbols
and nothing is known of their lives. The events seem to take place in a world that you and I
would not recognize. The purpose of these chapters deals with the beginnings of the world
long before Israel’s time.
Creation Story #1 Genesis 1:1-2:4 “Seven Days”
1) creation is accomplished through God’s word
2) “good” ness of creation
3) Humans have dominion over the earth
4) Humans have dignity, power and purpose
5) Humans are in the image and likeness of God
Creation Story #2 “Adam and Eve”
1) Human need for companionship
2) Exalted place of humans
3) Human dignity has responsibility
Chapter 3 The Fall of Man
1) alienation from God and the garden
2) alienation from each other
3) alienation from creation and earth
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The Power of Myth in Ancient Times (and today).
The Bible is a collection of literary forms- and myth is one form used. Myths are true stories
that never happened. Myths are not falsehoods. A myth (sometimes called pre-history or
figurative language in your Bibles) is an imaginative and symbolic story about a reality that
is beyond our comprehension. They are the telling of the past to account for the present that
serves both a public and social function. Myths give people identity and meaning. Ancient
myths explain why there is order in nature, the change of seasons and fertility of land,
animals and humans. Most of all, in Genesis, is the fact that God is the one always in control.
Theologically, myths explain our relationship to God. The Genesis stories specifically attempt
to refute the idea that there is more than one God and that He is callous and uncaring. The
Israelites demythologized the myths and made them as personal as can be. As literature, they
are defined as myth in which every story seems to describe some sort of model, for bad or
good, of the proper relations of God to the world of humans.
While in exile, the Jews hear stories of creation and fashion their own stories. Keep in mind,
these stories must be read through the eyes of an ancient Israelite who knew the pagan
versions of the stories and their tensions between the divine and human. Also, Israel is in exile
and the existence of God seems to be doubted because Jerusalem is no longer. One difference:
Yahweh is a personal God who acts out of justice and mercy (as opposed to detachment) even
though humans act evil and his promises of deliverance must come true. The same themes
persist in all of them: 1) What is sin?, 2) Why do humans sin and die?, and 3) Why is God
eternal? While Genesis 1-11 is about the increase of sin, Genesis 12 and beyond is about the
taking away of that sin, a.k.a. Salvation History. For Christians, it comes to a climax with
Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ conquered what humans feared the most- death. He conquered this
by rising thus displaying to humanity that life is more powerful than death.
The first story of creation deals with all that exists. The author of this story is not claiming to
have been a witness to such events. It is necessary to note that the author probably lived
during a time that had a seven day week therefore the author was able to structure a story
around that. Among God’s creations, the Israelites viewed themselves as beloved of God- thus
were made in his image and likeness. The Babylonians, however, believed that humans were
made from defective matter and so, at their core, were not good. This story of creation is a
story about the reality of creation, not the historical event of creation. It deals with the
reality that everything exists.
The second story of creation is rooted in a reality that faces all of humanity- suffering. In this
story God is creator and friend. God walks and talks and appears to be unaware of the
creation he created. God is not pictured as all-knowing. Woman is created because God
“struggles” to find a suitable partner for man. The profound truth in this story is that sin
always results in suffering. Sin changes our nature and therefore, our ability to be in right
relationship with God and others.
Gilgamesh- A story of the search for immortality. This myth answers the questions of: 1) Why
are gods immortal and humans die?, 2) What is our fate?, 3) Why do we get punished by the
gods of life? Gilgamesh cuts down the sacred tree in the cedar forest of the gods but is given a
chance at immortality if he can find the plant of rejuvenation. At his deathbed, he finds the
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plant along the shore, but the serpent comes out of the water and eats it- hence- no eternal
life. This story also has a flood and one set of animals.
CONNECTION #1- Just as the writer of Genesis starts with, “In the beginning…” so too the
Gospel of John starts the same way. Just as it was God’s word in Genesis that brought the
world into existence, so too John has the “eternal” word (logos) breaking into human history
while at the same time being ever present. This is also known as pre-existence theology.
CONNECTION #2- Just as sin entered the world in a peaceful garden, so to it is taken away
in a garden. As God names Adam in Eden (the Garden of God), so to Jesus Christ names “I
am” in the Garden. In Genesis, the garden symbolizes a time and place of innocence where no
suffering takes place. Man and God and man and woman were in right relationship in Genesis.
This is the beginning of the “hour” that Jesus referred to in contrast to the “Day of the Lord”
in prophetic OT writing. The “hour” is the time when God will take away the sin that entered
through a garden- thus to put humans and God in right relationship.
