introduction to journalism class notes table of contents · introduction to journalism class notes...

Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint as part of the Expert Systems for Teachers™ Series

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Introduction to Journalism Class Notes

Table of Contents 1:1 The Functions of the News Media in Society............................................................................................. 3 1:2 The First Amendment ................................................................................................................................. 4 1:3 What the First Amendment Really Means.................................................................................................. 5 1:4a Material Not Protected by the First Amendment ...................................................................................... 6 1:5a The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment................................................................................... 13 1:6a Ethics and Responsibility........................................................................................................................ 15 1:7a Major Events in American Journalism History....................................................................................... 17 1:8a The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 27 1:8b The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 28 1:8c The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 29 2:1a News Values ........................................................................................................................................... 30 2:2a News Elements........................................................................................................................................ 34 2:3 5 Ws and H ............................................................................................................................................... 37 2.4 The Inverted Pyramid ............................................................................................................................... 38 2.5 Copyediting Symbols................................................................................................................................ 39 2.6 Summary Leads ........................................................................................................................................ 40 2.7a Grammatical Beginnings for Summary Leads........................................................................................ 41 3:1 How News is Gathered ............................................................................................................................. 46 3:2 Beats.......................................................................................................................................................... 47 3:3 Types of Interviews .................................................................................................................................. 48 3:4a Preparing for the Interview ..................................................................................................................... 50 3:5a Conducting the Interview........................................................................................................................ 52 3:6a Writing the Interview.............................................................................................................................. 54 3:7a Quotes and Transitions............................................................................................................................ 56 4:1a Types of Features .................................................................................................................................... 59 4:2 Structure of the Feature Story................................................................................................................... 61 4:3 Where to Look for Feature Stories ........................................................................................................... 62 4:4 Feature Leads............................................................................................................................................ 63 4:5 The Body of the Feature Story.................................................................................................................. 64 4:6 The End of the Story................................................................................................................................. 65 4:7a Alternative Copy/Sidebars ...................................................................................................................... 66 5:1a Types of Sports Stories ........................................................................................................................... 68 6:1a Types of Opinion Pieces ......................................................................................................................... 70 6:2a Types of Editorials .................................................................................................................................. 72 6:3 How an Editorial is Written ...................................................................................................................... 74 6:4 Formula for a Persuasive Editorial ........................................................................................................... 75 6:5a Column Writing ...................................................................................................................................... 76 6:6a Political Cartoons.................................................................................................................................... 78 6:7a Review Writing ....................................................................................................................................... 81 7:1a Types of Headlines.................................................................................................................................. 86 7:2 Top 10 List of ‘Dos’ in Headline Writing ................................................................................................ 88 7:3 Top 10 List of ‘Don’t Dos’ in Headline Writing ...................................................................................... 89 7:4 Headline Count System ............................................................................................................................ 90 8:1a Type Classifications................................................................................................................................ 91


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8:2a Type Tips ................................................................................................................................................ 93 9:1 Photographic Composition ....................................................................................................................... 97 9:2 Photo Ethics .............................................................................................................................................. 98 9:3a Caption Writing....................................................................................................................................... 99 10:1a Advertising Appeals............................................................................................................................ 101 10:2 Ads that Sell.......................................................................................................................................... 105 10:3 Sample Ad Layout ................................................................................................................................ 106 10:4 Sample Ad Contract.............................................................................................................................. 107 10:5a 10 Steps to Selling an Ad.................................................................................................................... 108 11:1a Newspaper Design Tips ...................................................................................................................... 113 12:1a Yearbook Planning.............................................................................................................................. 115 12:2a Yearbook Design................................................................................................................................. 117 12:3a Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread................................................................................. 120 13:1a Writing for Broadcast.......................................................................................................................... 122 13:2 Technical Information for Broadcast.................................................................................................... 128 13:3 Selected Video Terminology Terms ..................................................................................................... 129 13:4 Camera Angles...................................................................................................................................... 130 13:5 Camera Distances ................................................................................................................................. 131 13:6 Camera Movement................................................................................................................................ 132 14:1 Newspaper Editorial Policy .................................................................................................................. 133 14:2a Staff Positions ..................................................................................................................................... 134 14:3a Production Steps ................................................................................................................................. 136


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1:1 The Functions of the News Media in Society

Figure 1

• The political watchdog function. Journalists are charged with monitoring the activities of the government.

• The entertainment function. Not everything in life is serious.

We want comic relief. We want comic strips. We want sound advice from Dear Abby. We want our MTV.

• The social function. Newspapers and broadcast news provide

Americans with topics to talk about over the back fence, at the office water cooler, over coffee at Starbuck’s.

Figure 2

• The economic function. Advertising carried in the media helps to stimulate the economy and provide consumers with information about available products and services.

• The record-keeping function. Through the records kept by the

news media, we know who is born, gets married, gets divorced, dies, who won the game, etc.


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1:2 The First Amendment

Figure 3

Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

• 45 words guarantee five basic freedoms o Religion

no religion can be forced on Americans. no American can be prohibited from worshiping.

o Speech Americans are free to express their opinions, based upon their own value systems (based on the freedom of religion, above)

o Press Americans are free to print the truth, and Congress cannot require any kind of licensing for journalists; all Americans have this freedom.

o Assembly Americans have the freedom to gather in public places for meetings, for worship, as spectators.

o Petition Americans have the right to petition the government for change and have the right to petition at the ballot box.


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1:3 What the First Amendment Really Means • Viewpoint neutral

o All ideas are protected. o The way in which ideas are expressed may be subject to

some controls. There is a difference in expressing an opinion and in acting on that opinion.

Figure 4 Figure 5

OK Not OK

• Only the government is prevented from imposing restrictions on freedom of expression. o One exception: Public schools (government agents) can

prevent expression that would lead to a material and substantial disruption of the school day and can limit expression for legitimate, pedagogical reasons.

• Private businesses can restrict expression on their property, Web sites.

• Individuals can restrict expression in their homes and on their property.


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1:4a Material Not Protected by the First Amendment • Material that is obscene as to minors

o Must meet all three of the following requirements to be considered obscene as to minors:

The average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the publication, taken as a whole, appeals to a minor’s prurient interest in sex;

The publication depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct such as ultimate sexual acts (normal or perverted), masturbation and lewd exhibition of the genitals; and

The work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value.

o According to this definition, indecent or vulgar language is not obscene. Words are not obscene in and of themselves.

Figure 6


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1:4b Material Not Protected by the First Amendment • Libelous material: Libelous statements are provably false

and unprivileged statements of fact that cause injury to an individual’s or business’s reputation in the community.

o Public officials and public figures have less protection

than private citizens.

A public official is a person who holds an elected or appointed office and exercises a significant amount of government authority: Mayor, Governor, President, etc.

Figure 7

A public figure is a person who either has sought the public’s attention or is well known because of personal achievements or actions.


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1:4c Material Not Protected by the First Amendment

School employees will be considered public officials or public figures in relationship to articles in the school media which concern their school-related activities.

Figure 8

When an allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual who is not a public official or public figure, it must be proven that the false statement was published willfully or negligently; i.e., the journalist who wrote or published the statement has failed to exercise reasonably prudent care.

If the allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual who is a public official or public figure, it must be proven that the statement was made with actual malice.


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1:4d Material Not Protected by the First Amendment • Journalists, including student journalists, are allowed to

express opinions. Specifically, they may criticize policy or the performance of teachers, administrators, school officials and other school employees.

o Material that will cause a “material and substantial

disruption” of school activities

o Disruption is defined as:

Student rioting Unlawful seizure of property

Destruction of property Substantial student participation in a boycott

Figure 9

For student media to be considered disruptive, specific facts must exist upon which one could reasonably forecast that there would be an immediate, substantial disruption to the normal school activity as a result of the material’s distribution.


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1:4e Material Not Protected by the First Amendment

o Mere fear or apprehension about a disturbance is not enough; school administrators must be able to show substantial facts that would reasonably support a forecast of likely disruption.

Administrators must pay attention to the context of the

distribution as well as the content of the material.

• Consideration must be given to

o past experience in the school with similar material,

o past experience in dealing with the students at

the school,

o current events which influence student attitudes; and

o whether or not there have been previous

instances of actual or threatened disruption that occurred simultaneously with the distribution of the student publication.


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1:4f Material Not Protected by the First Amendment

• Speech that could lead to imminent lawless action. o Yelling “FIRE!” in a crowded movie theater.

Figure 10

• Invasion of privacy o Private citizens have more protections than public

figures, public officials (as in libel cases). o Types of invasion of privacy:

Appropriation of someone’s face or likeness without express permission

Unreasonable publicity given to one’s personal life Intrusion upon someone’s seclusion Publicity which unfavorably places someone in false light before the public

--Information from www.findlaw.com


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1:4g Material Not Protected by the First Amendment Fighting words

o While Americans have the right to express their opinions, the Supreme Court has ruled that “fighting words,” those words which by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace, are not protected.

