Research MethodsIntroduction to PsychologyPSY-101Instructor: Miss samia khanum

Scientific & non scientific approaches to knowledge

Non Scientific ScientificGeneral Approach

Intuitive Empirical

Attitude Uncritical, accepting

Critical, Skeptical

Observation Casual, uncontrolled

Systematic, controlled

Reporting Biased, Subjective

Unbiased, Objective

Scientific & non scientific approaches to knowledge

Non Scientific

Scientific

concepts Ambiguous, with surplus meaning

Clear definitions, operational specificity

instruments Inaccurate, imprecise

Accurate, precise

measurements Not valid or reliable

Valid and reliable

hypotheses Un testable testable

Methods of Psychology To understand the influence of society on

individual and individual’s influence on society, we have to understand the research methods

Research methods are important source to understand the nature of emotions, cognitions and human behavior by empirical evidences

Methods of Psychology

e.g. causes of poverty, unemployment, how it effects the quality of people’s lives and how the individual behavior, emotions and feelings can be motivated to overcome the related problems

Methods of Psychology Understanding of research methods also help

to avoid the some tempting logical traps e.g. lack of financial sources is the only cause of illiteracy in Pakistan

Research Methods Some Important Research Methods:

1. Observation2. Experimental Method3. Correlation Method4. Survey Method5. Case Study Method 6. Interview

1. Observation One basic technique to

study social behavior is systematic observation-Carefully observing behavior as it occurs

“A method of research in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded is called systematic observation”

Cont. Observation can be

conducted in informal way but in social psychology systematic observation is widely used

e.g. in order to understand the causes of mass failure of students in universities, systematic observation of students can be conducted

Naturalistic Observation:- Observing behavior in natural setting is called naturalistic observation e.g. observing students attitudes towards studies in the universities

Observation can be Direct( in which observer/researcher directly observer the phenomena or targeted behavior) or Indirect (in which information can be gathered by indirect resources e.g. by recording the behavior etc

Participant Observation:- A method of observation in which observer/researcher participate in the natural environment and observe the phenomena while living in the same natural environment-through this method researcher can control the effects of awareness to be observed

Non-Participant Observation:- In this method, researcher observe the phenomena as being an outsider of that natural environment

Cont. Merits:- i. Direct sourcesii. Based on natural environmentiii. Simple Method Demerits:- i. Observer Effectii. Observer Bias

2. Correlational Method The term correlation refers to a tendency for

one event to change as the other changes

A method of research in which a scientist systematically observes two or more variables to determine whether changes in one are accompanied by the changes in other.

Cont. e.g. Free education will increase the rate of

illiteracy Social psychologists refers to such

changeable aspects of the natural world as variables because they can take different values

The existence of correlation is very useful from scientific point of view because when a correlation exist, it is possible to predict one variable from information about one or more other variables

Cont. The ability to make such prediction is one of

the important goal of all branches of science Such type of prediction are very supportive

for social psychology as some of the future dangerous behaviors/attitudes which can be predicted by correlated variables will be controlled or managed before time.

Cont. The stronger the correlation between the

variables in phenomena, the more accurate the prediction

Correlation can range from zero to -1 or + 1 , the greater the departure from zero, the stronger the correlation

Types of Correlation Positive Correlation:-The increase in one

variable causes the increase in other variable called positive correlation

Perfect Positive Correlation:- When the correlation falls at +1, it called perfect positive correlation

Negative Correlation:- The increase in one variable causes the decrease in other variable called negative correlation

Cont. Perfect Negative Correlation:- When the

correlation falls at -1, it called perfect negative correlation

In this approach, social psychologists attempt to determine whether and to what extent different variables are related to each other

This method involves making careful observations of each variable and then performing appropriate statistical tests to determine whether and to what degree the variables correlated

Cont. Merits:- i. Predict future behaviorii. Find the cause and effect relationship Demerits:- i. Can misguide about the relationship between

two variablesii. Excessive rely on predicted behavior

3. Experimental Method Correlation method is very useful in making

accurate prediction but it is less useful in attaining the goal of “why” question

The “why” question leads to the phenomena of explanation which is very necessary in the field of social psychology

To answer the why, social psychologists use another research method that is called Experimental Method

Cont. In a formal experiment , the relationship between

two or more variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.

“A method of research in which one or more factors are systematically changed to determine whether such variations affect one or more other factors”

Cont. It is a scientific attempt to

see cause and effect relationship

Experimentations involves the following strategy: one variable is changed systematically, and the effects of this changed on one or more other variables are carefully measured

Cont. Experimental

Manipulation: Experimental manipulation is the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation.