In Genesis, eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge is synonymous with sin. In other words,
we become what we eat. Sin changes our original nature as created in Genesis. The Last
Supper is the sharp contrast to the tree of fruit. Because we are sinful, we can eat of the one
who tales away the sin of the world. The hope is that we will become what we eat- however,
we still have knowledge of good and evil.
CONNECTION #3- Isaiah 11:1-11. Yahweh’s personality in contrast to non-personal gods.
Yahweh is so personal and involved in his creation that his incarnation will shatter the
imbalance of creation that sin has allowed. His reign will be a paradise restored. Once again
God will make harmony out of chaos. Sin has made us jaded to how perfect creation was for
us. To prove that he is God, God will become human to show humans what it means to be
human. And his will let these sinful humans beat and kill him. This is also known as Divine
Revelation- to reveal, to show forth, to unveil, to give a deep knowledge about, to uncover
something previously hidden- and our response. Keep in mind that God is inherently different
from his creation, but unlike the pagan creation stories we are actually co-creators. How are
we co-creators with God?
RETURN AND RESTORATION
Cyrus of Persia conquers Babylon at the Battle of Opis on the Tigris River and issues an
Edict for all Jews to return to their land.
Ezra and Nehemiah- the only narrative accounts of the post-exilic period (after 539 BC).Up
until the 16th century, these two books were always read as one long narrative. The Hebrew
Bible still has them as one narrative.
These two books deal with the following phases of new life after
1) The rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem in 515 BC.
2) The reordering of Jewish life
Ezra- “Father of Judaism”
Cover the return of the exiles by Cyrus of Persia.
Some people did not want to go back to Jerusalem because they started new lives in Babylon
and started raising their families there. The also had businesses and a comfortable life. It is
just like Egypt minus the slavery.
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Some people did not want the temple rebuilt while others did. In the end, the Persian imperial
authorities allowed it to happen.
Prophets After the Exile to the Faithful Remnant
Haggai- 520 BC- urges people to put God first and finish the temple so they can once
again be a blessing.
Zechariah- 520 BC- same as Haggai, but he relates the finishing of the temple to the
coming of the Messiah through a series of visions.
Malachi- 420 BC- After 100 years back on their land, the Jews have turned cold and
Malachi rebukes them. They need to turn back to God with faithful hearts.
Isaiah 56-66- 450 BC
Another thing Ezra did was break up mixed marriages and force the people to marry only
Jews. However, this led to an idea of exclusivity of Jews as a “holy race”. Ezra believed the
Jews were in danger of being absorbed into other cultures. His believe was a reality. One of
the people excluded from marriage is the Samaritans. Samaritans are half-Jew and half-
Babylonian/Mesopotamian people who intermarry with Jews during the exile. In 515 BC the
Samaritans offered assistance in the rebuilding but were shunned. So, even though they may
be half Jew, they are forbidden from marrying full-blood Jews. Hence, Samaritan writings are
full of negative feelings towards Ezra while the Talmud (collections of oral history) sees Ezra
as a second Moses. This animosity continued up through the time of Jesus.
Jumping ahead- early Christianity had to deal with the same thing when faced with bringing
the Gospel to the Gentiles. Paul brought the Gospel to the Gentiles while Peter was reluctant.
The Letter to the Galatians is about this tenuous relationship. The Council of Jerusalem in 54
AD is a result of this tension. Also, the Gospel of Matthew has a similar situation. Matthew’s
community was Jewish Christians who know the Old Law and all of scripture. These people
still practice Jewish feasts and customs. Unfortunately, the Jews at temple do not accept
them because they follow Jesus. They are also not accepted by some Gentile-Christians
because they still go to the temple.
One must note- Ezra did not imply that the Jews were morally superior to anyone, but rather
ritually pure. But when ritually pure means not associated with Gentiles, tensions arise. If
Ezra is claiming Jews as a chosen race, holy people and ritually pure, that leads to more
exclusion rather than inclusion. Upon returning to the land, there was great emphasis on
ritual purity. Once again, it was not about race or ethnicity, but rather pure worship of
Yahweh. Therefore, a priestly class emerged in the society. This class is known as the
Sadducees whom Jesus has words with in a few hundred years.
One good thing- In Nehemiah 8 Ezra has a public reading of the Torah that was, as some
scholars say, drafted during the exile. After the reading, there was a public pledge and signing
of the law.
