introduction - nemesneme-s.org/cthss/machining fundamentals/intro.pdf · ing, electrical discharge...

1.0 OVERVIEWMachinists are highly skilled men and

women. They use drawings, hand tools, andvarious machine tools to shape and finish metaland nonmetal parts. Machinists must have asound understanding of basic and advancedmachining technology, including:

• The ability to properly use precisionmeasuring tools.

• A proficiency in safe machine tooloperation (manual, automatic, and computer-controlled).

• A knowledge of the working propertiesof metals and nonmetals.

• Basic academic skills (math, science,English, print reading, metallurgy).

A well-planned machining program inte-grates and balances hands-on experience withthe comprehensive coverage of the technicalaspects of machining technology.

Machining Fundamentals provides an intro-duction to this important segment of manufac-turing technology. It furnishes basic informationon the tools, materials, and procedures employedin machining technology. Remember—before youcan go high tech, you must first understand thefundamentals.

1.1 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALSThe following materials have been devel-

oped to aid in presenting a dynamic machiningprogram.

1.1.1 TextbookThe textbook is a very important part of an

instructional program. Machining Fundamentals

provides an introduction to machining tech-nology. The text explains the how, why, and whenof the various machining operations, setups,and procedures. Through it, your students/trainees will learn about the various relatedareas of machining technology, how machinetools operate, and when to use one particularmachine instead of another. The advantages anddisadvantages of the various machining tech-niques are also discussed.

Machining Fundamentals details the manycommon methods of machining and shapingparts to given specifications. It also coversnewer processes such as laser machining andwelding, water-jet cutting, high energy rateforming (HERF), cryogenics, chipless machin-ing, electrical discharge machining (EDM), elec-trical discharge wire cutting (EDWC),electrochemical machining (ECM), numericalcontrol (NC and CNC), robotics, rapid proto-type forming, and the importance of computersin the operation of most of these machiningtechniques.

Machining Fundamentals is written in aneasy-to-understand language. There are manycolor photographs and line drawings to helpstudents/trainees clearly visualize machiningoperations and procedures.

Colors are used throughout MachiningFundamentals to indicate various materials orequipment features. The color key is on page 4of the text. The following list identifies colorsand materials by name.

Metals (surfaces) Dark GrayDirection or force arrows,

dimensional information RedMachines/machine parts Blue

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Introduction

Fasteners YellowTools Dark GreenAbrasives BrownWork-holding and

tool-holding devices PurpleFluids Lime GreenRulers and

measuring devices TanMiscellaneous Orange

Learning ObjectivesEvery chapter opens with a list of objectives.

They make the student/trainee aware of whathe/she will be able to accomplish after studyingthe chapter.

Because of many factors, it may not be pos-sible to achieve every objective with each class.However, it is better to thoroughly cover lessmaterial than to cover all of the material poorly.

Test Your Knowledge QuestionsEach chapter ends with a set of questions. The

questions can be used to check student compre-hension of the text material. The questions can beused as either a quiz, homework, or extra credit.

GlossaryThe glossary provides a quick reference to

the definitions of technical terms used inmachining technology.

Reference SectionA reference section of tables and other useful

information is provided on pages 557–592. Thissection contains information on a variety of topicsincluding the physical properties of many metals,cutting speeds and feeds, drill and screw threadsizes, and metric tables.

1.1.2 Instructor’s ResourcesThe resources have been devised to assist

the instructor in improving their machiningtechnology program. For each chapter, itincludes Learning Objectives, a list of TechnicalTerms, the text’s Test Your Knowledge Questions,Research and Development Ideas, Answer Keys,Reproducible Masters, and color transparencies. Italso includes a correlation chart for Level I ofthe Duties and Standards for Machining Skills.

Learning ObjectivesFor ease in referencing, text objectives are

listed for each chapter. The goals presentedinvolve basic concepts, skills, and understand-

ings that should be stressed while teaching thechapter. The objectives can also be used as anoutline when preparing lesson plans.

Technical TermsIt is important that machinists use the cor-

rect technical terms of the trade. Studentsshould be encouraged to review and study anynew and unfamiliar terms.

Test Your Knowledge QuestionsThe questions from the end of the chapters

are included as reproducible masters. Save timeby copying and distributing the reproduciblemaster rather than having students use thequestions at the end of the chapter and writingtheir answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Research and Development IdeasThese ideas offer an opportunity to bring

many of the latest machining techniques intothe shop/lab. They can be used by both theinstructor and the student.

They can be used for open discussion,homework assignments, extra credit, or indivi-dual or group projects. They provide the oppor-tunity for developing student/trainee originalityand ingenuity.

Answer KeysAnswers to the Test Your Knowledge questions

and workbook are provided within each chapter.

Reproducible MastersFull-page illustrations and Test Your Know-

ledge questions that can be copied and distributedto students and/or used as overhead transparen-cies. Each is correlated to the text with a chapteridentification number. Color can be added to thetransparencies with felt tip pens.

Color TransparenciesA set of full-color transparencies has been

produced to help the instructor reinforce con-cepts presented in the textbook. The 56 trans-parencies are available in printed form with theInstructor's Resource Binder and in electronicform with the Instructor's Resource CD.

Duties and Standards for Machining SkillsLevel I Correlation Chart

A chart correlating the Duties and Standardsfor Machining Skills to the Machining Funda-mentals text has been included on pages 25–26

Machining Fundamentals Instructor’s Resource2

of this resource. The categories are correlated tothe text by chapter and section numbers.