The process begins with the development of one or more hypothesis to test.

Cont. Experimental research requires the responses of at

least two groups be compared with each other. Experimental Group A group receiving a treatment (the manipulation

implemented by the experimenter) in an experiment. Control Group A group that receives no treatment in an experiment. The variable involved in a particular experiment may

be classified as independent and dependent.

Cont. Variable: any thing which can changes its value

called variable Independent Variables: The variable that is

manipulated by an experimenter which is often linked to causes.

Dependant Variables: The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation, which is often linked to effects.

Cont.Control: Another important characteristic of the

experimenter method is control. it means that only independent variable be allowed to change. Factor other than I.V ,which might affect the dependent variable, must be held constant.

In an experiment we must control conditions , which would give misleading results.

Cont.Random Assignment to condition: To make the experiment a valid test of the

hypothesis , the researcher need to add a final step to the design properly assigning participants to receive a particular treatment.

The solution is random assignment to conditions. A procedure in which participants are assigned to

different experimental groups or “ conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone is called random assignment to condition.

Cont. Extraneous Variables: There are some variables

which can also effect the results of the experiment but experimenter does not want them to effect the dependent variables e.g. in the above mentioned example lack of coeducation institution in some particular region can not create a change in the people attitude even after taking effects from media or due to lack of financial sources people can not go for studies in coeducation, these two factors can work as extraneous variables unless they are controlled by the experimenter in both groups

Cont. Merits:- The experimental method has the following

advantages: Very useful to infer the cause and effect

relationship With the help of this method psychologists

gain better understanding of behavior by exerting control over stimuli.

Cont. Demerits:- i. Expensive Methodii. A serious limitation: we can not easily

manipulate mobs or large groups of people that might lead to mental illness

iii. Artificial Environmentiv. Humans react differently when they know

they are participating in an experiment

Cont.iv. Need highly expert and skilled experimenterv. Experimenter Biasvi. May involve ethical concernsvii. Might not be able to apply to outside the

laboratory settings.

Survey Method A method of research in which

large numbers of persons answer questions about their attitudes or behavior

A method in which information are gathered from a large number of people either through written questionnaires or through interviews.

A sample of people chosen to represent some larger group of interest (population)

Cont. In survey Method

information from people can be taken by following methods:

Written questionnaire Recording Telephonic survey Face to Face/Direct

Interview

Cont. Questionnaire: A list of statements either in

form of question or simple statement which are the direct source of taking information about some particular phenomena

Types of Questionnaire:i. Open-Ended Questionnaireii. Fixed-Ended Questionnaire

Cont. Merits:i. Information from a large group of people in

short periodii. Can be less expensive in some cases Demerits:i. Non-serious attitudes of peopleii. Can be expensive in some cases

The Case Study Method An in-depth study of an

individual in order to understand that individual better and to make inferences about people in general.

Every human being is unique; each of us possess a distinctive combination of traits, abilities; and characteristics.

The Case Study method Among the oldest research methods. A Research method that focuses on the life history,

attitudes, behavior, and emotions of a single individual or organizations, or group of people.

It is possible to learn anything about human behavior from detailed study of one individual or perhaps a few person.

Information taken from a case study is then used by the researchers to formulate principles, or to reach at conclusions that may be applied to large number.

Cont. When the behavior involved is very unusual,

the case study method can be quite revealing. Researcher asks people what they have done

in past ,rather than observing the behaviors of interest.

Cont.Advantages: In depth, detailed knowledge Individuals can give such fruitful knowledge, which leads to

general truths.Disadvantages: Unrepresentative information, common source of mistaken

judgment. If persons are unique, we cant generalize the results. There is repeated contact with the individual, being studied,

so researcher's bias may be there( lose scientific objectivity)

Interview Method An interview is a conservation between twi or more

people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.

Types of Interviewi. Structuredii. Unstructurediii. Semi structured

Interviews Structured Interview Has a formalized , limited set of questions which are

asked during interview. Semi Structured Interview Flexible ,allowing new questions to be brought up

during the interview as a result of what the interviewee says.

Unstructured Interview Questions can be changed or adapted to meet the

respondents intelligence , understanding or beliefs.

Questions Open ended Questions is designed to encourage a full, meaningful

answer using the subjects own knowledge and feelings. e.g Tell me about your self?

Close ended Questions Encourages a short or single word answer. e.g Do you get on well with your teacher? Yes No

Cont.Advantages: A great deal of information can be obtained in a

relatively short period of time.Disadvantages: Subjects are sometimes not willing to express

themselves. they may be suspicious or uncooperative.

Interpretations could not be reliable when there is a factor of subjectivity and personal liking,disliking.