Ezra shaped Judaism into what it was at the time of Jesus and still continues up until this
day. The people of Jesus’ time had no association with Judaism as it appeared in the time of
Moses, David and Solomon. Their Judaism was shaped after the exile by Ezra and Nehemiah.
What Ezra formed in terms of strict adherence to the law most definitely continued up to the
time of Christ.
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I & II Maccabees
By 323 BC, Alexander the Great conquered the world and Seleucid is the name oft he Greek
dynasty that ruled in Syria following Alexander’s death. It comes from the name of Selecus,
one of his generals. Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s general, who ruled from Egypt, ruled right
after Alexander’s death. The word “Maccabee” derives from the Hebrew word for hammer
and was a nickname for Judas, a leader in the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid ruler,
Antiochus Epiphanes who outlawed Judaism (165-161 BC). So, from the time of Ptolemy in
323 BC until Antiochus Epiphanes in 165 BC, the Jews faced much interference in terms of
the hellinization (spread of Greek thought) of culture, politics and economy from Egypt. Some
Jews eagerly accepted it while others resisted hellinization. The term “Maccabean” came to
designate the period of Jewish History that witnesses the successful revolt against the
Seleucids many years after hellinization.
After the revolt, the descendants of the Maccabees assumed religious and later political
leadership of the Jewish community in Palestine. The ruled an independent Judah from 135-
67 BC until Pompey conquered Palestine for Rome.
Chanukah (spelled differently in some places) celebrates the re-dedication of the Temple by
the Hasmoneans in about 165 BC. This is how the Talmud describes its origins:
Eight days of Chanukah commence on the 25 of Kislev, and one may not eulogize or
fast on them. For when the Greeks entered the Temple they defiled all the oils in the
Temple, but when the Hasmoneans became strong and defeated them they searched,
and found only one curse of oil remaining with the High Priests seal, and there was
sufficient in it for only one day. A miracle occurred and they lit from it for eight days.
It a later year they fixed these days as a festival for praise and thanksgiving.
Although this festival is a another example of the Jews taking up arms and defeating an
enemy, nowadays this festival is associated with light conquering the darkness as noted in
Zechariah 4:6- “Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit, says the Lord of hosts.”
Jews today celebrate this feast in their homes with a menorah, or hannukiya, specifically for
Chanukah.
Hanukkah is a Jewish feast celebrating the purification and rededication of the Second
Temple (built by Ezra) during the Maccabean revolt. It was Judas Maccabee who mandated
this service because of the way Antiochus Epiphanes had treated it. Jewish historian
Josephus calls it the Feast of Lights because the rededication involved lighting the temple’s
menorah. The Talmud relates the story of how one day’s supply of oil lasted for the full eight
days even though it was meant for only one day. Hanukkah is a feast day because it is
remembering Jews taking up arms, defending their land and winning which allowed Judaism
as a religion to survive. Nowadays, Hanukkah is not so much military conquest as it is light
conquering the darkness.
Redeeming the Bible
By Pauline Viviano
Can Scripture be a source of unity rather than division?
I have cringed every time—during 45 years of studying and teaching Scripture in Catholic
universities and dioceses—I heard Scripture being quoted out of context and used in support of any
number of opposing positions. The Bible has been dragged into arguments to justify war and to argue
for pacifism, to support slavery and to oppose it, to keep women “in their place” and to insist on their
liberation, and most recently to support government programs subsidizing the poor and to eliminate
such programs. Is it possible to use the Bible sensibly or must it continue to be a weapon of division
in a community whose founder prayed that “they may all be one” (Jn 17:21)? To address this
question we must step back to consider what constitutes a sensible use of the Bible; to do that, we
must enter the murky and confusing world of biblical interpretation.
Even a precursory look at the history of biblical interpretation reveals a morass of complementary
and conflicting approaches to the biblical text. At the risk of oversimplifying, there are those methods
focused on discovering the literal sense of the text and those that delve beneath the surface of the text
to discover a spiritual sense, a meaning relevant to the people for whom the Bible is sacred text. The
literal or plain sense refers to what the text actually says as this can best be determined. The spiritual
sense refers to a “deeper” meaning of the text. Though at times there were as many as seven spiritual
senses, these eventually coalesced into three: the allegorical sense, which included what is now called
typology; the moral sense; and the anagogic sense.