The standards were developed by the metal-working industry to provide a certification andtraining method through which individualworkers can receive recognition and reward fortheir abilities. The standards will also helpemployers identify training needs and evaluatejob applicants fairly.

Although elements of all three standards oftenappear in training programs of varying levels,Machining Fundamentals is an introductory textso only Level I of the standards will be covered inthis manual.

For additional information on the standardsand testing programs, contact the NationalTooling and Machining Association (NTMA), 9300Livingston Road, Fort Washington, MD 20744.

G-W Test Creation SoftwareThe G-W Test Creation Software is included

with the Instructor’s Resource CD. The databasefor the software package includes over 1400questions. The versatility of the software allowsthe instructor to create customized tests.

Tests can be generated with randomlyselected questions, the selection of specific ques-tions from the database, and the addition ofpersonalized questions. Different versions of thesame test can be created for use during differentclass periods. The software also allows the mod-ification and importing of graphics. Answerkeys are automatically generated to simplifygrading.

1.1.3 WorkbookThe workbook is an aid for measuring stu-

dent/trainee achievement and comprehension.It uses a variety of questions, problems, andassignments. The workbook materials withineach chapter are presented in the same order ascorresponding material in the textbook.

For use as a study guide, students/traineesshould first read and study the material assignedin the textbook, giving careful consideration tothe illustrations. Then, without the aid of thetextbook, fill in the workbook answers. Asrecommended for several chapters of the text,the assignments in the workbook can also bedivided into parts as seen fit by the instructor.

Answers to the questions and problems con-sist of words, letters, numbers, and simple

drawings. Instruct students that words shouldbe spelled correctly and letters and numbersshould be carefully formed. It is highly recom-mended that the letters and words be printed.Stress to students that most tradespeople followthis same practice since the information will beeasier to read and the possibility of errors great-ly reduced. Sketches should be carefully drawnin the space provided. When required, mathe-matical calculations should be made in a neat,organized manner. This makes it easier to checkthe procedure used in solving the problem.

1.2 TO THE INSTRUCTORIt is not possible for an author or publisher

to provide a detailed machining technology pro-gram that will be suitable for every teaching sit-uation. Some training programs require aspecific outline to be followed. Also, the type,number, age, and condition of the machine toolsavailable will vary.

As the instructor, only you can determinethe material that will best serve your stu-dents/trainees. Only you know their abilities,the facilities, materials, and equipment at yourdisposal, and the time available.

Before the first class meeting, familiarizeyourself with the text and its related teachingmaterial. Outline the chapters you plan to teach.Prepare detailed lesson plans and gatherand/or make the teaching aids that will beneeded. Check equipment that will be used. Besure it is in good condition with all safety fea-tures in place. Have ample supplies on hand.

This will probably be the first machiningtechnology class to which your students/traineeshave been exposed. What is so obvious to you,may be completely foreign to them. Make yourlesson plans with this in mind.

1.3 SHOP/LAB MANAGEMENTThere are several areas in shop/lab man-

agement that must be considered. If properlydeveloped, they can save time that can better bedevoted to one-on-one teaching.

1.3.1 Control of Tools and ConsumableSupplies

Many expensive tools are required inmachining technology. A method for controlling

Introduction 3

their disbursement and return to inventory mustbe devised and continually monitored to reducethe number of damaged tools and to preventpilferage. The same care must be exercised forissuing stock and other consumable supplies.

You can examine the systems local indus-tries have established for control of tools andsupplies, and implement one of them, or youcan devise your own.

1.3.2 SchedulingBecause of equipment limitations, you will

not be able to have all students/trainees work-ing on the same assignment at the same time.Assignments must be organized and scheduledso equipment will be used as much as practical.

1.3.3 Shop/Lab Management SystemGood housekeeping and cleanliness is

important in machining technology. Insist thatstudents/trainees clean workstations after use.To aid in overall shop/lab cleanliness, each per-son should be assigned, on a rotating basis, aspecific cleanup task each week. Praise themwhen the job is well done.

Once a week, a more thorough cleanupshould be done. This includes cleaning lockersand getting shop coats and aprons washed.

Since the best teaching is on a one-to-onebasis, a well organized student/trainee man-agement system will give you more time forindividual aid.

Assignments should be given on a rotatingbasis so all of them will be able to experienceeach position at least once during the term.

In the interest of maintaining a safe andorderly shop, a student/trainee managementsystem should include the following positionsand responsibilities:

SuperintendentResponsibilities should include:• Directing the student/trainee management

system.• Bringing the class to order.• Inspecting the shop/lab for cleanliness and

apparent or potential safety problems.• Checking with other systems managers to be

sure they are working at their assigned duties.• Assigning students to fill in system vacancies

caused by absences.• Initiating cleanup.

• Inspecting the shop/lab at the end of theperiod for cleanliness, securing reports fromother systems managers.

• Reporting the condition of the machines,tools, and supplies.

Records ClerkResponsibilities should include:• Recording attendance and tardiness.• Keeping progress charts up-to-date.• Serving as bookkeeper for stock requisition.• Delivering messages.• Greeting visitors.Tool Crib ManagerResponsibilities should include:• Issuing and returning tools to proper storage.• Keeping accurate records of tools issued and

returned.• Reporting missing tools and tools in poor or

unsafe condition.Stock and Supply SupervisorResponsibilities should include:• Recording student/trainee requisitions for

metal stock and supplies.• Cutting stock to requisitioned size.• Sorting metal scrap to salvage usable material.• Reporting pending shortages of supplies.• Keeping stock organized in storage racks.

