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1 Introduction to the Nervous System. Code: HMP 100/ UPC 103/ VNP 100. Course: Medical Physiology Level 1 MBChB/BDS/BPharm Lecture 2. Functional Organisation of the Nervous System Lecture Outline 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Learning outcomes 1.3 Areas of the Cerebral Hemispheres involved in Language Function 1.4 Neuronal Pathway for 1.4.1 Somatic Sensory 1.4.2 Somatic Motor 1.4.3 Pain Sensation 1.5 Summary 1.6 Activity 1.7 Further Reading 1.8 Sample Examination Questions 1.1 Introduction In the last lecture, we covered the basic anatomy of the nervous system. We saw that it is divided into many divisions and parts. Now in this lecture, we will cover some functional organisation of the nervous system. You know that the nervous system carries out many different functions unlike other physiological systems of our body. To do these many different functions, the nervous system has functional divisions involving different part of the nervous system. And this adds to the difficulty in studying how the nervous system works. In this lecture, we will cover the functional organization of 4 functions: language, sensory, motor, and pain. We will not cover them in details; this will be done in later lectures. Here we want to being to understand the functional organization of the nervous system. Learning which parts of the nervous system are involved in carrying out the different functions is important. This will help us predict the type of dysfunction a person will have when there is damage to a particular part of their nervous system. And if we know or observe the symptoms in the person, we can predict where in the nervous system the damage has occurred. 1.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: 1. State the function of the Nervous System 2. Name and show the location of the areas of the cerebral hemisphere involved in language function. 3. Describe with a diagram the somatic sensory system. 4. Describe with a diagram the somatic motor system. 5. Describe with a diagram the pain (nociceptive) system.

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Page 1: Introduction to the Nervous System. · Functional Localization of the Cortex. The drawing of the different views of the cerebral cortex and cerebellum shown in figure 1.3, nicely

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IntroductiontotheNervousSystem.Code:HMP100/UPC103/VNP100.Course:MedicalPhysiologyLevel1MBChB/BDS/BPharmLecture2.FunctionalOrganisationoftheNervousSystemLectureOutline1.1Introduction1.2Learningoutcomes1.3AreasoftheCerebralHemispheresinvolvedinLanguageFunction1.4NeuronalPathwayfor 1.4.1SomaticSensory 1.4.2SomaticMotor 1.4.3PainSensation1.5Summary1.6Activity1.7FurtherReading1.8SampleExaminationQuestions1.1IntroductionInthelastlecture,wecoveredthebasicanatomyofthenervoussystem.Wesawthatitisdividedintomanydivisionsandparts.Nowinthislecture,wewillcoversomefunctionalorganisationofthenervoussystem.Youknowthatthenervoussystemcarriesoutmanydifferentfunctionsunlikeotherphysiologicalsystemsofourbody.Todothesemanydifferentfunctions,thenervoussystemhasfunctionaldivisionsinvolvingdifferentpartofthenervoussystem.Andthisaddstothedifficultyinstudyinghowthenervoussystemworks.Inthislecture,wewillcoverthefunctionalorganizationof4functions:language,sensory,motor,andpain.Wewillnotcoverthemindetails;thiswillbedoneinlaterlectures.Herewewanttobeingtounderstandthefunctionalorganizationofthenervoussystem.Learningwhichpartsofthenervoussystemareinvolvedincarryingoutthedifferentfunctionsisimportant.Thiswillhelpuspredictthetypeofdysfunctionapersonwillhavewhenthereisdamagetoaparticularpartoftheirnervoussystem.Andifweknoworobservethesymptomsintheperson,wecanpredictwhereinthenervoussystemthedamagehas

occurred.

1.2LearningOutcomes Attheendofthislecture,youshouldbeableto: 1. StatethefunctionoftheNervousSystem2. Nameandshowthelocationoftheareasofthecerebralhemisphereinvolvedinlanguagefunction.

3. Describewithadiagramthesomaticsensorysystem.4. Describewithadiagramthesomaticmotorsystem.5. Describewithadiagramthepain(nociceptive)system.

