Introduction to NanoscaleScience and Technology

NANOSTRUCTURE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Series Editor: David J. Lockwood‚ FRSCNational Research Council of CanadaOttawa‚ Ontario‚ Canada

Current volumes in this series:

ALTERNATIVE LITHOGRAPHY: UNLEASHING THE POTENTIALSOF NANOTECHNOLOGYEdited by Clivia M. Sotomayor Torres

INTRODUCTION TO NANOSCALE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYEdited by Massimiliano Di Ventra‚ Stephane Evoy‚ and James R. Heflin

NANOPARTICLES: BUILDING BLOCKS FOR NANOTECHNOLOGYEdited by Vincent Rotello

NANOSCALE STRUCTURE AND ASSEMBLY AT SOLID-FLUIDINTERFACES (TWO-VOLUME SET)Vol I: Interfacial Structures versus DynamicsVol II: Assembly in Hybrid and Biological SystemsEdited by Xiang Yang Liu and James J. De Yoreo

NANOSTRUCTURED CATALYSTSEdited by Susannah L. Scott‚ Cathleen M. Crudden‚ and Christopher W. Jones

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CATALYSIS (TWO-VOLUME SET)Edited by Bing Zhou‚ Sophie Hermans‚ and Gabor A. Somorjai

POLYOXOMETALATE CHEMISTRY FOR NANO-COMPOSITE DESIGNEdited by Toshihiro Yamase and Michael T. Pope

SELF-ASSEMBLED NANOSTRUCTURESJin Z. Zhang‚ Zhong-lin Wang‚ Jun Liu‚ Shaowei Chen‚ and Gang-yu Liu

SEMICONDUCTOR NANOCRYSTALS: FROM BASIC PRINCIPLESTO APPLICATIONSEdited by Alexander L. Efros‚ David J. Lockwood‚ and Leonid Tsybeskov

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Introduction to NanoscaleScience and Technology

Edited by

Massimiliano Di VentraDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of California‚ San DiegoLa Jolla‚ CA

Stephane EvoyDepartment of Electrical and Systems EngineeringThe University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia‚ PA

James R. Heflin‚ Jr.Department of PhysicsVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg‚ VA

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Preface

Over the past few years‚ numerous universities and colleges have been developing coursesin nanotechnology‚ both to respond to the growing interest by their student population and toprovide a well-educated next generation of scientists and engineers to this emerging field.This textbook originated from such goals‚ through a course entitled “Nanotechnology”developed by two of us (SE and JRH). First taught at Virginia Tech in spring 2001 andat the University of Pennsylvania in fall 2002‚ this course was designed to serve a broadclientele of seniors and graduate students from chemistry‚ physics‚ electrical and computerengineering‚ mechanical engineering‚ chemical engineering‚ and materials science. Giventhe unavailability of a textbook written with suitable breadth of coverage‚ sixty articles fromjournals and magazines were selected to provide the necessary reading material. While thecourse has been very well received‚ many students expressed difficulty at absorbing materialfrom such a wide collection of journal articles. We therefore realized the need for a textbookthat covers the same broad spectrum of topics‚ but which is designed‚ written‚ and organizedfor a student audience. “Introduction to Nanoscale Science and Technology” has beenconceived to provide such a broad and thorough introduction aimed at undergraduate seniorsand early graduate students in all of the disciplines mentioned above. It may also serve asa valuable reference desk resource for academic‚ industrial‚ and government researchersinterested in a primer in this field.

The textbook consists of twenty-three chapters arranged in seven sections. All chap-ters have been written by experts from each respective field. Each chapter is intended toprovide an overview‚ not a review‚ of a given field with examples chosen primarily for theireducational purpose. The student is encouraged to expand on the topics discussed in thebook by reading the references provided at the end of each chapter. The chapters have alsobeen written in a manner that fits the background of different science and engineering disci-plines. Therefore‚ most technical terms and jargon have been avoided giving the subjects aprimarily qualitative structure rather than providing detailed mathematical analysis. Basedon our own experience‚ the complete set of topics contained in this book can be covered ina single semester‚ provided one does not delve too deeply into any single subject. If timeconstraints require a choice to be made between sections‚ we strongly recommend that thefirst two be covered completely‚ as they provide the foundation upon which the remainder ofthe material is developed. Beyond that‚ individual chapters‚ or even entire sections‚ may beomitted without having an adverse effect on the comprehension of the remaining material.

Each chapter contains several problems/questions that can be used as homework as-signments. The solutions of these problems can be found on a password-protected web site.

vi PREFACE

In addition‚ the CD-ROM accompanying the book contains copies of the figures appearingin each chapter‚ including color versions of many of them. Faculty can incorporate these‚e.g.‚ into slide presentations to support their lectures.