The above are only suggested managementpositions. They can be added to, and the dutiesmodified and/or changed.

1.4 IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONWhether teaching machining technology, or

any other subject, you make use of certain uni-versal instructional tools. All good teachersapply these concepts, either consciously orunconsciously. When making your lesson plans,try to implement the ideas listed below.• Reinforce. The more ways a student/trainee

is exposed to a given concept, the greater theunderstanding and retention of the material.A variety of learning experiences aredesigned to meet the reinforcement needs ofthe learner.

• Extend. The teaching suggestions in thismanual are directed at students/traineeswith a variety of ability levels. Some assign-ments may be chosen to encourage highlymotivated students/trainees to extend theirlearning experience outside the shop/lab.These types of activities allow them to relatetext information to other experiences.


• Reteach. Students/trainees respond differ-ently to diverse teaching methods andtechniques. This allows you to choose adifferent plan of action to reteach thosewho responded poorly to a previous strategy.

1.5 PLANNING AN INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM

No matter what approach you take in teach-ing a basic machining technology program, theimportance of careful planning and organizingcannot be overemphasized. Planning to achieveprogram goals will be easier if you know why,when, and how to plan.

Knowing Why to PlanPlanning is the process of carefully selecting

and developing the best course of action toachieve program goals and objectives. This actioncannot be a hit-or-miss situation. How well youmeet your teaching responsibility depends, to agreat extent, upon your consistency. Every classshould be planned and prepared carefully.

We plan so action will take place at the righttime. Planning helps anticipate problem areas oflearning, and makes adapting to and handlingemergencies easier. Planning saves time, money,and ensures a higher quality product—your stu-dents/trainees.

Planning helps assure quality results, savesvaluable class time, helps reduce disciplineproblems and makes it easier to adapt tochanges. Planning is also good teaching—knowing what has to be taught, what has beentaught, and what needs to be taught to reachprogram goals and objectives.

Knowing When to PlanIn lesson planning, it is best to be flexible.

That is, planning must be continuous. You mustbe able to adjust your lessons for differences inclasses or classes missed because of bad weatherand other unplanned interruptions.

Rigid planning means that a specific lessonwill be taught on a specific day. If a class ismissed that day, there is no way to make it up.Although preferable to not planning at all, rigidplanning is less effective than flexible planning.

When developing plans, you must considerthe time available. Once you know this, you canclassify the demands on this time by what must

be done, what should be done, and what neednot be done.

After a course of action has been deter-mined, specific planning can begin by:• Establishing goals for each class. Some classes

may require more time to master the sameskills and information than other classes.

• Taking inventory of supplies and equip-ment. Be sure the supplies are adequate.

• Considering different teaching techniques.What other methods are available that willbe equally effective?

• Providing specific learning experiences inan interesting manner.

• Setting plans into action. Once a plan of actionhas been developed, it should be followed.

Knowing How to PlanA lesson plan is an outline for teaching. It

keeps the essential points of the lesson in frontof you and ensures an orderly presentation ofmaterial. Such a plan does much to preventimportant aspects of a lesson from being omit-ted. It will also prevent you from straying toofar from the lesson and introducing irrelevantmaterial.

Your lesson plan should include the materialto be taught, the methods and techniques bestsuited to teach this material, any supplies orequipment needed, and teaching aids to be used.

Review your material before class time. Befamiliar with all of the material related to thesubject. You should be prepared to teach morematerial than you may have time to cover.Check all of the supplies and equipment to besure they are ready to use, in safe working con-dition, and arranged so they will be handy duringthe lesson. Seating and viewing arrangementsshould be such that every student/trainee can seeand hear the lesson.

Finally, keep your plans up-to-date. This canbe done by observing student/trainee progressand achievement. Make changes when youthink they are necessary for curriculumimprovement.

In general, always prepare a lesson plan andfollow it.

Modify it as necessary. Start with somethingthat is familiar to the student/trainee. Thenmove into new material in short easily under-stood steps. Avoid long boring lessons andlessons that do not allow student participation.

Introduction 5

The First Class SessionAfter becoming familiar with Machining

Fundamentals you will have to determinewhich chapters can be used in your machiningtechnology program and to the extent to whichthey will be covered. This will require specialplanning so students/trainees will acquiresufficient skills development through “handson” activities.

Whatever your selection, Chapters 2, 3, and4 should not be omitted. They are basic to anymachining technology program.

During the first class session, after all theadministrative paperwork is completed, haveyour students/trainees complete a personalinformation sheet designed like a job applica-tion. In addition to giving them experience infilling out a job application, it will help you getto know them better.

1.6 TEACHING METHODS FORMACHINING TECHNOLOGY

No learning takes place until a stu-dent/trainee wants to learn. Getting theminterested is the most difficult part of teaching.Motivation, therefore, is the first step in goodteaching. You want to stimulate students/traineesso they want to learn.

One of the quickest way to lose studentinterest is to be unprepared and present a mean-dering lesson. For effective teaching, you mustcarefully prepare the material, the situation inwhich it will be taught, and the student/traineewho will receive the new information.

Start by learning and mastering the materialyourself. Be sure all necessary materials andteaching aids are readily available and in goodworking condition.

Determine what equipment will be neededand position it so all students can see and hearthe lesson and/or demonstration.

Decide how you want to motivate your class.You can use curiosity. Students/trainees want tosee, hear, and know about new and differentthings. Competition is another way to createinterest. Some learners may want to take on achallenge to surpass another person or group.