The anagogic sense, which focuses on what the biblical text has to tell us about heaven, has not been
prominent in the history of interpretation, possibly because there is so little about the afterlife in the
Bible. The moral sense is alive and well. Preachers seeking to make the biblical text relevant to the
people in the pews often draw out the moral sense of the text to endorse certain attitudes and
behaviors. The allegorical/typological sense involves a search for hidden meanings. It enabled the
early church to connect the Old Testament and the New Testament, finding within the Old
Testament the foreshadowing of events and persons of the New Testament (typology); it enabled the
early church to “redeem” offensive and obscure texts by looking for meaning not in the “letter” of the
text but in its “spirit” (allegory).
Meaning Matters
In the long history of Christian interpretation of the Bible, most theologians were comfortable
accepting both literal and spiritual interpretations of the biblical text, even if an individual
theologian had a preference for one side or the other, but matters began to change with the
Reformation and later the Enlightenment. The Reformers, following in the steps of Martin Luther,
who had an aversion to allegorical interpretation, stressed the literal sense of the text, but it was a
“literal sense” determined in accordance with Protestant theology. Later theologians, influenced by
the Enlightenment, were also concerned with the literal sense, but it was the literal sense as it could
be determined from within the historical and literary contexts of the text under consideration. The
exaltation of reason over faith, the discoveries resulting from improved methods of archaeology,
advances in the studies of ancient languages and manuscripts, the increasing rigor of scientific
inquiry—all had a part to play in the emergence of the historical critical method, which is not one
method but a collection of methods that seek to interpret a text from within its historical, social and
literary contexts. Its concern is the literal sense of the text, but the literal sense as understood against
the backdrop of the age and author who produced the text.
The Catholic Church, in response to the Protestant Reformation, continued to endorse the multiple
senses of Scripture and insisted upon magisterial oversight with respect to issues of interpretation.
But even in the Catholic Church a concern for the literal sense began to dominate. St. Thomas
Aquinas already had given considerable weight to the literal sense, stating that “all the senses are
founded on one—the literal—from which alone can any argument be drawn, and not from those
intended in allegory” (Summa Theologiae I, 1, 10, ad. 1). Nearly seven centuries later in 1943, in the
encyclical “Divino Afflante Spiritu,” Pope Pius XII sided with Aquinas on the importance of the
literal sense in his exhortation: “Let the Catholic exegete undertake the task, of all those imposed on
him the greatest, that namely of discovering and expounding the genuine meaning of the sacred
books. In the performance of this task let the interpreters bear in mind that their foremost and
greatest endeavor should be to discern and define clearly that sense of the biblical words which is
called literal” (No. 23). The encouragement to Catholic biblical scholars to use historical critical
method to determine the literal sense of the text was confirmed by the “Dogmatic Constitution on
Divine Revelation” of the Second Vatican Council (No. 12). The spiritual sense of Scripture, though
of historic, theological and liturgical importance, had been set aside: “The allegorical interpretation of
Scripture so characteristic of patristic exegesis runs the risk of being something of an embarrassment
to people today” (“The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church,” 1993, No. 173).
Interpreting the Bible Today
In some ways the present situation with respect to the interpretation of biblical texts still seesaws
between those who prefer the literal sense and those who prefer the spiritual sense, but the situation is
more complicated and more polarized today. It is complicated in two ways: by the rise of
fundamentalism and by a more nuanced understanding of the role of the reader in the process of
interpretation. Fundamentalism arose as a response to historical critical method which called into
question the historicity of many of the biblical stories and also challenged some doctrines of the
Christian church. Fundamentalism makes claims to be a “literal” interpretation of the biblical text,
but it owes more to the ideology of the 19th century than to the biblical text itself. The literal sense
from a fundamentalist perspective becomes an insistence on the factual accuracy of the Bible, which
it takes to be inerrant in all its claims.
Historical critical biblical scholars insist that they are also concerned with a literal interpretation of
the biblical text, but they insist that the meaning of text can best be determined by understanding
that text from within its historical and literary context. If they focus on a text by Isaiah, for
example, they seek to understand what the author intended and how the audience of the time would
have heard Isaiah. They are also sensitive to whether the text is prose or poetry, whether it is history
or story or essay, whether the author is using metaphors and speaking figuratively. They recognize
that the biblical text contains historical, scientific and even theological errors, for it reflects the
knowledge of the people responsible for its production and transmission; the biblical text is from a
people who had a different world view and limited historical and scientific knowledge. It is difficult, if
not impossible, to reconcile these two different ways of understanding the literal sense of a text.
The second complication emerges from a more nuanced understanding of the role of the reader in the
process of interpretation. Concern with the spiritual sense of the biblical text arose because this
ancient text was believed to be relevant to believers who lived centuries later and for whom that text
was now considered sacred text. The gap between the ancient world of the text and the contemporary
world of its readers needed to be bridged, and a search for the spiritual sense of the text filled in that
gap. Today, instead of speaking of a “spiritual” sense, we recognize that readers bring to bear upon a
text under examination their own issues and concerns, their own worldview, and these have an
impact on even the most objectively guided search for meaning.