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1.3AreasontheCerebralHemisphereinvolvedLanguageFunctionInrecentyears,techniquesandmethodshavebeendevelopedthatallowustostudytheactivityofbrainwhenitisinvolvedinaparticulartask.Withthesetechniques,weaskapersontodoaparticulartaskandseewhichareasofthecerebralhemispheresareactivewhenthattaskisbeingdone.Fromthesestudies,wecanconcludethattheseareasareinvolvedinthatfunction.Ofcourseitdoesnottellushowthesepartsofcerebralhemispheresarecarryingoutthatfunction.Figure1.1showstheresultsofastudyonbrainactivitywhenthepersonwasaskedtodo4differenttasks:(1)lookatwords,(2)listentowords,(3)speakwords,and(4)thinkofwords.Theimagingisofthelateralsurfaceoftheleftcerebralhemisphere.Theareasonthesurfaceshowingredandyellowcolorareareasthatbecameactivewhenthepersonwasdoingeachof

thedifferenttasks.

Figure1.1Imagingofthesurfaceoftheleftcerebralhemispherewhenapersonwasaskedto(1)lookatwords,(2)listentowords,(3)speakwords,and(4)thinkofwords.Theareasinred/yellowshowtheareaswhichbecameactiveforthedifferenttasks.Thefrontpartofthecerebralhemisphereistowardstheleft.Whenthepersonwasaskedtolookatwords(topleftimage),wecanseethattheiroccipitallobebecamemoreactivethanotherpartsofthebrain.Inlaterlectures,youwilllearnthatthispartofthesurfaceofthecerebralcortexwithotherpartsisinvolvedinproducingimagesfromthesignalsthatcomefromtheretinaofoureyes.Thisareaiscalledtheprimaryvisualcortex.Itisherethatthesignalsfromtheretinaarebeginningtobeprocessedtoproducevisualimages.

PositronEmissionTomography. Thetechniquecannottellyouhowthefunctionisbeing,e.g.,howishearingdonebythisarea;itonlytellsyouwhichareasofthebrainareinvolved.

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Now,whenthesubjectwasaskedtolistentowords(toprightimage),wecanseethatanotherareaofthecerebralcortexhasbecomeactive.Thisistheprimaryauditorycortexandislocatedonthesuperiortemporalgyrusofthetemporallobe,anditisherethattheprocessingofsignalscomingfromtheorganofCortilocatedininnerpartoftheearbeginsandwewill‘hear’sounds.Whenthesubjectwasaskedtospeakwords,anareaabovethelateralfissureinthefrontallobebecomesactive(lower,leftimage).ThisistheBroca’sarea,namedafterDr.PaulBroca,aneurologist,whodiscoveredthatpeoplewhohaddifficultyinspeakingwords,invariablyhaddamagetothisareaofthesurfaceofthecerebralcortex.However,thesamepeoplehadnodifficultyinunderstandingwhatwasbeingsaid;onlytheyhaddifficultyinspeaking.

DrPierrePaulBroca Dr.CarlWernicke (1824-1880) (1848-1905)Whenthesubjectwasaskedtothinkaboutwords,severalareasofthesubject’scerebralcortexbecomeactive(lowerrightimage).Noteinparticulartheareaintheparietalcortex.ThisiscalledtheWernicke’sareaafter,offcourse,Dr.Wernicke,aneurologist,whofoundthatpeoplewhohaddifficultyinunderstandinglanguagehaddamagetothisarea.However,theycouldspeakfluentlythoughnotrelatedtowhatwasbeingasked!

Canyouexplainhowapersonwhohasdifficultyinunderstandingthespokenwordcanstilltalkandwritefluentlybutcannotspecificallyprovideanswerstoyourquestion?

Sofromstudieslikethis,wenowknowthatdifferentareasofthebrainareinvolvedindifferentfunctionsofthenervoussystem,andalsothatmanybrainfunctionsinvolveseveraldifferentpartsofthebrain.Soinformationisbeingsentbetweendifferentareasofthebrainproducingnetworksforprocessingthesignalsandproducingabehavioraloutput.Learningtheneuronalcircuitsaddstotheeffortwehavetomaketounderstandhowyourbrainworks.Infigure1.2,theareasofthecerebralhemispheresinvolvedinlanguagefunctionareshown.Thesetwoareasforlanguagefunctioninover80%ofadultpersonsarefoundonlyintheleftcerebralhemisphere,nottheright.Hence,thelefthemisphereisoftenreferredtoasthedominanthemisphere,meaningthatitisthedominanthemisphereforlanguagefunction,notthatthelefthemisphere“dominate”therighthemisphere.In25%orsoofleft-handedpersons,thelanguagehemisphereistherightone.