Above all, you must be interested in what youare doing. If you are not interested in the subjectmatter, it is unlikely your students/trainees willbe interested.

Before placing responsibility for failure on astudent, review and evaluate the lessons taught

to determine whether the goals of the lessonswere attained.

Some instructors assume that if they arequick to learn, the same holds true of others.This has the effect of retarding the learningprocess rather than enhancing it. Impatience cancreate student/trainee fear of the instructor. Todo a good job, you must have the respect of thelearner. You do not have to be liked by them, butyou do not want to be feared. There is quite adifference.

Although careful preparation will greatlyimprove your teaching effectiveness, it does notguarantee success. The amount of effort todevelop and hold student interest will varyfrom class to class. More or less instruction thanwas planned may be required. Student/traineealertness may vary with physical conditionincluding illness, fatigue, and lack of sleep.Their rate of learning may change for no appar-ent reason. There may be distractions that youdid not expect.

In order to determine what may be distract-ing your students/trainees, or causing lack ofinterest, consider the following. Do you:• Use and pronounce words correctly?• Avoid the use of localisms, slang, and

monotonous connectives?• Look directly at and speak directly to the

learner?• Maintain good eye contact?• Use the appropriate vocabulary level?• Prepare yourself?• Use variations in the pitch of your voice?• Give credit where credit is due?• Stimulate thinking when you ask a question

by phrasing it to bring out the why and how?• Know all students by name?• Summarize frequently, as each major point

in the lesson is made?• Direct questions at inattentive

students/trainees?• Delay the entire class when one student is

causing a problem?• Continually check class reaction?• Use teaching aids whenever possible?• Display teaching aids where the entire class

can see them?• Check training aids like video equipment,

projectors, screens, and tapes before classstarts?

• Preview and select audio-visual material forspecific instructional content?


• Prepare students/trainees for the video,film, or tape?The list could go on and on but the key is

being prepared. Know what you are going toteach and how you are going to do it. You canonly develop student interest in what you areteaching if you are interested in what he/she isachieving.

Some other tips to teaching effectivelyinclude those listed below.• Put the students at ease. Humor is an effec-

tive tool to help students/trainees to relax.Remember, a tense atmosphere will inhibitlearning.

• Students have five senses. The more sensesyou can involve in the learning process, themore likely the student/trainee will remem-ber what is taught.

• You should direct questions to individualstudent/trainees to attract and hold atten-tion and interest, measure knowledge andunderstanding, and focus attention on themain concepts.

• Students/trainees are people with differentpersonalities and attitudes. You will be moresuccessful as a teacher if you get to knowyour students individually. This will allowyou to see the areas in which each one needshelp and encouragement.

• Do not allow the class to become a mono-logue in which you spend the entire periodlecturing. You must encourage them to askquestions and discuss topics.

• When using a chalkboard, stand to one sideof the board. Also, talk directly to the classnot to the chalkboard.

• Remember, topics which are simple to you maybe most complex for the students/trainees.Avoid covering a topic too quickly.

• You must speak clear enough, loud enough,and slow enough for your students/traineesto follow the lesson.

• Use a tape recorder to critique your verbalpresentation.

1.6.1 Student/Trainee EvaluationDiscuss with the students/trainees how

they will be evaluated. Emphasize the impor-tance of attendance and its significance whenthey enter the workplace. Avoid allowing stu-dents/trainees with a number of unexcusedabsences to make up missed work at the end of

the work term with a short meaningless assign-ment. Some programs require a predeterminednumber of hours in actual attendance before acertificate or degree is granted. More and moreinstructors are “docking” students/trainees forabsences in the same manner their wages wouldbe reduced for a similar problem in industry.

Since grading methods vary greatly, it is notpossible to include detailed evaluation tech-niques in this manual.

The material in the following sections maybe of more concern on the secondary schoollevel than the post-secondary level.

1.7 MAINTAINING DISCIPLINEDiscipline is one of the primary responsibil-

ities of the teacher/instructor. Good class disci-pline can make teaching a pleasure while poordiscipline can make teaching agony.

It would be foolish to assume that there is aset of rules, magic formulas, or chants that willguarantee a teacher/instructor good disciplineand respect. There are however, ideas that havebeen successfully used by many teachers/instruc-tors. Remember, these are only recommenda-tions. It is necessary to work at maintaininggood discipline every minute you are in theclassroom. There is no one correct way to do it.What works today may not work tomorrow.• The purpose of discipline is correction.

Discipline is not chastisement. Discipline issystematic training for improvement of aperson’s attitude and action.

• Make reprimands with justice and tact.When you are angry or not feeling well, it iswise to refrain from any drastic action untilyou have the opportunity to review the situ-ation in a better state of mind.

• Be consistent in disciplinary actions.• Consider the student’s mental and physical

condition.• Seek the actual cause of their poor work or

attitude.• Never be influenced by a student’s reputation.• Control order through an interest in your

work. Students/trainees sense when you donot like your job.

• Provide sufficient equipment and workingmaterials.

• Keep machines and equipment in goodworking condition.

• Maintain a clean and attractive shop/lab.

Introduction 7

• Be sure all student’s can see and hear youwhen you present a lesson.

• Handle all disciplinary cases yourself when-ever possible. A good teacher/instructor isone who seldom has to call on higherauthority to maintain discipline in his/herclass. Report only major infractions to higherauthority. Be able to document problemswith complete and up-to-date records.

• Stop problems at their origin.• Make only necessary rules and enforce them

every day.• Avoid assigning schoolwork as punishment.