The emphasis on the role of the reader has led to the proliferation of new “isms” in the field of biblical
interpretation: liberation criticism, feminist criticism, post-colonialism, the new historicism. These
various approaches to the biblical text take into account the role of class, culture, ethnicity and race,
gender or politics in the formation of texts and in their interpretation. Many of the practitioners of
these “isms” employ historical critical or literary critical methods, but what makes them distinctive is
that the text is explicitly read through a particular lens that shapes the meaning “found” in a text. I
include here also readers who insist on the importance of a “faith hermeneutics” or theological
approach to the interpretation of the Bible, a position best represented by Pope Benedict XVI. This
approach privileges faith or theological doctrine as the lens through which to interpret the biblical
text. Though these interpretive stances are not the same as the spiritual interpretation of the patristic
period, they share with the patristic period a search for meaning that is relevant to the “people in the
pew.” The opposition here is between what the text meant (the historical critical meaning) and what
the text means (the concern of the people in the pew).
Two questions emerge from this historical summary: How do fundamentalists talk to historical
critical interpreters, and how do we negotiate between what the text meant and what the text means?
I doubt that fundamentalists and historical critical interpreters will ever agree, for their basic
presuppositions stand in opposition; but instead of arguing about whether the creation stories of
Genesis are scientific accounts or myths, can we agree that we are creatures dependent upon a Creator
and explore what that means? Instead of getting bogged down by debates regarding the historical
accuracy of the patriarchal narratives, of the Exodus with its plagues and the crossing of the Red Sea,
of the conquest and subsequent history of Israel, can we focus rather on what it means to be called, to
be saved, to be a covenanted people (Genesis through Kings)? Can we learn from the prophets the
importance of loyalty to God (Hosea, Jeremiah) and of living in justice (Amos, Isaiah, Micah)? Can
we learn from Israel how to pray in joy and sorrow, in need and in thanksgiving (Psalms), and how to
find God reflected in the world (Israel’s wisdom traditions)? Can we move beyond the simplistic
notions of suffering and sin as the author of Job did and as Jesus did in the New Testament? Instead
of being bogged down by “Did it happen this way?” can we explore, in the life, death and resurrection
of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the Gospels, what it means to be human? Can we agree that it
means to live in obedience to God and to “lose oneself” in the love of the other as Jesus did? Can we
explore what it means that we have been reconciled, that we have been be forgiven, that we have
access to God in Christ? Can we talk about what it means to say that “God is love” and what love
means and how we as a community of believers mediate God’s self-giving love to this world? Can we
explore what resurrection means and its implications for our lives as Christians? As a biblical scholar
I find the historical questions of great interest and of great importance, but in the interest of dialogue
can we agree to disagree on the contentious issues and focus on what unites us as believers who seek to
love God and love our neighbor?
This brings me to my second question: how do we negotiate between what the text meant and what
the text means? I find it problematic to draw a dichotomy between what a text meant and what it
means. If what a text means is not integrally connected to what a text meant, then we can say
anything we want about the meaning of any text. If this is the case, why read one text as opposed to
another? We must also recognize that not every text will have meaning for us today because our
world is too different. We need to recognize that the Bible speaks with many voices representing
various responses to changing historical situations. It says many things about who God is and what
God is about. There is no one image of God and no one response on God’s part in the Bible. The Bible
says many things about what it is to be human, and it is not always consistent in what it prescribes in
the laws and in its wisdom writing. It all too often reflects the limited understanding of its own time
and place. We live in a very different time and place. We need to enter into dialogue with these voices
of the past, but at the same time we need to take our experiences into account and bring that to bear
upon the biblical text as we address the issues of war, patriarchal systems, the economy, social roles,
etc. We hear the many voices in the Bible, but as believers our voices also need to be heard. We learn
from the Bible what it means to be the people of God, but as believers our experience is also of values
to today’s community of believers. We find in the Bible the revelation of God’s love expressed in the
Old Testament and most fully in the gift of his Son in the New, but God’s love is also expressed in our
world. It is expressed through us as we live in God’s love.
Pauline A. Viviano is an associate professor of theology at Loyola University Chicago. This article is part
of America’s series “The Living Word: Scripture in the Life of the Church,” co-sponsored by the American
Bible Society.