Finally‚ we cannot conclude this preface without thanking the outstanding researcherswho have written each chapter. They are the real craftsmen of this book. Their enthusiasmfor this project has been heartening and inspiring; especially since writing for a studentaudience can be much more difficult than writing for specialists. We would also like tothank Danette Knopp and Gregory Franklin of Kluwer for encouraging us to begin thisproject and shepherding it to its completion‚ respectively‚ as well as Carol Day and JillStrathdee for their excellent attention to detail. In addition‚ several students have also madeimportant contributions. We would like to thank Saifuddin Rayyan‚ Martin Duemling‚ andBill Barnhart for their assistance in developing the original course at Virginia Tech‚ andMike Zwolak for assistance in editing some of the chapters.

Massimiliano Di VentraSan Diego‚ California

Stephane EvoyPhiladelphia‚ Pennsylvania

Randy HeflinBlacksburg‚ Virginia

Contents

Introduction

I. Nanoscale Fabrication and Characterization

1. NanolithographyL. R. Harriott and R. Hull

1.1.1.2.1.3.1.4.1.5.1.6.1.7.

IntroductionCross-Cutting Technologies: Resists and MasksPhoton–Based Nanolithography TechniquesElectron Beam LithographyFocused Ion Beam LithographyEmerging NanolithographiesSummaryQuestionsReferences

2. Self-Assembly and Self-OrganizationRoy Shenhar‚ Tyler B. Norsten‚ and Vincent M. Rotello

2.1.2.2.2.3.2.4.2.5.2.6.

The Advantages of Self-AssemblyIntermolecular Interactions and Molecular RecognitionSelf-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs)Electrostatic Self-AssemblySelf-Organization in Block CopolymersSummaryQuestionsReferences

3. Scanning Probe MicroscopesK.-W. Ng

3.1.3.2.3.3.3.4.3.5.

IntroductionBasics of SPMScanning Tunneling MicroscopeOther Scanned Probe MicroscopesNear-Field Scanning Optical Microscope (NSOM)

1

5

7

79

13222634383839

41

4142445563717172

75

7577849197

viii CONTENTS

3.6. SummaryQuestionsReferences

99100100

II. Nanomaterials and Nanostructures

4. The Geometry of Nanoscale CarbonVincent Crespi4.1.4.2.4.3.4.4.4.5.4.6.4.7.4.8.4.9.

4.10.

BondingDimensionalityTopologyCurvatureEnergeticsKineticsOther RingsSurfacesHolesConclusionsQuestionsReferences

101

103

1031051061091091 1 1113114115116116117

5. FullerenesHarry C. Dorn and James C. Duchamp

5.1.5.2.5.3.5.4.

Families of Fullerenes: From to TNTsReactivityPotential ApplicationsFurther ReadingQuestionsReferences

119

119128132133134135

6. Carbon NanotubesBrian W. Smith and David E. Luzzi

6.1.6.2.6.3.6.4.6.5.6.6.6.7.

HistoryMolecular and Supramolecular StructureIntrinsic Properties of Individual Single Wall Carbon NanotubesSynthesis and Characterization of Carbon NanotubesModificationApplications of NanotubesConclusionsQuestionsReferences

7. Quantum DotsA. B. Denison‚ Louisa J. Hope-Weeks‚ Robert W. Meulenberg‚and L. J. Terminello

7.1. Introduction

137

137138141152166172180180181

183

183

CONTENTS ix

7.2.7.3.7.4.7.5.7.6.7.7.7.8.

Quantum Mechanical BackgroundQuantum Confinement—3D Quantum DotOther InteractionsColloidal Growth of NanocrystalsEpitaxial GrowthQuantum Dots Formed by Ion ImplantationFurther ReadingQuestionsReferences

8. NanocompositesRobert C. Cammarata

8.1.8.2.

IntroductionNanolayered Composites

8.3. Nanofilamentary and Nanowire Composites8.4. Nanoparticulate Composites8.5. Summary

References

III. Nanoscale and Molecular Electronics

183185187188192194198198198

199

199202206208211212

215

217

217218222229236238241251254255257258

261

262267275279280281281282

9. Advances in Microelectronics—From Microscale to Nanoscale DevicesJan Van der Spiegel

9.1.9.2.9.3.9.4.9.5.9.6.9.7.9.8.9.9.

IntroductionBrief History of Microlectronic Devices and TechnologyBasics of SemiconductorsStructure and Operation of a MOS TransistorScaling of Transistor DimensionsSmall-Dimension EffectsNanoscale MOSFET Transistors: Extending Classical CMOS TransistorsBeyond Traditional CMOSSummaryQuestionsAppendicesReferences

10. Molecular ElectronicsMichael Zwolak and Massimiliano Di Ventra10.1.10.2.10.3.10.4.10.5.10.6.

Tools and Ways to Build and Probe Molecular DevicesConductance MeasurementsTransport Mechanisms and Current-Induced EffectsIntegration StrategiesConclusionsFurther ReadingQuestionsReferences

x CONTENTS

11. Single ElectronicsJia Grace Lu11.1.11.2.11.3.11.4.11.5.

Single Electron TunnelingSuperconducting Single Electron TransistorImplementation of Single Electron TransistorsApplication of Single Electron TransistorsSummaryQuestionsAppendicesReferences