Figure 11

• Copyright infringement

o Occurs when copyrighted material is used without the permission of the creator or copyright holder.

o A copyright lasts for the lifetime of the creator plus 70 years.

o After the copyright expires, the material enters the public domain, meaning that it is available for use.

o All intellectual property should be credited to the creator.

--Material gathered from Student Press Law Center, www.splc.org, and First Amendment Center, www.fac.org


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1:5a The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment The First Amendment is under constant scrutiny. The First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University annually conducts a “reality check”, a survey to determine just how Americans perceive their First Amendment freedoms. Selected results of the 2003 survey: • Freedom of the press is the least popular freedom. About

46% of the respondents said the press has too much freedom.

• 65% of the respondents liked the idea of embedding U.S. journalists in individual combat units as was done during the 2003 war in Iraq.

• 68% said that the news media did an excellent or good job in covering the war.

• Despite the positive perception of coverage of the war, about 67% said that the government should be able to prior review journalists’ news reports.

• 48% said that they believed they had too little information on the war on terrorism.

• Respondents were split on whether they thought the press had too much freedom to publish or if there was too much government censorship. 43% said there was too much freedom; 38% said there was too much censorship.

• 33% said individuals should not be allowed to protest against an American war during the period of active combat.


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1:5b The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment • 33% said that public school officials should be allowed to

prohibit high school students from expressing their opinions about war on school property.

• Despite a Supreme Court ruling granting students the right to wear armbands or other symbolic opposition to war or combat, about 50% said that schools should be able to ban these items.

• Remembering a statement by Natalie Maines, lead singer for the Dixie Chicks, prior to a London concert, that she was embarrassed that the President of the United States was from Texas, 39% of those surveyed said they would be less likely to buy a CD from a musician who has made controversial political remarks in public that differ from their own views.

• 55% of those surveyed opposed a constitutional amendment to ban flag burning, a 4% increase from 2002.

--The First Amendment Center, www.fac.org


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1:6a Ethics and Responsibility Ethics:

• Defined as: the motivation to act based on ideas of right and wrong.

• Journalists govern themselves through Codes of Ethics, including: o The Code of Ethics of the Society of Professional

Journalists Based on four principles: • Seek truth and report it • Minimize harm • Act independently • Be accountable

o The Statement of Principles of the American Society of Newspaper Editors

Includes such issues as: • Responsibility • Freedom of the Press

o ASNE says this belongs to the PEOPLE, and must be defended against attacks by any entity, including government

• Independence. o ASNE believes journalists must avoid

even the appearance of a conflict of interest.


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1:6b Ethics and Responsibility

• Truth and Accuracy. Journalists depend upon good faith with the reader.

• Impartiality. This does not prevent the newspaper reporter from having an opinion, but there must be a clear distinction for the reader about what is presented as fact and what is presented as an opinion.

• Fair Play. Journalists must respect the rights of all who are involved in a news story, no matter who they are or what they have done.

• ASNE ends its statement of principles this way:

o These principles are intended to preserve, protect and strengthen the bond of trust and respect between American journalists and the American people, a bond that is essential to sustain the grant of freedom entrusted to both by the nation’s founders.

o Other major news organizations and individual media outlets have their own codes of ethics which are similar in concept.

--Society of Professional Journalists, www.spj.org --American Society of Newspaper Editors, www.asne.org


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1:7a Major Events in American Journalism History First newspaper in Colonial America:

Figure 12

Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick • Published Sept. 25, 1690 • Boston • Publisher was Benjamin Harris • Shut down immediately by the

government for reporting that British military forces had aligned themselves with “miserable” savages.

• Only one issue was published.


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1:7b Major Events in American Journalism History • The trial of John Peter Zenger

o Editor of The New York Weekly Journal. o Arrested in 1734 and charged with seditious libel for

criticizing Governor William Cosby. o Found not guilty because criticisms were true. o His trial established truth as a defense for libel.

• First political cartoon, 1754 o Benjamin Franklin published “Join or Die,” a cartoon

depicting a snake cut into sections, each part representing a colony.

The cartoon urged the Colonies to join together as a single nation during the French and Indian War.

• Focus of newspapers was changing. o Before American Revolution, purpose had been to

inform with news items about events in the home country.

o As the Revolution approached, focus shifted to more political reporting and local reporting.

• Party Press o There were over 100 newspapers by 1790. o Newspapers began to align with political parties of the

day. Federalists Republicans Freedom of the press was widely accepted.

• Attacks on president became common.


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1:7c Major Events in American Journalism History • Newspapers and the Industrial Revolution

o By 1833 there were three times as many newspapers in the U.S. as there were in France or England.

Technological advances produced better printing presses.

Free public education meant a higher literacy rate. Population was growing and heading west. Several cities had competing newspapers. Publishers began lowering cost of papers to increase circulation.

• Penny Press o In 1833, Dr. H.D. Shepard lowered the price of the New

York Morning Post to 2 cents per copy, then 1 cent. Paper folded after 2 ½ weeks.

o In September, 1833, Benjamin Day lowered the price of the New York Sun to 1 cent.

o Other newspapers followed suit. • Civil War Coverage

o Invention of telegraph made faster communication possible.

o Reporters were able to send news directly from the battlefield.

o Matthew Brady and his photographers took pictures from the battlefields.

o Wire services, including the Associated Press, were established.


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1:7d Major Events in American Journalism History

o AP established policy on a new way to write stories: • They would be written briefly. • They would be tailored for a national

audience. • There would be no partisanship.

• Yellow Journalism o Characterized by heavy sensationalism, faked

photographs, screaming headlines, yellow cartoons. o Rivalry between major newspapers, especially in New

York City. William Randolph Hearst, publisher of New York Journal

Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of New York World

Figure 13

William Randolph Hearst Photo in the Public Domain

Figure 14

Joseph Pulitzer Photo in the Public Domain


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1:7e Major Events in American Journalism History

Some historians believe the rivalry between Hearst and Pulitzer caused or contributed to the Spanish American War in 1898.

Figure 15

Figure 16

Cartoon is in the Public Domain

• The Yellow Kid (from Hogan’s Alley series) o Cartoon originated in Pulitzer’s New York World. o Originally drawn by Richard Outcault. o Featured a bald child wearing a yellow nightgown, who

made pithy, but ungrammatical, observations about the day’s events.

o Hearst hired Outcault and The Yellow Kid away from the World.

o Pulitzer hired another cartoonist to draw a Yellow Kid cartoon, so there were two competing versions of the cartoon published at the same time.


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1:7f Major Events in American Journalism History

Figure 17. The Yellow Kid is in the Public Domain.


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1:7g Major Events in American Journalism History

Turning it around • Some publishers were unhappy about the direction

American journalism was going on during the Yellow Journalism period.

Figure 18

• Some subscribers stopped taking the sensational papers. • The New York Times emerged as a leading newspaper.

o Two slogans: “Does not soil the breakfast cloth” “All the news that’s fit to print”

• Pulitzer’s philosophy about news coverage had changed by 1901 and he began to emphasize quality reporting and the paper’s responsibility to the public. o Before his death in 1911, he established the Pulitzer

School of Journalism at Columbia University.


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1:7h Major Events in American Journalism History

o In his will, he established eight prizes to be awarded in his name.

• Hearst also left a legacy which honors excellence in journalism. o Hearst Foundation supports several charities and awards

money to journalism programs in colleges. Modern Technology Changes

the Face of Journalism

• Emergence of radio and television brought major

competition to newspapers.

• Many newspapers could no longer compete for advertising, and either merged with others or

folded.

Figure 19


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1:7i Major Events in American Journalism History • Broadcast media were able to provide visual coverage of the news.

o Later technology allowed for immediate coverage through breaking news.

o Now news is on the air 24 hours a day.

• Newspapers began to streamline their design. o Stories were packaged. o Bigger pictures o Color added o Infographics o USA Today became the first mass market national daily

newspaper, taking advantage of advances in technology to print full-color pages at regional plants around the nation.

Figure 20

• Newspapers could provide more in-depth coverage than the broadcast media.


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1:7j Major Events in American Journalism History • New Media (Internet, e-mail, chat rooms, other electronic

transmission of information) has caused another shift as both print and broadcast media now provide updated coverage on the Web.

Figure 21


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1:8a The Scholastic Media Student journalists are following in the footsteps of their professional counterparts.

• Students are producing: o Newspapers

o Yearbooks o Literary Magazines

o Broadcast news o Documentaries o News Web sites or online editions of the student

newspaper

• Students are tackling more sophisticated and controversial topics than high schools of a few years ago would allow. o Gay/lesbian issues o Teen pregnancy o STDs o Homelessness


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1:8b The Scholastic Media

o AIDS o School budgets o Eating disorders o Investigation of wrongdoing by school officials o Lawsuits against the school district

• Students are gaining practical experience in writing, editing, layout, design, visual media.

• Focus on controversial topics causes some concern from administrators and the public (See 2003 First Amendment Survey results.)

• Three major U.S. Supreme Court cases have shaped the student media. o Tinker v. Des Moines, 1969

Established that students have First Amendment rights while at school.

Students can express opinions at school so long as they do not materially and substantially disrupt the normal activities of the school day.

o Bethel v. Fraser, 1986 Established that while students have the freedom to express themselves, the school has the right to determine how they express their opinions.