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Figure1.2Theareasofthecerebralcortexthatareinvolvedinlanguagefunction.TheareainredlocatedintheparietalcortexisalsoknownastheWernicke’sarea.TheareainbluelocatedinthefrontallobeisalsocalledBroca’sarea.Theexampleofthelanguagefunctionofthenervoussystemisourfirstintroductiontotheneuronalorganisationorneuronalcircuitrythatareinvolvedincarryingoutthedifferentfunctionsofthenervoussystem.

FunctionalLocalizationoftheCortex.Thedrawingofthedifferentviewsofthecerebralcortexandcerebellumshowninfigure1.3,nicelysummarizethelocationofthedifferentfunctions.

Clinicalnote:Dysarthriaisaspeechdisordercausedbydisturbanceofmuscularcontrol.Thepersonhasnodifficultyinunderstandingandbuthasdifficultyinarticulatinghisorherwords.Dysphasiaisimpairmentoflanguagefunctionwhichcaneitherbeinspeakingmeaningfully(expressive)orunderstandinginwhatisbeingsaid(receptive).

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Figure1.3.Theareasofthecerebralcortexthatareinvolvedindifferentfunctions.Source:www.dana.orgFinally,beforeweleavetheissueofthefunctionallocalizationofbrainfunction,wemustnotforgetthattherearesubcorticalstructures,thatis,neuronalstructureswithineachcerebralhemispheres.Therearealsoneuronalstructureswithinthecerebellum,whicharecalledthedeepnuclei.Betweenthecortexandsubcorticalstructures,thereareneuronalconnectionsformingneuralnetworksthatcarrymanyofthewhatwecallthehigherbrainfunctions.Infigure1.4,asagittalMRIimageofthebrainisshown.Markedindifferentcoloursarethesubcorticalstructureandthecorticalareathattogethermakeuptherewardcircuitofthebrain.Thiscircuitistheonethatmakesusseekoutthingsthatmakeus‘feel’good,thatistheactivitywedohasarewardingfeeling.Thisisalsothecircuitthatiscurrentlyconsideredtheonethatischangedwhenapersontakesdrugsofabuse,e.g.,cocaine,amphetaminederivatives(MDMA,ecstasy),khat,alcohol,syntheticcathinones,amongothers.

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Figure1.4.Thecorticalandsubcorticalrewardnetwork.(Sara B Taylor, Candace R Lewis and M Foster Olive. The neurocircuitry of illicit psychostimulant addiction: acute and chronic effects in humans. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation 2013:4 29–43) 1.4NeuronalPathwayforSomaticSensory,SomaticMotorandPainSensation.1.4.1SensorySystemHowdowe“know”thatwehavetouchedanobject,orwhensomeoneorsomethingtouchesus?Howdoweknowwhichpartofourbodytouchedtheobjectorwhereonourbodysurfaceweweretouched?Thereisaneuronalsystemcalledthesomaticsensorysystemthatfunctionstogiveusthe‘ability’ofknowingthatastimulushasbeenappliedtoourskin,andwhattypeofstimulusitis,e.g.,lighttouch,pressure,tickle,etc,andwhereonthebody.Infigure1.5,thepathwaythenervesignaltravelsfromthereceptorinthefingertothebrainisshown.Whenwetouchanobjectwithourfingertip,receptorsinthefingertipareactivated.Theyproduceanervesignal.Inlaterlectures,wewilllearnhowthenervesignalisproduced.Butfornow,letustakeitthatasignalhasbeenproduced.Thissignaltravelsalongthenervethatentersthespinalcordonitsdorsalside.(Rememberthatallsensoryinputtothespinalcordenterthroughthespinaldorsalroots).Fromherethesignaltravelsupthespinalcordinnervesthatformthedorsalcolumnsofthespinalcordwhitematter.Onreachingthetopof

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thespinalcord,thenervescarryingthesignalmakeconnectionswithothernervecellslocatedinthedorsalcolumnnuclei.