IV. Nanotechnology in Magnetic Systems

12. Semiconductor Nanostructures for Quantum ComputationMichael E. Flatté12.1.12.2.12.3.12.4.12.5.12.6.12.7.12.8.

Nanostructures for Quantum ComputationQuantum Computation AlgorithmsSuperposition and Quantum ParallelismRequirements for Physical Realizations of Quantum ComputersSpin as a Physical Realization of a QubitQuantum Computation with Electron Spins in Quantum DotsQuantum Computation with Phosphorus Nuclei in SiliconConclusionsQuestionsReferences

13. Magnetoresistive Materials and DevicesOlle Heinonen13.1.13.2.13.3.13.4.

IntroductionElements of MagnetoresistanceRead Heads and MRAMSummaryQuestionsReferences

14. Elements of Magnetic StorageJordan A. Katine and Robert E. Fontana Jr.14.1.14.2.14.3.14.4.

Introduction to Magnetic StorageFundamentals of Magnetism and Their Application to StorageFabrication Technologies and ScalingSummaryQuestionsReferences

283

283294299300303304304311

313

315

315316317318320321322324325325

327

327328338351352352

355

355358362369369370

CONTENTS xi

V. Nanotechnology in Integrative Systems 371

15. Introduction to Integrative SystemsMichael Gaitan15.1.15.2.15.3.15.4.

IntroductionReview of MEMS and MST Fabrication TechnologiesIntegration of Micromachining with MicroelectronicsOutlookQuestionsReferences

16. Nanoelectromechanical SystemsStephane Evoy‚ Martin Duemling‚ and Tushar Jaruhar16.1.16.2.16.3.16.4.16.5.16.6.

Of MEMS and NEMSSurface Machining and Characterization of NEMSDynamics of NEMSDissipative Processes in NEMSIntegration of NEMS with Quantum Electronic Devices“Bottom-up” NEMS: Carbon Nanotube NanomechanicsQuestionsReferences

17. Micromechanical SensorsP. G. Datskos‚ N. V. Lavrik‚ and M. J. Sepaniak17.1.17.2.17.3.17.4.17.5.17.6.

IntroductionMechanical ModelsFabrication and ReadoutPerformance of Micromechanical SensorsApplications of Cantilevers SensorsSummaryQuestionsReferences

VI. Nanoscale Optoelectronics

18. Quantum-Confined Optoelectronic SystemsSimon Fafard18.1.18.2.18.3.18.4.18.5.18.6.18.7.18.8.

IntroductionSize and Shape Engineering of Quantum DotsOptical Properties of Self-Assembled Quantum DotsEnergy Level Engineering in Quantum DotsSingle Quantum Dot SpectroscopyQuantum Dot DevicesSite Engineering of Quantum Dot NanostructuresSummary

373

373376380385387387

389

389390391405410413414414

417

417418425429433437437438

441

443

443445448454458460477477

xii CONTENTS

QuestionsReferences

478480

19. Organic Optoelectronic NanostructuresJ. R. Heflin19.1.19.2.19.3.19.4.19.5.

IntroductionOrganic and Polymeric Light-Emitting DiodesPhotovoltaic PolymersSelf-Assembled Organic Nonlinear Optical MaterialsSummaryQuestionsReferences

20. Photonic CrystalsYounan Xia‚ Kaori Kamata‚ and Yu Lu20.1.20.2.20.3.20.4.20.5.20.6.

IntroductionPhotonic Band Structures and Band GapsPhotonic Crystals by MicrofabricationPhotonic Crystals by Self-AssemblyPhotonic Crystals with Tunable PropertiesSummaryQuestionsReferences

VII. Nanobiotechnology

21. Biomimetic NanostructuresDennis E. Discher21.1.21.2.21.3.21.4.21.5.21.6.21.7.21.8.21.9.

Introduction: Water‚ Cell Inspirations‚ and CopolymersWorm Micelles and Vesicles from Block CopolymersSolvent‚ Size‚ Energetics‚ and FluidityPolymersomes from Block Copolymers in Aqueous SolutionStiffness and Stability Tuning of Worms and MembranesVesicles in IndustryAdditional Polymer Interactions and Other Hollow ShellsInterfacing Biological Structures and FunctionsSummaryQuestionsReferences

22. Biomolecular MotorsJacob Schmidt and Carlo Montemagno22.1.22.2.22.3.22.4.

IntroductionOf MEMS and Biomolecular MotorsOperation and Function of Motor ProteinsBiotechnology of Motor Proteins

485

485486491497502503503

505

505506509513523525526526

531

533

533535538539542543543544546546547

549

549550552557

CONTENTS xiii

22.5.22.6.22.7.

Science and Engineering of Molecular MotorsEnabling Molecular Motors in Technological ApplicationsConclusionFurther ReadingQuestionsReferences

23. NanofluidicsJongyoon Han23.1.23.2.23.3.23.4.23.5.

IntroductionFluids at the Micro- and Nanometer ScaleFabrication of Nanoporous and Nanofluidic DevicesApplications of NanofluidicsSummaryQuestionsReferences

INDEX

561568571572572572

575

575577585588594594595

599