The school has the right to limit vulgarity within its boundaries and to ensure a positive learning atmosphere for all students.


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1:8c The Scholastic Media

o Hazelwood v. Kulhmeier, 1988 Did not reverse Tinker, but limited the amount of freedom the student press, or any activity which allows expression, may have.

Established that administrators have the right to censor the press for legitimate, pedagogical reasons, but did not establish what those reasons might be

Emphasized that school administrators must be viewpoint neutral, and cannot censor a student’s expression because it differs from their own.

o The Student Press Law Center is set up to assist student journalists in high school and college with all legal issues concerning the production of student media.

Censorship Prior review Prevention of libel, copyright infractions, invasion of privacy issues

o Several organizations exist to support student journalists and their advisers:

Journalism Education Association, www.jea.org Statewide organizations Columbia Scholastic Press Association National Scholastic Press Association, www.studentpress.org

o Web sites are set up to help student journalists. o www.highschooljournalism.org o www.jteacher.com


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2:1a News Values What makes news different from other forms of writing?

• It is accurate. Reporters pay close attention

to detail when gathering facts and details.

Figure 22

• It is concise. News is written as concisely and tightly as

possible.

• It is in Active Voice.

o The best stories contain a single dominant theme and

use the subject-verb-direct object structure.

o The noun is concrete, referring to

specifics.

o Verbs are vivid, showing exact

action.

Figure 23


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2:1b News Values Figure 24

• It is clear. The reporter must understand the

event first, and then write about it in a clear,

precise, logical simple language. If the

reporter is confused about the event, the

writing will be confusing also.

• It is relevant. The reporter

selects the most important

quotes, illustrations,

anecdotes and facts.

Figure 25


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2:1c News Values

Figure 26

• Opinion is attributed. All

information that cannot be proven

is attributed to the source of the

material.

• Sources are identified. Reporters should identify sources

by name, title or other description. Anonymous sources are

not acceptable, except in rare instances where privacy issues

are at stake. Figure 27

• It is fair and balanced. All sides

of the story are given their say

and are treated without

favoritism.

• It is objective. It is written in

third person and without editorial comment by the reporter.


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2:1d News Values • It is true. The reporter must find

the truth among the facts,

statements and denials. Reporters

must seek to tell the latest version

of the truth. As more facts come to

light, the truth will change.

Figure 28


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2:2a News Elements What Makes News News? Figure 29

There are facts that are newsworthy, and there are facts that are not newsworthy. There are facts which might be newsworthy in one location, but not in another. There are facts which might be newsworthy today, but not tomorrow. What makes a fact newsworthy is how it is perceived by your readership, the people in your community who are affected—or not—by the facts. Among the common news elements are the following:

Figure 30

• Proximity: This has to do with location. If the event is happening

close by, it will impact your readers more than if it is

happening across town, or across the world, all other considerations

being equal. A dance at your school, for instance, is more newsworthy than a dance at

another school.


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2:2b News Values

• Prominence: This has to do with how well known the people involved in your story are. If the person or persons are well known to your readers, the story will impact your readers more than a similar story involving people they do not know.

• Timeliness: If something is happening NOW, it has more

impact than something that happened yesterday or last week. Often, the most recent development is the feature of the story.

Figure 31

• Consequence: If the impact of an event on your readers is major, they want to know all about it. For instance, they might not care that a particular street is being shut down for repairs, until it is brought to their attention that this will reroute the major

portion of the traffic into their residential areas. This will affect them in a significant way, and they will want to know about it.


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2:2c News Elements Figure 32

• Human interest: If a situation makes you angry, sad, happy or overjoyed, it contains the news element of human interest. If there is conflict or drama or the situation is out of the ordinary, the situation also has human interest. Any

time human emotions come into play, this news element is present. Some stories are newsworthy on this basis alone.

Most news stories have a combination of two or more of these

news elements.

Figure 33


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2:3 5 Ws and H WHO? • Who is involved? • Who does this affect? • Who said so?

WHAT? • What happened? • What is the consequence? • What are people saying

about it?

WHEN? • When did it happen? • When will it take place? • When will we know more

about it? WHERE? • Where did it happen?

WHY? • Why did it happen?

HOW? How did it happen?

Figure 34


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2.4 The Inverted Pyramid

Figure 35


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2.5 Copyediting Symbols

Figure 36 Copyediting Symbols


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2.6 Summary Leads

• Must stress what is NEWSWORTHY (relevance, usefulness, interest to the reader) by explaining IMPACT (so what?)

• Don't back into the lead (avoid use of “there is,” “there was,” “there will be.”)

• Don't bury the news—feature the most important development.

• Subject-verb-direct object for most sentence constructions (but note grammatical variations as well)

• One clear sentence, not too long, not too short. Make two short sentences if necessary.

• Avoid minor or lesser important details in the lead sentence (specific time, addresses, names if not well-known). Use them in later paragraphs. However, include interesting, colorful or unusual details.

• If the WHO of the news story is a celebrity or prominent person in the community, you will probably use the name in the lead sentence. Otherwise save the name for the second paragraph, describing the person or organization that the story is about.

• Often uses WHEN to indicate timeliness • Often indicates WHERE news occurred in relative not

overly specific terms • Avoid Questions Leads. • Avoid Leads that are Direct Quotations. • Be sure to update the lead on second-day or subsequent

stories.


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2.7a Grammatical Beginnings for Summary Leads • Temporal Clause

o Begins with a word that deals with time, such as as, after, when, while, before, since or as soon as.

Example: • When Patrick Briggs went to see musicals, he

used to watch the male lead and think, "I can do that." "Then I thought, `I can do that better than he can,' " said Briggs, assistant principal of Watkins Middle School in the Cypress Fairbanks Independent School District. (Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)

• Prepositional Phrase o Begins with a preposition and features an aspect of the

story that the reporter feels merits special attention. Example:

• By withdrawing from the campaign finance system, Howard Dean and Senator John Kerry are sharply altering the nominating battles in Iowa and New Hampshire. (New York Times, Nov. 29, 2003) -- Explains how they are affecting the campaign.

• In Hawaii, a sturdy American tradition has rejuvenated a fading Hawaiian one, all within the steamy, friendly confines of the imu. (New York Times, Nov. 29, 2003) – Refers to where.


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2:7b Varying Summary Leads

• As a teenager zipping along the well-trimmed links at the River Oaks Country Club on his motor scooter in the 1940s, Preston Moore Jr. never knew he would inspire a Houston car dealer to invent the motorized golf cart. (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003) -- Refers to when.

• Conditional Clause o Begins with if, unless or provided, and expresses

speculative interest or condition. Example:

• Unless they've dropped some clear hints, choosing a gift for the die-hard video gamers in the family could be overwhelming this holiday season. An estimated 250 new games are expected in this pivotal season for game companies -- it accounts for about half of the industry's $10 billion annual sales. (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)

• Infinitive Phrase o Begins with “to” plus a verb and features purpose or

dramatic action or creates a minor note of suspense.


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2:7c Varying Summary Leads

Example: • To control a bizarre gathering of eagles, pigs

and foxes on the California channel islands, federal wildlife officials may have to kill a protected species in order to save an endangered one. (Associated Press, Nov. 29, 2003)

• Causal Clause o Begins with because or since and shows a causal

relationship between facts. Example:

• Since Memorial City Mall wanted to provide entertainment other than movie theaters, designers put in a skating rink. (Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)

• Participial Phrase o Begins with a present or past participle and features

action. Often answers the questions “why” or “how” Examples:

• Using the Internet, many holiday shoppers will take part in the shipping process, pointing and clicking to create their own shipping labels, or, if they're ordering online, supplying information that makes it easier for packages to be sent worldwide. (Present Participle) (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)


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2:7d Varying Summary Leads

• Led by a former Rosenberg city official, the new Katy Area Economic Development Council is focused on enticing businesses to locate in the Katy school district to strengthen the tax base. (Past Participle) (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)

• Gerund Phrase o Begins with a gerund (-ing form of a verb used as a

noun) and features action or an interesting detail. Examples:

• Traveling Houston's highways in search of the perfect gift might require a little extra good cheer this season, transportation officials caution. Road construction knows no holidays. (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)

• Finding attorney Tim Hootman's downtown law office isn't at all a complicated task. (Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)

• Being the running back at Wylie is hard. Being the backup running back is even harder. (Dallas Morning News, Nov. 29, 2003)

• Concessive Clause o Begins with though or although and expresses

difficulties overcome or unusual circumstances. Example:


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2:7e Varying Summary Leads

• Although Bryan Scott Boggs was only 16 when he used his mother's cell phone to make the threatening calls to 11 area schools, prosecutors in the case charged him as an adult. Yesterday he entered a guilty plea.

• Noun Clause o Begins with that, how, why, whether, what or when and

features the substance of announcements, decisions or beliefs.

Example: • How the state plans to finance public

secondary education in the next decade was the focus of a week-long confrontation between the Governor and the Legislature.