Figure1.5.Theneuronalpathwayofthesensorysystem.Inthisfigure,spinalcordsectionsareshowninthehorizontalplane,andthecerebralcortexinacoronalsection.Noticethenervefibersfromthedorsalcolumnnucleicrossthespinalmidlineandgoupintothebrainontheoppositeside.Nowsomethingunusualhappensbutwhich,asyouwilllearn,isquitecommoninthenervoussystem.ThenervecellsofthedorsalcolumnnucleiextendnervesthatcrossthemidlineoftheCNSandcontinueuptothethalamuscreatinganervepathwaycalledthemediallemniscus.Thesignalhascrossedfromonesideofthebodytotheother.Fromthethalamus,thesignalstravelalongthethalamicnervestothenervecellsinthecortexofthecerebralhemisphere,whichiscalledtheprimarysensorycortex.

Thewordnucleus(plural:nuclei)isusedtodescribedifferentstructures.ItisusedtodescribeastructureinthecellthatcontainstheDNA.Inneuroanatomy,thewordisusedtodescribeacollectionofnervecells.

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Asyoucanseeinfigure1.4,theprimarysensorycortexislocatedonthegyrusjustposteriortothecentralsulcus.Itisthisareathatinformsyouthatyouhavetouchedanobjectwithyourfingertip.Youcanalso“see”withyoursensorysystem.Saythatwehavecoinsandkeysinourpocket

andwewanttotakeoutsomecoins.Wecanputourhandinourpocketandfeeltheobjects

andwithouthavingtolookatthemwithoureyes,wewilltakeoutthecoinsandleavethekeys.Byfeelingtheobjects,wecreateanimageofthembytouch.

Closeyoureyesandhaveafriendorcolleague,placeapenonyourfingertips.Canyoutellitispen?Nowrollyourfingersaroundthepen.Canyounowtellthatitisapen?

Showonthepictureoftheleftcerebralhemisphere,thelocationoftheprimarysensorycortex.

Whatthefunctionalimportanceofnervecrossingoverfromonesideofthebodytotheotherisnotknown.Whydon’tthenervefibersgoupthesamesideofthenervoussystem?

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Figure1.6.Thisfigureshowstheareaofthecerebralcortexthatreceivesthesensoryinputfromthesurfaceofyourbody.Itisposteriortothecentralsulcus.Sonowwehavelearntthepartsofournervoussystemandthenervepathwaysthatcarryoutthefunctionofsensation.Torecap,thepathwayinvolves3nervecells:First,thenerveconnectionfromtheskintothespinalcordbynervecellslocatedinthedorsalrootganglia,secondconnectionbythenervecellsofthedorsalcolumnnucleitothethalamus,andthird,bythenervecellsofthethalamustonervescellsintheprimarysensorycortex.Byknowingthisneuralpathway,wealsolearntsomethingamazing.Thesignalsfromonesideofourbodyaresenttotheoppositecerebralhemisphere.Sosensationsignalscomingfromtherightsideofthebodyaresenttotheleftcerebralhemisphereandviceversa.1.4.2SomaticMotorSystemThenextnervoussystemfunctionthatwewilllookatisourabilitytocarryoutmovementwhetheritisvoluntaryornot.Therangeandvarietyofmovementthatweareabletodoisverylarge.Forexample,considerthecomplexityofmovementrequiredforplayingaguitarordribblingafootballwithourfoot.Movementiseverythingtous,withoutitwecandonothing.Therearemanypartsofthenervoussystemandpathwaysinvolvedinmovementfunction.Inthissection,wewillonlydiscussonepathwayoutofthefivethatareinvolvedinmotorfunction.Inlaterlectures,wewilllookinmoredetailsatthepartsandpathwaysofournervoussystemthatprovideuswiththeabilityofmovement.Unlikethesomaticsensorysystem,wewillstartfromthecortexofthecerebralhemisphereandworkourwaydowntothemuscles.Lookingbackatfigure1.6,wecanseethatthereisanareajustinfrontofthecentralsulcusofthecerebralhemisphere,whichiscalledmotorcortex.Nervecellsinthisareasendoutnervefibersthattravelthroughthecerebralhemispheresandenterthebrainstem.Thesenervesformastructureinsidethecerebralhemispherescalledtheinternalcapsule.