The entire class should not be disciplined forthe acts of an individual.

• Make disciplinary actions fit the deeds.• Never use abusive language and/or profanity.• Grade papers and tests so they can be

returned the next class session.• Have work prepared for the substitute when

you must miss a class. Student/trainee timeshould not be wasted and you will knowwhere to start when you return to class.Discipline requires more than the few sugges-

tions listed above. Talk to your principal/directoron what their ideas are for discipline and whatsupport you can expect from them should a prob-lem arise that you are not able to handle.

1.8 PREPARING FOR THE SUBSTITUTE TEACHER

Substitute teachers have one of the mostdifficult jobs in education. Some of us expect asubstitute teacher to do things we cannot doourselves. For example, they are to keep a classunder control with a lesson plan as brief as,“Read Chapters 1, 2, and 3 and answer thequestions at the end of the chapter.”

The instructor who maintains a well orga-nized machining technology shop/lab willprovide carefully planned material for the sub-stitute teacher. Advanced preparation forinstructor absence will permit the program tocontinue with minimum interruption.

Materials and information that will berequired by the substitute teacher include:• A seating chart and attendance book for

each class.• The location of keys.• Brief descriptions of the daily routine and

the student/trainee organization.

• Procedure for distributing equipment andmaterials.

• The procedure for cleanup and dismissal.The operation of equipment should not be allowed.The best plans are of little value if the

substitute cannot locate them. To avoid such asituation, assign a specific place for storing theplans. It is recommended that several instruc-tors in the shop/lab area be informed where theplans are stored.

Request that the substitute teacher leave areport on accomplishments and/or problemsfor each class. The substitute’s report shouldinclude the material covered, work completed,and class conduct. The substitute shouldinclude the strengths and weaknesses of materi-als prepared on his/her behalf as well as anysuggestions for improvement.

1.9 VARYING STUDENT/TRAINEEABILITIES

Students/trainees entering your classroomwill undoubtedly possess a variety of skills.Some may possess basic metalworking skillswhile others may not. Students will also have awide variety of career goals. Some stu-dents/trainees plan to attend college andbecome engineers in the field of metals technol-ogy while others will attend community collegeprograms to become technicians. Still othersmay want to enter the trade or enlist in the ArmedForces as specialists in machining technology.

As with any field of study, the level ofstudent/trainee comprehension and perfor-mance will vary within each class. Achievementin machining technology depends not only on aperson’s communication skills and dexterity,but their ability to visualize solutions to prob-lems. You must recognize the degree to whichyour students/trainees possess these skills.Different teaching methods are required forstudents/trainees with different ability levels.Following are some suggestions that may behelpful in serving all students/trainees,especially those with special needs.

1.9.1 Identifying Students/Trainees withSpecial Needs

Ideally, special needs students/trainees willbe identified by the school psychologist. Theschool nurse should also provide information


regarding students/trainees who, because of themedication they are taking, or because of otherphysical disabilities, should not be permitted tooperate machinery. Actions of some of thesestudents/trainees may endanger themselves or otherpeople in the class. Work out a plan with yourprincipal, supervisor, or director in advance on howthis type of a situation should be handled.

Characteristics of special needs students/trainees are included in the following list. Aninfrequent occurrence does not denote thatsomeone is a special needs student/trainee.• Impaired speech, hearing, and/or vision.• Inability to communicate effectively (reading,

writing, oral expression, and questioning).• Short attention span or lack of interest.• Lack of motivation.• Lack of self-confidence.• Poor computational skills.• High rate of absenteeism.• Frequent disruptive behavior.

MainstreamingIn the past, most special needs students were

segregated into separate rooms for instruction.The rooms were generally staffed with instructorstrained to work with special needs students. Theinstructors, however, were not well-trained invocational-technical disciplines. Mainstreamingis a popular method of integrating special needsstudents into vocation-technical programs.

A variety of special needs students arecommonly found in any classroom. Some mayhave limited mobility while others may havevision or hearing problems. Always rememberthat a special needs student needs to bechallenged just like any other student. The typeof challenge may be based on thestudent/trainee’s potential. Of course, this mayrequire modification in teaching methods.

When working with hearing-impaired stu-dents/trainees, talk in a normal voice. Face theclass, speak distinctly, and pronounce wordsclearly. With this approach, a student/traineewith lip reading ability will find it easier tounderstand the lesson. At the same time, youwill be heard more clearly by the rest of the class.

A vision-impaired student/trainee should beallowed to explore the shop/lab with a studentcompanion. The exploration will allow the stu-dent to become familiar with locations ofequipment and other items. Seat the studenttoward the front of the class. It is not necessary,

however, to seat the student in the first row. Whenlecturing, be specific in your references. Pay closeattention to the needs of the student/trainee.

There is also the possibility that there will bestudents/trainees for whom English is not a firstlanguage. Speak slowly and clearly and encour-age them to communicate as best they can inEnglish. Help them develop their speaking andwriting skills so they will feel more comfortableand achieve a higher level of comprehension.

1.9.2 Identifying the Gifted Student/TraineeThe gifted student/trainee may be more

difficult to recognize than the special needs stu-dent/trainee. In some cases, an instructor isinformed of a gifted student by a counselor. Inmany cases, however, gifted students/traineeshave not been identified. Vocational/technicalinstructors should be familiar with giftedstudents/trainee’s characteristics and modifyteaching methods accordingly. Common char-acteristics include:• More inclined to question or comment on

the subject.• Consistently scores high on exams and

performance activities.• Consistently completes work ahead of others

and requests additional assignments.• May seem bored, restless or disinterested.• Displays more interest or a longer

attention span.• Consistently pays close attention to detail on

procedures or techniques that are generallytaken for granted.Gifted students can be motivated and

challenged by being assigned work with greatercomplexity, asked to assist slower students/trainees, pressed into service as assistants in theclassroom and shop/lab, given problem-solvingactivities that involve creative thinking, and givenspecial topics to research and report to the class.