(From a workshop handout)


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3:1 How News is Gathered • Eyewitness accounts • Events calendars/Futures books • Press releases

Figure 37

• Stringers/freelance contributors • Beats • Wire services • Interviews • Background research

Figure 38


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3:2 Beats

Figure 39

• Compile a list of sources who will be

interviewed periodically about a specific organization, class, sport, etc.

• These sources should be contacted

frequently, at regular intervals, for information.

• The sources should be encouraged to contact the reporter or

the newsroom if something special comes up before the reporter’s next scheduled visit.

• Keep a calendar with important

events/dates/photo opportunities you have found out about by questioning your beat sources.

• Follow up on important

information between regular visits, if necessary.

Figure 40


48

3:3 Types of Interviews

Figure 41

• Fact Interview: o Straightforward question-and-

answer conversation intended to get facts and quotations for advance stories or supplementary/follow-up coverage of past events

o Routine questions o Can be done by telephone

• Personal Interview: o More formal approach o Reporter should prepare a list of questions ahead of time.

• Group Interview o Man-on-the-street or Inquiring Reporter:

Same question asked of random interviewees. Purpose is to get quick, off-the-cuff responses.

Figure 42

o Symposium:

Reporter gathers statements from several people usually authorities or specialists in their fields.

Purpose is to compare, analyze and interpret reactions to specific questions.


49


50

3:4a Preparing for the Interview

Figure 43

• Make an appointment in advance. • Learn everything you can about the

subject or person so you can ask intelligent questions.

• Know what you want to accomplish in the interview.

• Make a list of 15-20 good solid questions that will focus on the subject.

• Types of questions: o Avoid asking questions that can be answered “yes” or

“no”. o Use the Ws and H to form relevant questions that will get

the interviewee to open up. What are your feelings about this? What do you think was the deciding factor? Why did people respond so enthusiastically? Why is it a good idea to do this? How was this accomplished? How will the money be raised?

Figure 44


51

3:4b Preparing for the Interview • Use the “tell me” method if you know the interview has an anecdote that might be used in the story: o Tell me about the time your

pig took first place in the livestock show.

o Tell me what it was like to be Homecoming Queen.

Figure 45


52

3:5a Conducting the Interview

Figure 46

• Be on time, with adequate supplies of

paper and writing utensils. • Introduce yourself and tell the purpose

of the interview. • Be friendly and courteous, but remember

you have a job to do. • Don’t interrupt. • Avoid personal questions. • Ask specific, thought-provoking questions; avoid yes or no

questions. • Don’t let the conversation run wild, but if an unexpected

angle should develop, be prepared. • Take good notes, but do not distract the interviewee while

doing so.

Figure 47

• Use a tape recorder if the

interviewee agrees, but do not depend on it exclusively. Batteries and tapes go bad.


53

3:5b Conducting the Interview

Figure 48

• Obtain all the information you think you will need before concluding the interview, but be sure to ask if you can contact the interviewee for more information if necessary.

• Go over all quotes to check for accuracy.

• Thank the interviewee for his/her time.

• Never agree to let the interviewee read

the story before it is published.

Figure 49


54

3:6a Writing the Interview

Figure 50

• Begin writing the story soon after the interview while the notes are still fresh.

• Select and evaluate notes carefully. • If it is a news story, follow the inverted

pyramid structure—most important down to least important.

• Begin with an appropriate lead. • Place your most dynamic quote after the lead to hold the

readers’ attention. • Support your lead in the body of the story through the use of

factual information and quoted material. • Alternate paragraphs of direct quotations with paragraphs of

indirect quotations or factual material which serve as transitional statements.

• Make quotes more compact if necessary, but do not change the meaning of what was said.

• Avoid any reference to yourself (When asked…., I interviewed….) The story is not about you.

Figure 51


55

3:6b Writing the Interview

Figure 52

• Weave characteristic expressions,

mannerisms or gestures into the story if appropriate.

• End your story on the second most

dynamic quote that sums up the situation. This will eliminate the urge to use a “cheerleader” statement to wrap up the story. (And a good time was had by all.)

Figure 53


56

3:7a Quotes and Transitions

Figure 54

• Direct quotations are word-for-word

reports of what the speaker said. These are the exact words of the speaker and should be in quotation marks. o Example:

“My world does not revolve around number problems,” Johnson said, “but I do get a sense of achievement and accomplishment when I solve problems no one else can get.”

• Indirect quotations are a summary of what the speaker said. Quotations marks are not used. The speaker’s ideas are used, but the reporter does not use the speaker’s exact words. o Example:

Johnson credits his senior English teacher, Phyllis Long, with his success on the verbal portions of the test.

o Advantages: Information can be condensed without changing the meaning.

Indirect quotes can be used as transitional statements.

Figure 55


57

3:7b Quotes and Transitions

• Paraphrasing is when the reporter uses his own words to explain what the speaker said. No quotation marks are used. o Example:

Johnson is pleased with his performance on the test because it shows that he can do just as well with words as he knew he could with numbers.

• Partial quotes are the mixture of direct and indirect quotes.

Use quotation marks around the exact words. o Example:

Johnson is pleased that the test score proves he is not just a “math and science nerd.”

Attribution: • Use the word said. • According to should only be used to attribute information to

a document, but not to a person. o Example:

According to the policy...but not according to Bob Smith…


58

3:7c Quotes and Transitions

• Attribute all information used as direct

quotes, indirect quotes or paraphrased information to the source.

• The attribution should come after the quote. • Do not attribute factual information that can be proven or

measured. Transitions

• Are statements which bridge one quote to the next and keep the reader on track.

• Can be factual statements which lead into a quote. • Can be paraphrased or indirect quotes from the interviewee

that may or may not be attributed. (Factual material that is provable or measurable does not have to be attributed).

• Come between quotes and lead into the quote following the transition.

• Never end the story. End on a quote.


59

4:1a Types of Features

Figure 56

• News Features: A close-up look at the news, focusing on a particular angle rather than the event itself.

• Informational or Instructional: The purpose is to inform,

not to entertain. • Shared experience feature: A first-hand account of an

experience. • Consumer report: An in-depth investigation of a new

product. • Background report: Behind-the-

scenes account of an event the reader would not ordinarily get to see.

• Human interest: These stories

make the readers feel an emotion.

Figure 57


60

4:1b Types of Features

Figure 58

• Personality profile: Give a more

complete picture of a person. • Featurette: Short story, often told in

chronological order, ending with a punch line or a surprise.

• Alternative copy: Used as sidebars with other stories and

are an alternative presentation of facts and opinions.

o Q&A o Timelines o Lists of places to go, things to

do, people to see o Quote boxes

Figure 59


61

4:2 Structure of the Feature Story

Figure 60

• Lead should be dynamic and draw the reader into the story. Feature leads are much more creative than summary leads.

• The body of the story should weave

interesting detail among colorful quotes from the person or persons being interviewed.

• The conclusion should

wrap up the story neatly and leave the reader with something to think about.

Figure 61


62

4:3 Where to Look for Feature Stories Ideas are everywhere in the school. Every faculty member and student is a potential story. Here are some possibilities: Figure 62

• Early graduates • Students who own businesses • Ethnic or cultural composition of your

school • Fund raisers • Twins/Triplets • Security measures

• Lucky charms and rituals • Superstitions and phobias • Health, nutrition and exercise • Volunteering • Fashion/Dress code • Students going into the military

Figure 63


63

4:4 Feature Leads

Figure 64

Here are some common types of feature leads: • Allusion leads: These give the reader a

reference to a character or event in history, literature or mythology and relate that reference to what is going on in the story.

• Anecdotal leads: These use a brief story to represent the universal experience.

• Contrast leads: These leads point out opposites, such as hot and cold, wet and dry, rich and poor, then and now. They work best when the contrast is an obvious one.

• Parody leads: A well-known song, poem, phrase or title is rewritten to begin a story.

• Narrative leads: Through reading the lead, the reader feels as though he or she is in the middle of the action.

• Question lead: Use only if the question is very relevant. The reader wants answers, not questions.

• Quotation leads: Use only if the quote is extremely powerful and dynamic and captures the theme of the story.

Figure 65


64

4:5 The Body of the Feature Story

Figure 66

The body of the story must hold the reader’s interest.

Some ways to do this: • Alternate quotes and transitions: The use of direct

quotations makes the story read more like dialogue and readers are interested in what others have to say.

• Repetition of core themes, metaphors and figurative

language. • Varying sentence and paragraph length and pace.

• Consider the point of view.

Figure 67


65

4:6 The End of the Story

Figure 68

Almost as important as the lead, the end of the story wraps it up for the reader. Here are some common ways to wrap up the story: • End with a powerful quote. • End with an anecdote.

• End with a quick summary. • Use an add-on ending, which makes a point in the end

which was never addressed in the story itself. • Circle back to the lead. Restate something from the lead if it

helps to complete the message that the story is conveying.

Figure 69


66

4:7a Alternative Copy/Sidebars

Figure 70

Information does not have to be in story form in all cases. Sometimes information can be more easily understood if it is presented in other forms, or in alternative copy. Examples of Alternative Copy or Sidebar

Information: • Lists: winners, places to contact, items needed. • Q&As: Questions and answers

published without a lead or transitions. Question followed by answer.

