INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH HANDOUT:STEP 1: How to ask a question about your subject and turn them in to measurable, testable propositions. (OPERATIONALIZING). Begin with a question and a theory- (explains and organizes lots of observations and predictions of outcomes). What are you interested in studying? Eg- how are divorce and academic achievement related? STEP 2: Testable Predictions aka Hypothesis testing. Hypothesis- Best guess of what you think is most likely to happen.STEP 3: Test Hypothesis Experimental or Descriptive. Clear and common language to report conclusions- (Conference/ Journal) Testing with a replicable experiment- CONSISTENT( Results are same even if environment/ subjects change.DESCRIPTIVE- DESCRIBE/ OBSERVE WHAT IS HAPPENING. DOESNT ESTABLISH CAUSALITY.1. CASE STUDIES: An in-depth look into an individual person/ small group. Often used to describe something ATYPICAL- Eg- Dissociative Identity Disorder- rare in general population. CON: Misleading/ Cant be replicated/ Risk over-generalizing. PRO: They help us frame questions for more extensive/ generalizable studies.2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:Observe and record without interference- eg- parenting behavior- go to mall and observe couples. Researchers watch behavior in a natural environment. Example - (Chimps in jungle/ kids in classroom/ drunks at soccer game). No manipulation to control situation. LAB OBSERVATION: Controlled setting and observe. Pro: Good at DESCRIBING BEHAVIOUR but poor at Explaining it. Controlled environments. Con: Social desirability. 3. SURVEYS/ INTERVIEWS- Collect data about opinions using self -report tools. Example: Alfred Kinsey-Survey Book Sexual Behaviour in Human Male & Female.Word Choices can influence results. Eg- Ban/ Censor v/s Limit; or not allow/ Asking do you believe in aliens v/s do you think there is intelligent life in the universe? Asking the right representatives is important. Sample characteristics important to match (age/sex). Sampling Bias- If I ask students what they think of about Arms Control-NOT REPRESENTATIVE. Precaution- Random Sampling All members of target group have an equal chance of being selected. CORRELATION STUDIES: Correlation predicts possibility of cause-and-effect relationships does not prove Causation. Measures strength and direction of relationship between 2 variables (Coefficient range)- -1.00 to +1.00. Closer to -/+ 1.00= stronger. Which is stronger -.89 or +.43?If +ve then both variables move in same direction. If ve both variables in opposite direction, dont move in same direction.

Eg +ve

-ve

Why use correlation:1. If its difficult to assign, unethical to assign to group. Eg- gender/ abuse-The experience of child abuse, how men experience anxiety.

RESEARCH DESIGNS:VARIABLE- Anything that can be measured, rated, scored and vary from person to person (height, weight, GPA, IQ)

IV- Variable that is manipulated and observe cause and effect relationshipDV- Variable that changes/ is affected by IV Eg- IV-Number of hours worked/ DV- Increase in GPA

Confounding Variables- Variables other than IV that elicit change/ skew results-TYPES: SOCIAL DESIRABILITY/ EXPERIMENTER BIAS- PREVENTION: DOUBLE BLIND/ PLACEBO GROUPExperimental Group- Manipulation/ Control- No manipulation

IV- Presence of musicDV- Test score

Precaution/ Control conditions.1. Random assigning to group- experimental or control- prevent sample bias