1.10 ADDITIONAL RESOURCESA variety of supplemental materials may be

used to allow the students/trainees to furtherdevelop their interest in machining technology.Not all learning occurs in the classroom.Students/trainees should be encouraged to readsupplemental material, participate in field trips,and join organizations in the field. When possible,outside activities should be followed up by somemeans of discussion and/or evaluation.

Introduction 9

1.10.1 Field TripsField trips can be an excellent way to

motivate students. Every community, large orsmall, offers opportunities in the metalwork-ing fields. Field trips should be carefullyplanned and arrangements made ahead ofthe visit.

Students/trainees should receive a brief-ing prior to the trip. They will then knowwhat to look for and can better understandwhat they observe. If possible, have a repre-sentative from the shop/company visit yourclassroom and give a presentation prior to thefield trip.

A follow-up evaluation and discussion is amust after a field trip. Often having studentswrite a short theme on what was observed canbe helpful. Such a report will also improve a stu-dent/trainee’s writing ability.

1.10.2 Vocational-Technical FairsMany schools, vocational-technical centers,

and community colleges use fairs to motivatestudents. Students should also be involvedwhen planning such an exhibition. The displaymay be in the shops/labs, local mall, or someother location.

Machining technology students/traineesmay want to display completed assignmentsand give demonstrations.

1.10.3 Vocational-Technical OrganizationsEncourage students/trainees to get involved

in recognized organizations such as theVocational Industrial Clubs of America (VICA).These organizations promote vocational-technical education and provide worthwhileexperiences for the students/trainees.

These organizations also strive to developcharacter, as well as leadership abilities. Strongemphasis is placed on the respect for the dignityof work, high standards in ethics, workmanship,scholarship, and safety.

1.10.4 Awards DinnerAn annual awards dinner is an excellent

way to reward student/trainee achievement. Italso offers an opportunity to gain recognition ofyour program.

Invite parents, administrators, prominent citi-zens, future employers, and the press to the event.

1.11 SHOP/LAB MANAGEMENTGood shop/lab management starts several

days before the first class session. It shouldinclude conservation (time, effort, and energy),plus student/trainee safety, so the majorendeavor can be directed toward improvinginstruction, which in turn, enhances learning.

Shop/lab management also requires somepaperwork. The better you prepare for the firstclass session, the more time you will have totake care of the many minor problems that cropup when the students/trainees arrive. Get all ofthe forms you plan to use made up and repro-duced in advance. Be sure they are readable,and prepare enough for all of your classes.

Accident ReportsIn many learning situations, it is mandatory

that each accident or injury be reported. Fill outa report immediately in those situations. Havethe injured person report as soon as possible tothe infirmary. Check with your principal, super-visor, or director for specific instructions onfilling out the required forms.

1.12 TEACHER/INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITY

Most states have laws relating to safetyrequirements in various areas of educationalprograms. Contact the necessary authorities tocheck your state’s laws and local requirements.

In machining technology they usually relateto mandatory eye protection for special areas ofthe shop/lab. Such as when:• Turning, shaping, cutting, or stamping solid

materials with hand tools and/or powerdriven tools, machines, or other equipment.

• Casting, welding, and heat treating.• Handling caustic materials.

While not usually mandated by state law,some systems have established policies onkeeping certain problems under control oreliminating them as a possible source of stu-dent/trainee injury. They include:• Appropriate footwear must be worn in

metalworking areas.• Long hair must be contained while operating

power equipment.• Use of drugs (medication and/or illegal)

that impair muscular coordinating, spatialperception, etc.


You will find it to your advantage to knowand understand the laws and requirementsaffecting your program.

Safety of students/trainees is paramount.Dangers from toxic gases, lack of oxygen, flyingparticles, sharp metal edges, hot metal, electricalshock, and falling objects are ever present. Astrong, firm safety policy is mandatory for bothstudents and technicians. Safety warning andcautions (printed in red), are located throughoutthe Machining Fundamentals textbook. Thesewarnings are not exhaustive.

The office of Occupational Safety andHealth Administration (OSHA) requires assur-ance that working conditions are kept healthyas far as vapors, fumes, temperature, dust, aircontaminants, and noises are concerned.

Safety should be a top priority for everyone. Itis the best and most efficient way to do any task.Common sense safety rules include the following:• Keep work stations clean and orderly. • Wear correct clothing for the job. Students

should wear gloves when handling sub-stances of a corrosive or sharp nature.Protect clothing by wearing an apron. Looseclothing can get caught, and a carelessmovement can mangle fingers. Advisestudents/trainees that they must wear safetyshoes, hard hats, and hearing protection.

• Respect fire.• Use proper lighting.• Keep aisles and exits clear.• Avoid electrical shocks. Be sure the electrical

circuit is locked open before handling elec-trical equipment. Avoid standing or sittingin damp or wet places when doing electricalwork. Never allow students to work withwet hands. The instructor should check allstudent-installed electrical service beforeallowing it to be “plugged-in” to the electricalcircuit.