Figure 71


67

4:7b Alternative Copy/Sidebars

Figure 72

• Quizzes: Consists of questions relating to a story. Trivia. • Quote boxes: Contain reactions to a question and a picture

of the person being quoted. • Charts, graphs, maps

Figure 73


68

5:1a Types of Sports Stories

Figure 74

• Advance story: Appears before a game is played; gives the essentials of an upcoming game or athletic event: o Starting lineups o Entries o Lists of competitors o Background info on teams o History of rivalry o Records against one another o Strategy comparisons o Strengths and weaknesses of each team o May be in inverted pyramid or may be a feature

• Coverage story: About games already played. o Highlights o Outstanding plays o Exceptional performances o Body may be told chronologically, but usually just hits

highlights


69

5:1b Types of Sports Stories

Figure 75

• Advance-Coverage stories: Covers story or stories already played, but focuses on upcoming game(s).

• Sports features: o Personality sketches o Athletic injuries and treatments o Stories about facilities o Rules changes

• Sports columns: Personal observations by sports editor

Figure 76


70

6:1a Types of Opinion Pieces

Figure 77

Ideas come together on the opinion pages of a newspaper—ideas from members of the staff and from members of the community. These may take the form of: • Editorials: The official opinion of the newspaper, arrived at

by consensus of the editorial board in most cases. o Written in third person o Do not carry a by-line because they are not the opinion

of a person but of the paper as a whole. • Columns: Opinion pieces that express the personal

viewpoint of the writer. o Do carry a by-line o Can be written in first person o Better to leave out expressions such as “in my opinion”

or “I think” because these phrases weaken the position. o Could be from local writer or syndicated writer

Figure 78


71

6:1b Types of Opinion Pieces

Figure 79

• Letters to the editor: Letters written to the newspaper by readers or members of the public o May be in response to an article or editorial o May be something the reader wants to see action on o Should be signed, but staff can withhold name if they

have a legitimate reason to do so • Editorial/political cartoons: Illustrations which make a

political or editorial statement. o Use symbolism in pictures (flag=patriotism; elephant =

Republicans; donkey=Democrats, etc.) o Can be humorous or serious

Figure 80


72

6:2a Types of Editorials

Figure 81

Editorials can:

• Criticize or attack: o Require suggestions for change. o If an editorial attacks, it must be accurate in the charge. o The criticism or attack must be backed up with facts.

• Defend: o Stand up for an individual or organization under attack

by society. • Endorse:

o Backing of an issue or a candidate o Must give solid reasons for doing so

• Compliment: o Show evidence that the compliment is deserved o Praise when warranted

Figure 82


73

6:2b Types of Editorials

Figure 83

• Instigate, advocate or appeal: o Instigate means to go on a crusade for something—

improvement of facilities or working conditions, etc. o Advocate through backing suggestions offered by

groups or individuals seeking changes. o Appeal by encouraging people to donate to a cause or

vote for or against an issue. • Entertain:

o Should have a worthwhile point and should be written about something worth the reader’s time.

• Predict: o Support predictions with fact.

Figure 84


74

6:3 How an Editorial is Written

Figure 85

Avoid moralizing editorials. People do not read the newspaper to get a sermon—they go to their churches or other places of worship. Editorials should be built around a solid framework: • Introduction:

o Gets the reader’s attention o States the problem or situation o States the position

• Body:

o Persuades the reader through logical reasoning o Backs up stance with solid factual reasoning o Brings in the opposition’s point of view, then shoots it

down with more logical reasoning • Conclusion:

o Prompts the reader to take action Vote Attend a rally Support a cause Write letters, etc.


75

6:4 Formula for a Persuasive Editorial

Figure 86

S-P-E-C-S • State the problem • Position on the problem

• Evidence to support the position

• Conclusion—who is affected and how • Solutions to the problem, at least two

Introduction

Body

Conclusion


76

6:5a Column Writing

Figure 87

What should a column do? • Highlight creative expression of opinion. • Reflect the personality of the author. • Showcase superior writing ability and distinctive style. • Express the viewpoint of one writer rather than a

newspaper. (Any approach--persuasion, praise, explanation, entertainment--can work)

• Build on careful, thorough reporting that incorporates purposeful interviews and documented observations.

• Focus on a subject that appeals to many readers. • Present new insights in a lively manner that shows the

writer’s conviction. • Provide commentary that stimulates readers to think, to

evaluate, to act, and to see everyday life from a new perspective ranging from the serious to the humorous.

Figure 88


77

6:5b Column Writing

Figure 89

• Use an original title that defines the slant or the type of

content. Good titles often play on the writer’s name or reflect the writer’s skills. Also the “live” headlines must follow appropriate styles. Bylines are essential, and photos of the writer are appropriate.

• Appear regularly in a newspaper on the same page. • To establish an appropriate identity and to distinguish the

column from other articles, the column title should use typography and graphics to complement the publication design. A column, however, should never be confused with a regular feature in the paper.

Figure 90


78

6:6a Political Cartoons

Figure 91

Political cartoons are a visual representation of an editorial comment. With an illustration and very few words, cartoonists make statements on the events of the day. Political cartoons use: • Symbolism: Because cartoons use few words to convey a

message, various symbols are employed to represent certain concepts. To work, these symbols need to be easily recognized and understood by the readers. o Some common symbols:

Flag: patriotism Crown: royalty Money bag: anything to do with money, taxes, federal budget, cost-of-living

Donkey: Democrats—Elephant: Republicans School house: education Scales: law, justice, court system

Figure 92


79

6:6b Political Cartoons

Figure 93

• Caricatures: Exaggeration of prominent facial features or physical characteristics which are recognized by readers as belonging to certain politicians or celebrities.

• Stereotypes: Cartoonists will often use stereotypes of certain professions (for example, a school marm to represent educators) to stand for groups of people.

Figure 94


80

6:6c Political Cartoons

Figure 95

• Body language and facial expressions to represent

reactions. • Signs: If there could be some confusion about what some

aspect of the cartoon means, the cartoonist may plant a sign in front of the object, or in the hands of a character to explain briefly what is going on.

Figure 96


81

6:7a Review Writing

Figure 97

A review is not a report. Its primary function is to be critical. The review will be based on the reviewer’s individual responses to the performance, exhibit or experience, but these responses should be based on fact. The review should: • Make sense to the reader, whether or not the reader heard

the son, attended the concert, watched the movie, read the book or attended an exhibit.

• Extend one’s appreciation of the performance or exhibit. • Convey and honest and fair criticism, pro or con. Usually

contains both pro and con comments, although it is not a requirement.

• Offer a unique perspective, one reflecting the performance or exhibit as a whole, and one stressing a significant, fresh angle.

Figure 98


82

6:7b Review Writing

Figure 99

• Cite tangible, observable evidence for all conclusions. • Build on accurate observations and appropriate reporting. • Make the reader feel like he or she was part of the same

experience.

Figure 100


83

6:7c Review Writing

Figure 101

Reviews: • Combine elements of feature writing and of opinion writing.

o Use colorful, sight-sound details o Express a meaningful, clear viewpoint

• Begin with a novelty or feature lead. • Give the writer’s overall impression of the art form early in

the piece. • Organize the experience in a meaningful way, often by

artistic concerns o Effect o Style o Tone o Acting o Staging o Sound quality

• Include details to support criticism, good and bad.

Figure 102


84

6:7d Review Writing

Figure 103

• Reflect artistic sensitivity and avoid condescending manners

and simplistic statements. • Use transitions to move reader from one part of the story to

the next. • Conclude with paragraph that ties the review together,

repeating a key element from the lead.

Figure 104


85

6:7e Review Writing

Figure 105

What kind of art forms can be reviewed? • Drama • Music • Art (painting, sculpture, architecture, photography) • Film, media (TV, radio) • Publications (books, periodicals) • Restaurants • Travel packages • Software (games, new programs) • Electronics (new gadgets, gizmos, etc.)

Figure 106


86

7:1a Types of Headlines

Figure 107

• Single line: Hastings Ninth Grade Center to open Monday • Double line:

Students cope with decision not to issue lockers this term • Hammer

Rise and shine Early morning D-hall a real eye-opener • Underline (Main headline with a secondary headline)

It’s always something Students find innovative excuses for tardies, absences • Overline

Hurricane’s winds and rain devastate community

A mid-summer’s nightmare


87

7:1b Types of Headlines

Figure 108

• Wicket

It did not last long and it melted as soon as it touched ground,

but Tuesday’s brief winter storm had students singing

‘Let it snow, let it snow, let it snow’

• Tripod

It’s a wrap: Clubs raise funds by decorating gifts


88

7:2 Top 10 List of ‘Dos’ in Headline Writing

Figure 109

• Do read the article, especially the opening paragraph, to understand the purpose and the main idea.

• Do give the most general, overall focus/summary of the story.

• Do remember that the headline may be the reason the reader decides to read the story (The headline the #2 entry point).

• Do limit the number of words—6-10 generally. • Do use strong, active verbs. (“To be” verbs are generally

understood, but are not written out as they only take up space.)