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Figure1.7.Showsoneofthefivemotorpathway.Itstartsfromanareaofthecortexofthecerebralhemispherejustinfrontofthecentralsulcusandgoesallthewaytothemuscles(corticospinaltract).Whenthenervesenterthebrainstem,thenervepathwayformediscalledthebasispedunli.Itisontheventralpartofthebrainstem.Whenthenervesarriveatthemedulla,theyformastructurecalledthepyramidsandstarttocrossthemidlineoftheCNS.Thiscrossingiscalledthepyramidaldecussation.Inthespinalcord,thesenervestraveldownthewhitematterofthespinalcordmakingthelateralcorticospinaltract.Allalongthespinalcord,thenervesleavethelateralcorticospinaltractandenterthespinalcordgraymatter.Inthespinalcord

Nomenclature:Thereisamethodfornamingnervefibertracts.Thefirstpartofthewordgivesthelocationofthenervecellsandthesecondparttheterminationpointofthenervefibers.Sothecorticospinaltracthasnervecellsinthecerebralcortex(cortico-)andthenervefibersthatendinthespinalcord(-spinal).Ifthenervecellbodieswereinthespinalcordandthenervefibresendedinthecortexthenthenervefibertractwouldbecalledthespinocortical.

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graymatter,thenervesmakeaconnectionwithnervecells,calledthealphamotorneurons,whichsendnervesfibersoutfromtheventralrootofthethespinalcord.Thesemotornervefiberstravelthroughoutthebodyandmakeconnectionwithstriatedmusclecells.

Sowhenwewanttomakeamovement,weproducesignalsinthenervecellsoftheprimarymotorcortexandthesearesentalongnervepathwaystothemusclestomakethemcontract.Andtoremindourselves,thisisnottheonlypathwayinvolvedinourabilitytocarryoutmovement.Thereare4otherpathwaysandwewilldiscusstheseinthelecturesonlecturesonthemotorsystem.1.4.3PainPathwaysFinally,anoverviewofaspecialsensorysystemthatservestoprotectourbodyfromstimulusthatcancauseustissueinjury.Thisiscalledthepainornociceptivepathway.Notethatpainissubjectivefeelingproducedbyourbrain.Nociception,fromtheLatin,nicer,‘toharmorhurt’,istheprocessingofharmfulstimuli.Nociceptionmaynotresultinpain.Forexample,whenweneedtohaveasurgicalprocedurewearegivenananestheticchemicalthatblockspainnervesignalsreachingourbrain.Sothoughourpainreceptorsareproducingsignals,thesedonotreachourbrainsowedonotfeelthesensationofpain.Sothoughtthereisnociceptiveactivity,thereisnopain.Wehavereceptorsonourskinthatrespondonlytostrongstimulusorwhentheskinhasbeendamaged.Thesereceptorsaredifferentfromthereceptorsforthesomaticsensorysystem;theydonotreacttolighttouchbutif,forexample,astrongpressureorhighorverylowtemperatureisapplied,thisissensedasapotentialnociceptivestimulusandtheappropriateprotectiveactiontakentopreventinjury.Wearefamiliarwiththereactionweproducewhenweatouchhotobject;wequicklyremoveourhand.Thisiscalledthewithdrawalreflexandservestomoveourhandrapidlyawayfromthenociceptivestimulustopreventtheskinonourhandbeingburnt.Infigure1.8,wecanseethatthenervefibersfromthereceptorsenterthroughthedorsalsideofthespinalcord.(Rememberallsignalscomingintothespinalcordcomethroughthespinaldorsalside.)Thesenervefibersmakeconnectionswithnervecellsinthedorsalhornofspinalcordgraymatter.Fromherethenervefibersfromthesenervecellsofthedorsalhornspinal

Clinicalnote:Thecorticospinaltractisclinicallyimportant,asitistheonlypathwaythroughwhichyoucancarryoutvoluntarymovement.Damagetothisfibertractresultsinparalysis,whichislossofvoluntarycontroloftheskeletalmuscles.Whenapersonhasastrokeinonecerebralhemisphere,thekeyclinicalfeatureislossofvoluntarymotorcontrolontheoppositesideofthebody.

Theinnervationofthesmoothandcardiacmusclesandtheirstateofcontractionorrelaxationiscontrolledbytheautonomicnervoussystem.

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graymattermoveupthespinalcordforafewsegmentsbeforecrossingtheCNSmidlinetotheotherside.