• Report all accidents and injuries.• Wear safety glasses, goggles, and face

shields when appropriate. Proper eye pro-tection should be worn at all times in theshop. Goggles worn in the shop/lab shouldmeet USASI Safety Code Z17.1-1968 (UnitedStates of America Standards Institute).When not being used, goggles should bestored in a cabinet and exposed to a germi-cidal lamp to destroy bacteria.

• Use adequate respiratory protection. Properventilation is vitally important in any shop

or lab environment. Toxic vapors and fumesmust be minimized. Exhaust blowers, alongwith makeup air units, should be used.

• Maintain and store equipment, tools, andsupplies correctly. Never operate machinerywithout all safety guards in place.

• Use proper tools and procedures. • Disconnect all power when tools or equip-

ment are not in use.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act(OSHA) establishes standards affecting the safetyof workers in any occupation.

OSHA is a federal law that mandates mostsafety recommendations published by organiza-tions. Graduates who find employment inindustry should know and practice these regu-lations. The act is being enforced by the U.S.Department of Labor.

A copy of the act should be available to allinstructors. Copies of the Federal Act are avail-able from the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,DC, 20402. Copies of the state act are also avail-able from state Departments of Safety.

Job Safety and Health, published by the U.S.Department of Labor, Occupational Safety andHealth Administration, may be used in a class-room or laboratory for discussing safe workingconditions. It is available from the U.S.Government Printing Office.

The National Safety Council, 1121 SpringLake Drive, Itasca, Illinois, 60143-3201, publishessafety education data sheets and posters thatcover safety in the home, on the job, and in vari-ous other locations. A list of the available safetyeducation data sheets can be obtained by writingthe council at the above address.

Most cities have codes concerning the instal-lation and operation of refrigeration and airconditioning equipment. Students should beacquainted with the code or codes for their city.

1.12.1 Other Areas of ResponsibilityWe live in a litigious society. Because of the

nature of working in a machine shop/lab, indus-trial-technical instructors must be acquaintedwith situations that might cause legal actions tobe brought against them and the institutionwhere they teach.

Often times, an act of negligence is broughtabout by ignoring basic safety rules or not usingcommon sense. The following list has been

Introduction 11

provided to enlighten your sense of responsibil-ity. It is not all-inclusive. If you have seriousconcerns in regards to legal matters and liabili-ties, contact the appropriate department(s) ofyour school system.• Perform all machining operations in a proper and

safe manner. Failure to employ the properuse of safety guards, safety goggles orglasses, protective clothing, and properprocedure can endanger both you and yourstudents/trainees. If students/trainees aretaught improper and unsafe practices, theywill use improper and unsafe practices.

• Keep all circumstances under your control.Although you may perform a demonstrationwith the utmost care and precaution, if thearea is disorganized or dirty (i.e., oil or cuttingfluid on the floor), it is likely that someonemay be injured.

• Do not entrust tools or machine operation to astudent/trainee that you know is likely to inflictintended harm upon others. If someone hasbeen unruly or has threatened to harm fellowclassmates, report the incident to the appro-priate authorities. If you believe someone is athreat to his/her classmates, take the appro-priate steps for their removal.

• Safety cannot be overemphasized. Remind stu-dents on a daily basis to stay alert and payattention to danger zones.

• Give students/trainees adequate preparationbefore allowing them to perform any machiningoperation. Repeat procedures and safety prac-tices in lectures, during demonstrations, andwhile a student performs the operation.

• Always keep tools and machines in good workingcondition. Do not allow students to work onmachines that are in disrepair. If you areunable to repair the problem yourself,change the lesson plans or assignment untilthe repairs can be made. Inspect tools andmachines on a daily basis and encourageyour students/trainees to do the same.As stated earlier, this is not an all-inclusive

list. Adequate preparation, emphasis on safety,proper maintenance, and the application ofcommon sense will help maintain a safe andproductive shop/lab.

1.13 KEEPING UP-TO-DATEAs with all technical areas, there are con-

stant changes and improvements in machiningtechnology. The following material may help

keep your program in tune with advances andchanges in the metalworking field.

1.13.1 Advisory CouncilThe establishment of an advisory council

is usually required when program financialaid is received from the state and/or federalgovernment. The council should be composedof people who are actively engaged inmachining technology.

The function of an advisory council is toadvise instructors on the needs and trends inthe industry. They can also help keep programscurrent, and provide contacts for placement ofstudents/trainees completing the program.

1.13.2 Additional Means for KeepingUp-to-Date

Since there is constant change and improve-ments in all technical areas of machining tech-nology, there are, in addition to the advisorycouncil, other ways to keep up-to-date withthese changes.

To keep pace with change, instructors shouldsubscribe to and read monthly trade magazinesand journals; visit modern machine shops andtalk with management and personnel; attendseminars sponsored by the various machiningtechnology vendors and trade associations; andattend trade shows and conventions.

Some employers offer special sabbaticalleaves to allow instructors to work in the fieldfor a specified period of time, so as to gain expe-rience in the latest techniques available.

Summer employment in a modern shopwould also be helpful. Summer session at the col-lege level can be beneficial in improving teachingtechniques and in developing a better under-standing of the overall educational picture.

Keeping abreast with modern developmentsin machining technology is mandatory if youwant to offer a course that will equip your stu-dents with the skills, knowledge, and attitudesneeded today.

1.14 RESOURCE MATERIALSThere is an immeasurable amount of

resource material available on the metalworkingindustry. Maintain a library if possible or requestthat the library carry a selection of textbooks andpublications on the field. The following books,catalogs, manuals, and periodicals are only abrief listing of available material.