• Do use present tense verbs to show past action. Use the infinitive (to plus the verb) to show future action.

• Do express a complete thought. Headlines usually read like simple sentences, without words like a, an and the.

• Do use a secondary headline—or subhead—to convey an additional idea in the story.

• Do, for downstyle headlines, capitalize only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives. For upstyle headlines, capitalize the first letter of each word. Avoid all cap headlines as they are hard to read.


89

7:3 Top 10 List of ‘Don’t Dos’ in Headline Writing

Figure 110

• Don’t editorialize in the headline. • Don’t use acronyms/abbreviations that readers won’t

recognize. • Don’t put information in a headline that is not in the story. • Don’t write the headline of a news story from any part of

the story other than the summary lead. • Don’t copy the wording in the lead for the headline. • Don’t overuse puns. If you groan, it’s no good. If you laugh,

it’s good. • Don’t use headlines with double-entendre meanings. It takes

a dirty mind to edit a clean newspaper. • Don’t split: adjectives/nouns; proper names; verbs/adverbs;

prepositions/objects, etc. • Don’t turn in three or four versions of a headline unless the

editor specifically requests it. • Don’t be afraid to ask for help.

Figure 111


90

7:4 Headline Count System

Figure 112

Even though computers help you fit headlines in these modern times, knowing headline counts will help you write tighter, better heads. Letter Count Capital I 1 Capital M, W 2 All other capital letters 1.5 Lowercase f, l, i, t, j .5 Lowercase m, w 1.5 All other lowercase letters 1 Spaces .5 Numerals, except for 1 1 The number 1 .5 Question mark, dash 1 All other punctuation .5

Figure 113


91

8:1a Type Classifications

Figure 114

• Serif Characterized by thin and thick strokes on letters, and tiny decorative strokes at the base and other extremities of the letters. Very readable type. Good choice for body text.

• Sans Serif Characterized by simplicity. Strokes are the same width. No decorative strokes at ends of letters. Not as readable as serif type, but a good choice for larger uses, such as headlines.

• Script or Cursive Script and cursive types are based on hand-lettered forms. Script letters do not connect; cursive letters do.

Figure 115


92

8:1b Type Classifications

Figure 116

Text Elaborate, old-fashioned faces, also based on hand-lettering. Used mainly for nameplates for some newspapers.

• Decorative/ Novelty

Decorative and novelty typefaces are distinct, attention-getting and eccentric. They are used for advertising, posters, greeting cards and to set the mood for stories in the paper.

Figure 117


93

8:2a Type Tips • Keep your type choices simple.

o Stick to two families of type—one serif, one sans serif. For special features, you can use a novelty or decorative type if the story calls for it.

o Choose typefaces that have many options, such as: Bold Italic Bold Italic Extrabold Light Extended

• Look at what the pros are doing. o Study print publications to see the trends. o Study the type design used for television show titles

and movie titles. o Keep an idea file with type treatments that appeal to

you. • Remember that what is trendy right now may not be next

year, and what was trendy last year may not be trendy now. o Keep updating those idea files. o Attend workshops presented by student press

associations. There are usually sessions on type design. • Play with type to see what works for the project you are

doing.


94

8:2b Type Tips

Use contrasting types to vary the look.

• Size o Use large and small sizes together.

• Weight o Use heavy and light weight types together

for maximum contrast.

• Structure o Study the forms of the letters. Some are

the same thickness throughout. Others are combinations of thick and thin strokes. Try different combinations for a variety of looks.

• Form o Contrast in form can be done in several

ways: Upper case vs. lower case Roman vs. Italic or Script

• Italic and script have many similarities so it is not a good idea to combine them.


95

8:2c Type Tips

• Direction

o Type should be horizontal rather than vertical in direction.

DO NOT

U S E

V E R T I C A L

T Y P E

o If you must do a vertical type placement, turn the type sideways.

Thi

s is m

uch

ea

sier

to r

ead

o Avoid diagonal type


96

8:2d Type Tips

• Color/Color

o Warm colors make the letters appear to come forward; cooler colors seem to recede. Experiment with the shades of gray to produce the same effect in black and white.

• AVOID ALL CAPS o Unless you have a very specific, logical

reason for using all caps, don’t. Readability is reduced considerably.

You might use all caps in the main deck of a major headline for impact, but use it in small doses, two or three words.


97

9:1 Photographic Composition

Figure 118

• Large photographs are the number 1 entry point into a story. • Photographs must tell a story as well as be visually

appealing. • Photos should be cropped for maximum impact. • Photographers should use the “Rule of 3rds” when

composing photos. • Photos for publication should be action shots that show real

people doing real things. • Photos should face onto a page, or into a story. • Vertical pictures often have more impact than horizontal

ones. • Avoid “grip-and-grin” shots for publication. • In group photos, no face should be smaller than a dime.

Figure 119


98

9:2 Photo Ethics

Figure 120

Ethical publications never: • Combine two or more photos to improve on the composition

and then represent them as being the original scene. • Insert people into photographs that were not in the original

scene. • Remove objects or people from photographs to improve on

the composition. • Make any changes to photographs other than normal

cropping, dodging and burning. • “Flop” a negative to make a person face a different

direction.

Figure 121


99

9:3a Caption Writing

Figure 122

• The caption should be a little story about the picture and it should be complete.

• Always write at least two sentences per caption. o The first should be in present tense and should describe

the action that is seen. o The second should be in past tense and should give

additional information to complete the story. o A third sentence consisting of a quote from someone

involved in the story can be added. • Captions should give specific information, but should not

state the obvious. • The caption should begin with an interesting lead. • Strong visual nouns should be used. • The caption should be written in complete sentences. • Complete names should be used, and all people in the

picture should be identified by name, if there are six or fewer people.

Figure 123


100

9:3b Caption Writing

Figure 124

• If there are more than six people in the picture, the group should be identified (for example, Joe Stephens’ biology class.

• Avoid excessive use of verbals, or –ing words, to begin captions.

• Never, ever write joke or gag captions.

Figure 125


101

10:1a Advertising Appeals Advertising does not create a need for a product or a service, but it can create a desire based on propaganda techniques and recognized advertising appeals.

Figure 126

• Transfer or Masculine/Feminine Appeal o The key to the ad is atmosphere. You see the perfection

in the ad, and the message you get is that you will transfer these qualities to yourself if you use the product being offered.

• Desire for possessions: o The ad makes people want to buy one product over

another, such as a Rolex over a Timex. • Luxury and elegance/snob appeal.

o Creates a feeling of envy or desire for this “fine” product.

Figure 127


102

10:1b Advertising Appeals

Figure 128

• Search for adventure. o Ad gives the impression that buying the product will

change your life, fill it with action and adventure. Tries to unsettle the reader or viewer. Most 4-wheel drive vehicles use this appeal.

• Less than perfect: Ad tries to get consumers to change by making them dissatisfied with the way they are.

• Loving couples/romance: o Ad reveals an attraction between the sexes.

Figure 129


103

10:1c Advertising Appeals

Figure 130

• Emotional words:

o Ad appeals directly to the sensitivity of the consumer. • Past, present and future:

o Ad has a concern for time, concentrating on the “youth-giving qualities” of a product.

• Humor: o Ad evokes a laugh or a chuckle from the consumer.

• Endorsement/Prestige identification: o Well-known personality uses the product and pitches it

to you. • Play on words:

o Uses a catch phrase or a pun that conveys a message, uses wit effectively.

Figure 131


104

10:1d Advertising Appeals

Figure 132

• Statistics: o Ad uses facts and figures to prove the quality or

popularity of the product. • Plain folks/Slice of life:

o Ad uses an “every day” appeal; uses ordinary people to recommend a product, or makes celebrities appear to be common folk.

• Bandwagon: o Ad shows you that “everybody” is doing it. Appeals to

you to be part of the crowd.

Figure 133


105

10:2 Ads that Sell

Figure 134

• The purpose of advertising is to increase sales for the advertiser.

• It should also benefit the consumer and the publication. • The number one entry point on an ad is a large photograph

or illustration. If an ad has a large picture, more people will look at the ad.

• The second entry point is a large, bold headline. This headline should attract the attention of the reader by offering a benefit.

• Subheads can be used to expand on the benefit offered and can serve as a lead-in to the copy.

• The copy should give information on the product, how it differs from other similar products, reasons to buy the product and easy-to-understand statistics.

• White space in the ad lets the ad breathe. • Keep the design simple. Do not “decorate” with clip art.