Figure1.8.Cartoonshowingthepathwayforthepainsignalsfromthefoot.Notetheinthespinalcord,thesecondordernervecellscrosstheCNSmidlineandtravelupthespinalcordintheoppositeside.Thenervefibersnowclimbupthespinalcordallthewaytothecerebralhemispheresendingonthenervecellsofthethalamus.Thepathwayiscalledthespinothalamicpathway.Thenervecellsofthethalamussendnervefiberstotheprimarysensorycortex(providinglocationofthestimuli),thecingulategyrus(providingemotionalcontent)andinsularcortex(producingbehaviorassociatedwithpain).BothinthespinalcordandcerebralcortexthepainfulinformationissenttothemotorpartoftheCNSsowecanproducequickmotorresponseandavoidbeinginjured.1.5SummarySointhislecturewehavelookedatthepartsofthenervoussystemthatareinvolvedinsomeofthedifferentfunctionsofthenervoussystem.Itisimportantthatweknowthesepathwayssoifweseeapersonshowsdifficultyinsensing,movementorpainresponse,wecanworkwherethedamagehastakenplaceinthenervoussystem.Inotherlecturesonthenervoussystem,wewilllearnabouttheneuronalcircuits(pathways)thatareinvolvedinthefunctionofvision,audition,olfaction,gustation,memoryandlearning,andemotionandmotivationaswellasoursleep/wakecycle.

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1.6Activities1.7FurtherReading1.8SampleExaminationQuestionsMultipleChoiceQuestions(MCQs).Selectthebestonecorrectanswer.1) Theareaofthecerebralhemispherethatisinvolvedinunderstandingspeechislocatedon

thea) Frontallobeb) Parietallobec) Temporallobed) Occipitallobee) Insularlobe

2) Theareaofthecerebralhemispherethatisinvolvedinproducingspeechislocatedonthe

a) Frontallobeb) Parietallobec) Temporallobed) Occipitallobee) Insularlobe

3) Whichareaofthecerebralcortexislikelytobemostactivewhenyouarelookingat

words?a) Primarymotorcortexb) Primarysensorycortexc) Primaryauditoryaread) Primaryvisualcortexe) OrganofCorti

4) Ifapersonisright-handed,whatistheprobabilitythatishisorherlefthemisphere

controlsthelanguagefunction?a) >80%b) 60-80%c) 40-60%d) 20-40%e) <20%

5) Theprimarysensorycortexislocated

a) Anteriortothecentralsulcusb) Posteriortothecentralsulcusc) Dorsaltothecentralsulcusd) Ventraltothecentralsulcuse) Noneoftheabove

6) Atwhichlevelofthenervoussystemdothenervesignalinthesomaticsensorysystem

comingfromtherightsideofthebodycrossovertotheleftsideofthenervoussystem?a) Spinalcordlevelb) Dorsalcolumnslevelc) Dorsalcolumnnucleilevel

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d) Thalamiclevele) Thereisnocrossingover

7) Thenervesignalscomingfromtheprimarymotorcortexwillcrossthenervoussystem

midlineatwhichlevel?a) Cerebralcortexlevelb) Diencephalonlevelc) Ponsleveld) Medullalevele) Spinallevel

ShortAnswerQuestions(SAQs).Theanswertothequestionrequires5keypoints.1) Forthefollowingstatements,fillintheblanks:

a) Thenervecellsonwhichthenerveendingsofthelateralcorticospinaltractmakesynapticconnectionsarecalled_____________________________.

b) Thecrossingofthelateralcorticospinaltractasthenervefibersdescendfromthe

primarymotorcortexiscalled_____________________________.

c) Thenervepathwaysthatcarrynociceptiveinformationiscallthe______________________.

d) Damagetothe_______________________areaofsurfacecerebralhemispherewouldmakeitdifficultytounderstandwhatisbeingsaid.

e) Damagetothe_______________________areaofsurfacecerebralhemispherewouldmakeit

difficultytoproducemeaningfulspeech.2) Givesomeexamplesoftheusefulnessofknowingthefunctionalorganizationofthe

nervoussystem.3) Thebrainimagingmethodofpositronemissiontomographyisusefulinlearningwhat

aboutthebrain.4) Drawalabelleddiagramofthesomaticsensorysystem.5) Drawalabelleddiagramofthesomaticmotorsystem.6) Drawalabelleddiagramofthenociceptivepathway.7) Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetermsnociceptionandpain?


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Cortex -R4 and Cortex-R4F - Microsoft Azuredocs-api-peg.northeurope.cloudapp.azure.com/assets/ddi0363/g/DDI… · This book is for Cortex-R4 and Cortex-R4F processors. Note • The