106

10:3 Sample Ad Layout

Figure 135


107

10:4 Sample Ad Contract Name of Newspaper

Name of School

Address Phone Number

Advertising Contract

RATE AGREEMENT

[ ] Open rate: no discount [ ] 5% discount [ ] 10% discount [ ] Special promo [ ] School organization Color Options [ ] Spot Color $75 [ ] Full Color $300

ISSUES Year _________ [ ] Issue #1 [ ] Issue #2 [ ] Issue #3 [ ] Issue #4 [ ] Issue #5 [ ] Issue #6 [ ] Issue #7 [ ] Issue #8 METHOD OF PAYMENT [ ] Cash [ ] Check #________ [ ] Bill: Net 30 days

Business Name _______________________Mailing Address______________________ City, State, Zip _______________________Phone_______________Fax_____________Authorized Signature__________________ School Representative_________________ ------------------------------------------------------TERMS OF THE AGREEMENT ------------------------------------------------------The client named above agrees to purchase _________in advertising space in ____ issues of the XXXX newspaper. The cost of the advertisement for one issue is $__________ and the total cost of all newspaper advertising within this contract is $________. The client named above agrees that the total cost for all ads contractually obligated to run under this agreement is $___________

• This contract constitutes a legally binding agreement between the client and the publication named herein. The client agrees to provide either a camera-ready advertisement or the art and copy necessary to create an advertisement. The publication requires that clean black and white copy be provided to use. Colored ink or paper drastically reduces the quality of the image and will not be accepted.

• The deadline for placing advertisements is 10 (ten) days prior to the publication date

• Rates: See current rate sheet for rates, publication dates and policies • Payments: To qualify for the 5% “Pay now discount”, payment must be

made when the contract is signed. To qualify for the 10% “3-consecutive issue” discount, the same size ad must be purchased for three consecutive issues. Copy changes may be made.

• Billed accounts are payable within 30 days of the invoice date. Advertisers who contract for multiple insertions and who choose to be billed will be billed after each insertion. Advertisers who do not pay for their ads by the due date may have future ads pulled or rejected for non-payment. Advertisers will receive tear sheets as proof of payment.

• We reserve the right to refuse advertising. Products and services illegal or inappropriate for minors will be rejected by the newspaper staff.


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10:5a 10 Steps to Selling an Ad 1. Look professional.

a. Your appearance should be neat and clean. You are representing a business, the publication.

Figure 136

2. See the right person—ask to see the decision-maker. a. Make your first contact with the business by calling in

person on the individual who is authorized to make decisions.

b. Do not telephone. c. If that person is out or unavailable, leave a card or

information sheet for the advertiser and ask for an appointment, jot a personal note on the card saying that you will be back at that time.

d. Follow up!

Figure 137


109

10:5b 10 Steps to Selling an Ad

3. Make a good first impression. a. Shake the hand of the decision-maker. b. Introduce yourself as a member of the yearbook or

newspaper staff. c. Present your business card. d. Use language appropriate to the situation—do not use

slang words that the advertiser may not understand.

Figure 138

4. Talk benefits. a. Give the advertiser an information sheet telling about

your publication b. Explain the benefits of purchasing an ad. c. Show the advertiser a copy of the publication. d. Tell what your circulation figures are—how many

copies of the yearbook you sell, how many newspapers you distribute.


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10:5c 10 Steps to Selling an Ad

Figure 139

e. Talk about student purchasing power. Now is the time

to show the results of marketing surveys. 5. Sell the ad sizes and prices.

a. Explain the sizes and ad rates. b. Give the owner a copy of the publication rate card. c. Show a sample page with the ad sizes drawn out so that

the owner can see the actual size and shapes of ads. 6. Show an ad idea.

a. Show the sample ad you have designed and get the advertiser’s comments.

i. A sample ad is a great way to increase sales. ii. Prepare the sample ad using pencil sketches or

quick computer designs.

Figure 140


111

10:5d 10 Steps to Selling an Ad

7. Handle objections. a. If an advertiser gives reasons for not buying an ad,

respond with some answers to eliminate the objection. 8. Ask the business to purchase.

a. Be sure you actually ask prospects to buy an ad. b. Avoid asking a “yes-no” question at this point.

i. Say, “Which size ad would be most useful to you this year?”

9. Get complete information. a. Get all the information at this time: ad size, price, copy

suggestions, logo, photo or art instructions; business name, address, phone number, payment status, customer signature on the contract.

Figure 141


112

10:5e 10 Steps to Selling an Ad

b. Be prepared to tell the advertiser what the ad will cost and to collect a check for the amount that day, if possible.

c. If you plan to bill, clearly state how billing will be handled.

10. Say thank you. a. A sincere thank you is the most important way to

complete the selling presentation, even if the business does not purchase the ad.

Figure 142

Remember: Five characteristics of a successful ad salesperson:

1. Prompt 2. Polite 3. Prepared 4. Persuasive 5. Persistent

--From workshop handouts, origin unknown


113

11:1a Newspaper Design Tips

Figure 143

• All story packages should be shaped like rectangles. • All standing elements should go on the page first.

o For front page, that includes nameplate, teasers, index. o For inside pages, standing elements such as column

headers, staff box. o Advertising should be placed ahead of stories.

• Create a hierarchy, through the placement of story modules. o The most important stories go at the top of the page,

with lesser important ones lower on the page. • Every page should have a dominant photo or center of

visual interest. • Photos should face into the story/module. • Every story must have a headline.

Figure 144


114

11:1b Newspaper Design Tips

Figure 145

• Use no more than 2 typefaces per page, a serif and a sans serif. You can use a decorative or novelty type for a feature story headline IF the typeface fits the mood of the story.

• All design elements should have a reason for being there. • Keep standing elements consistent from issue to issue. • Headlines should decrease in size as you move down the

page. • Have vertical and horizontal modules for contrast. • If color is used, it should mean something. Color is

expensive and should not be wasted on something trivial. • Keep design simple. It’s called design, not decorating. • Study professional newspapers for examples.

Figure 146


115

12:1a Yearbook Planning

Figure 147

A yearbook is: • A picture book.

o Photography plays a big part in the production of the book.

• A history book. o It contains news and features about the school year that

students will keep forever. • A record book.

o The book contains factual information about the year, including sports scores, and names and pictures of students who attended.

Figure 148


116

12:1b Yearbook Planning and Design

Figure 149

• A reference book.

o Years after memories have faded, the yearbook will still have images and facts to which graduates can refer.

• A public relations tool. o Not a cheerleader for the administration. o A well designed and produced book reflects positively

on the school. • An educational experience.

o Staffers gain hands-on, real-world experience in producing a book, writing and editing, design.

Figure 150


117

12:2a Yearbook Design • Learn the basics of design, then adapt, using current trends.

o Study current magazines for ideas.

Figure 151

o Keep an idea file of designs from various publications. o Attend workshops for student journalists to keep

abreast of trends and how to make them work for you. o Learn to adapt others’ ideas to use in your own

publications; don’t copy them, but pick and choose elements that you like, then design something that works for your publication.

o When you are ready to go beyond the basics, let your yearbook representative guide you so that you will avoid problems.

• Keep your design simple. Remember, you are designing, not decorating. o Keep the reader in mind. All design should help the

reader get the most out of the information presented. Nothing should confuse the reader.

Figure 152


118

12:2b Yearbook Design

Figure 153

• Be consistent: o Choose one or two type families. o Keep consistent internal margins (there should be a 1-

pica wide line of white space between all elements on the page unless you are purposely overlapping elements or purposely going for a different look. (In the class section, just use a thin white line to separate mug shots.)

o Be consistent with your column widths within each section.

Yearbook layout pages are marked off in 6- and 8-column choices for a double page spread. Some companies offer more choices. • Start with these, then branch out as you get

more comfortable with design. • Design in double page spreads. A reader sees two pages at

once. Design these pages as a unit. o Every double page spread should have a dominant

element. This is usually a photograph, but could be an illustration or some other element.


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12:2c Yearbook Design • Every photo should have a caption, and the caption should

be immediately above, below or next to the picture. Remember the rules for caption writing: if there are five or fewer people in the picture, each person should be identified; if there are six or more, the group should be identified, as in “Joe Smith’s biology class…” o One exception: Organizational group photos and team

shots should have full identification. o Do not stack more than two captions on top of each

other. • Copy (stories, headlines, captions) should NOT be extended

across the gutter (the seam between the pages). It does not look good, plus part of the type will be lost and will not be seen by the reader.

• Photographs, especially the dominant photo, can extend across the gutter.

• If a photograph extends beyond an external margins of the page, it should bleed off the page and should not end in the margin area. However, only one picture should bleed, and in only one direction.

• Headlines should be written journalistically and should have a subject and a verb. The headline should connect in content with the dominant picture.

• Keep photographs and other “heavy elements” toward the center of the double page spread, and lighter elements, such as copy and graphics, to the outside.


120

12:3a Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread This is for a very basic yearbook spread. As you get more comfortable with design, you can branch off from this and create much more sophisticated layouts.

Figure 154

All pages in the book except for the first and last pages, are designed in double page spreads. The simplest way to design the spread is to make use of the columnar format on the layout sheets provided by your yearbook publisher. For consistency, choose a 6-column, 8-column (or in some cases, a 10-column) layout for the section. Most yearbook layouts are based on a mosaic concept; that is, everything is placed around the dominant element in pinwheel fashion. Begin by establishing an eyeline across the double page spread. The eyeline is a pica-wide line that goes across the DPS and will serve as an internal margin between elements. The eyeline should be in the upper or lower third of the DPS. It should never be across the midpoint of the spread.


121

12:3b Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread

Figure 155

Place the dominant photo. It should be 2-2 ½ times larger than any other element on the page. It should go across or next to the gutter. All pictures should take up the entire width of the number of columns they go across. Do not begin or end a photo in the middle of a column. Place the other pictures on the page in pinwheel fashion. Each should rest upon or hang from the eyeline or touch the dominant photo. Save room for the captions next to each picture. Place the captions next to, above, or below the pictures they describe. The captions should be the width of one column. You can stack two captions, but no more than that. Place the story on the page so that it either rests upon or hangs from the eyeline. The story should be set one column wide, then broken into two or more legs to fit the space. The headline should go above the story.


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13:1a Writing for Broadcast

Figure 156

Writing for broadcast differs from writing for print publications. Here are some guidelines: • The lead of a broadcast story is like the headline of a print

story; it lets the reader know what the story is about. o The lead should get to the point of the story in the first

sentence o The viewers/listeners should hear the who, what, when

and where in the first sentence. The why and how can come later.

o The lead should not begin with a name. Save the name for the second sentence.

• Hit the highlights. Time is important; eliminate the fluff.

Figure 157


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13:1b Writing for Broadcast

Figure 158

• Quotes. All comments must be attributed.

o The attribution word is says. o Do not say, “Quote, end quote”.

• Writing style is brief and concise. Avoid adjectives and adverbs; they just take up air time. Use vivid nouns and verbs.

• Contractions o Ok to use in broadcast writing because they sound

conversational.

Figure 159


124

13:1c Writing for Broadcast

Figure 160

Use of “our” and “us”

o Ok to use. o Broadcasters are considered a part of the community

they are talking about, unlike print journalists who are considered observers.

• Use active voice. • Use present tense whenever possible. • Avoid abbreviations except for Mr., Mrs., or Dr.

o If abbreviations must be used, place hyphens between letters and numbers that should be pronounced separately, as in “N-double A-C-P.”

Figure 161


125

13:1d Writing for Broadcast

Figure 162

• Numbers. Write numbers so that announcer can read them

easily. o Write out numbers one through nine and the number

eleven. o For 10 and 12 through 999, use Arabic numerals. o For other numbers, use alphanumeric combinations,

such as one-thousand-eleven; 123-thousand-552. • Symbols. Spell out symbols. • Measurements/Amounts: Spell out words which deal with

measurements and/or amounts. • Ordinal numbers. It is permissible to write 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and

4th in dates, addresses or anywhere else ordinal numbers may be used.

Figure 163


126

13:1e Writing for Broadcast

Figure 164

• Round off numbers.

o Write “about 1000” rather than an exact number such as 998.

• Time: o Avoid the use of a.m. or p.m. o Say “this morning” or “this afternoon” as these sound

more current. • Punctuation: Use only these marks:

o Period o Dash o Question mark o Comma o Three periods (…) indicate the announcer should pause o Use a double hyphen (--) rather than parentheses.


127

13:1f Writing for Broadcast

Figure 165

• Corrections. Do NOT use copyediting symbols to correct

mistakes. Strike out words completely and retype them. • Spell phonetically. • Keep words to one or two syllables • Avoid hissing sounds. • Avoid exotic words; keep everything simple. • Read the story aloud. Listen to what it sounds like. • Use the script and storyboard forms to map out the

broadcast.

Figure 166


128

13:2 Technical Information for Broadcast

Figure 167

. Figure 168 The Storyboard.

The script is divided into a video portion and an audio portion. The video section is used to tell what will be seen, and the audio section tells what will be heard at the same time: the dialogue, the music, sound effects, etc. This is like a print layout sheet, only it maps out the broadcast.

The storyboard is a visual, graphic depiction of a narrative. It is used to visually map out scenes and camera angles and tie them to the audio portion of the broadcast.


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13:3 Selected Video Terminology Terms Frame: A single picture on a piece of film.

Individual frames are run through the projector quickly (30 frames per second for standard videotape.

Shot: A single set of images taped from the time the camera starts to the time it stops.

Cut: (1) The place where two separate shots or sections of a shot are joined together in a tape. The instantaneous change from one shot to another. (2) Director’s command to stop action and recording immediately.

Fade in/Fade out:

The gradual appearance or disappearance of an image from or into darkness.

Dissolve: A transition from one shot to another in which one shot fades out while the other fades in. One shot is superimposed over another.

Rule of Thirds:

As in photography. An element of shot composition based on the screen being divided into thirds horizontally and vertically, and then placing important elements along those lines.

Essential Area:

The area that will be seen on most TV screens. Encompasses 80 percent of the screen measured from the center.

Headroom:

Space between the top of a subject’s head and a monitor’s upper screen edge.


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13:4 Camera Angles High angle:

The camera looks down on the subject. Can make subjects appear smaller or less important.

Low angle:

The camera looks up at the subject. Can make subjects appear larger or more important.

Straight angle:

The camera is on the same level as the subject. Usually used in news or realistic shots.

Figure 169


131

13:5 Camera Distances Extreme Close-up:

Figure 170

A shot in which the camera is very close to the subject. If the subject is a person’s face, only features such as the eyes or mouth are shown. Often used to exaggerate features so that the characters look ugly or provocative.

Close-up:

Figure 171

A shot in which the camera is close to the subject. When the subject is a person, this usually means only the person’s face or face and shoulders are shown. Often used to show emotion.

Medium Shot or Mid Shot:

Figure 172

The shot between a long shot and a close-up. With characters, it usually shows them from the waist up.

Long Shot:

Figure 173

A shot that uses the camera’s full angle of view (the camera is zoomed out all the way), so that the subject is a distance from the camera, and you can see the whole object. Also called a full shot.

Extreme Long Shot:

Figure 174

A shot in which characters appear very small in the distance.


132

13:6 Camera Movement Pan: The camera moves across the field of vision

from either right or left. Tilt: The camera moves up or down. Zoom in or zoom out:

A zoom lens moves toward or away from the subject quickly so that it is apparent to the viewer.

Crane: The camera moves up and away, often used at the end of scenes.

Figure 175


133

14:1 Newspaper Editorial Policy Your newspaper will need to establish a policy before publishing so that the staff will know how to handle certain situations. Discuss and answer the following questions: • Is the paper an open forum? Will you accept submissions

from outside the staff? Who makes the editorial decisions on what to include in the paper?

• Will you accept advertising? o What types of ads are acceptable? o What types of ads are not acceptable?

• How will you handle the death of a student or faculty member? (Establish a basic policy with the idea that circumstances might warrant additional coverage.)

• Use the SPLC Model Guidelines (http://www.splc.org/legalresearch.asp?id=6) to establish a policy, and add in the topics not covered.

Figure 176


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14:2a Staff Positions • Editor-in-Chief

o Oversees all aspects of the newspaper production.

Figure 177

o Maintains publications calendar. o Motivates staff to meet deadlines.

• Assistant Editor o Assists editor with all responsibilities. o Acts in the editor’s behalf if the editor is unavailable.

• Design/Layout Editor o Prepares templates for pages on the computer. o Works with staff to make sure pages are done correctly.

• Section Editors (News, Features, Sports, Opinion, Entertainment, etc.) o Oversee the writing and editing of content in the

respective sections. • Copy Editor

o Responsible for overseeing editing of all copy, assigning pages to be edited.

o Follows up to make sure all corrections are made.


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14:2b Staff Positions • Advertising Manager

o Oversees the production of all ads. o Maintains a list of advertisers for each issue, ad sizes,

contact information, who has paid, who is to be billed. o Checks to make sure all ads are in place.

• Business Manager o Prepares tear sheets and invoices to send to advertisers. o Keeps all records of accounts to be billed.

• Photography and Art Editors o Receive art and photo assignments from editorial staff. o Assign or take photos/draw cartoons by deadline. o Communicate with editorial staff.

• Photographers, Artists o Take pictures, draw illustrations as assigned.

• Reporters o Interview, do research, write stories as assigned.

• All staff o Meet deadlines. o Communicate with one another. o Copyedit as assigned. o Extra duties as assigned.

Production of the publication is a team effort. It may require that you put in some extra time in order to get everything done.


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14:3a Production Steps • Editor and adviser prepare production calendar, working

backward from the distribution date. • If necessary, staff will need to decide on:

o Nameplate o Typeface for text, headlines, captions o Style for folios, bylines and other standing features

• Staffers submit story ideas to editor.

Figure 178

• Staff meets, discusses story ideas. • Editor assigns stories, or staffers volunteer for stories. • Staffers work with photographers, artists to coordinate

photos and art. • Staffers interview, research and write stories. • Editors read rough drafts, make suggestions for

improvement. • Staffers rewrite and submit final stories. • Copy editor and helpers edit for style, spelling, punctuation,

fact.


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14:3b Production Steps • Staffers correct stories. • Staffers prepare pages with the help of the layout editor. • Photographers, artists submit photos and illustrations, along

with caption information.

Figure 179

• Staffers proof pages, submit to section editors. • Section editors proof pages, submit to editor. • Editor proofs pages, submits to adviser. • Paper goes to press.

Figure 180

• Paper is distributed. • Staff evaluates paper.

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