1.14.1 Reference BooksAmman, Jost, The Book of Trades (Historical):Dover Publications, (Original publicationdate 1658).

Barsamian, Michael, and Gizelbach, Richard A.,Machine Trades Print Reading:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Biekert, Russell, CIM Technology:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Brandt, Daniel A., Metallurgy Fundamentals:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Brown, Walter C., Basic Mathematics:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Brown, Walter C., Print Reading for Industry:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Diderot, Denis, A Dideroit PictorialEncyclopedia of Trades and Industry, Vol. 1 and 2(Historical): Dover Publications, (Originalpublication date 1752).

Duenk, Lester G., Editor, Improving VocationalCurriculum: Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

DuVall, J. Barry, Contemporary ManufacturingProcesses: Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Gradwell, John; Welch Malcom; and Martin,Eugene, Technology Shaping Our World:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Green, Robert E., Editor, Machinery’s Handbook:Industrial Press Inc.

Littrell, J. J., From School to Work:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Madsen, David A., Geometric Dimensioning andTolerancing: Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Masterson, James; Towers, Robert; and Fardo,Stephen, Robotics Technology:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Phagan, R. Jesse, Applied Mathematics:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Walker, John R., Modern Metalworking:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Wanat, John H.; Pfeiffer, E. Weston; and VanGulik, Richard, Learning for Earning:Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

Wilson, Bruce A., Design Dimensioning andTolerancing: Goodheart-Willcox Publisher.

1.14.2 Catalogs and Manuals

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)1430 BroadwayNew York, NY 10013(Catalog of standards and price list)

The Association of Manufacturing Technology7901 Westpark DriveMcLean, VA 22102-4206(List of machine tool manufacturers)

Dover Publications, Inc.31 East 2nd StreetMineola, NY 11501(Catalog on metalworking history, etc.)

Hanser Gardner Publications6915 Valley AvenueCincinnati, OH 45244-3029(Catalog of technical books and audio visual materials)

The Industrial Press93 Worth StreetNew York, NY 10013(Machinery’s Handbook)

The M.I.T PressMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA 02142

National Tool & Machining Association9300 Livingston RoadFort Washington, MD 20744(Catalog of technical books and audio visual materials)

U.S. Bureau of Labor StatisticsGovernment Printing Office200 Constitutional Ave., NWWashington, DC 20210(Occupational Handbook)

Catalogs of precision tools, machine tools,etc. Journals of various industrial and tradeassociations.

1.14.3 PeriodicalsAmerican MachinistPenton Publishing1100 Superior AvenueCleveland, OH 44114

Automation News155 E. 23rd StreetNew York, NY 10010

Introduction 13

CAD/CAM & RoboticsKerrwil Publications Ltd.501 Oakdale RoadDownsview, ON, Canada M3N 1W7

Cutting Tool Engineering Magazine400 Skokie Blvd., Suite 395Northbrook, IL 60062

The Home Shop MachinistThe Village Press2779 Aero Park DriveTraverst City, MI 49686

Industrial EducationCummins Publishing Company26011 Evergreen RoadSouthfield, MI 48076

Industrial Machinery DigestOne Chase Corporate Drive #300Hoover, AL 35244

Machine Design1100 Superior AvenueCleveland, OH 44144

Metalfax29100 Aurora RoadSolon, OH 44139

Metalworking Digest1350 East Touhy AvenueDes Plaines, IL 60017

Modern Machine Shop6600 Clough PikeCincinnati, OH 45244-4090

Tooling and Production29100 Aurora Road, Suite 200Solon, OH 44139

1.14.4 Agencies and AssociationsAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI)1430 BroadwayNew York, NY 10018

American Vocational Association1410 King StreetAlexandria, VA 22314

International Technology Education Association (ITEA)

1914 Association DriveReston, VA 22091

National Association of Industrial Technology (NAIT)

3300 Washenaw Avenue, Suite 220Ann Arbor, MI 48104-4200

National Institute for Metalworking Skills2209 Hunter Mill RoadVienna, VA 22181

Vocational Industrial Clubs of America (VICA)Box 30Leesburg, VA 22075

1.14.5 Audiovisual MaterialsA variety of audiovisual materials is avail-

able for use in machining technology. Contactthe following companies and associations forlistings of available materials.DCA Educational Products, Inc.1814 Kellers Church RoadBedminster, PA 18910

Hanser Gardner Publications6915 Valley AvenueCincinnati, OH 45244-3029

Minnesota Mining and Mfg. Co., 3M CenterVisual Systems DivisionAustin, Texas, 78769

National Tooling & Machining Association9300 Livingston RoadFort Washington, MD 20744

L.S. Starrett Company121 Crescent DriveAthol, MA 01331

Sterling Educational Films241 E. 34th StreetNew York, NY 10016

1.14.6 On-Line ResourcesMany resources for Machining Technology

and education are available over the informationsuperhighway. They are sponsored by corpora-tions, private organizations, and individuals.

On-line addresses for information on allareas of machining technology can be found intrade magazines and journals. Using theInternet can keep you current on new machinetool developments, and machining and manu-facturing techniques.


Most of the sites provide information free ofcharge or for a minimal fee. Since the informa-tion superhighway is constantly expanding, theaddresses for some of the following sites mayhave changed since the publication of this man-ual. The following is only a sampling of compa-nies with on-line sites:Cincinnati Milacron (CNC machine tools)www.milacron.com

Mastercam (software)www.mastercam.com

Modern Machine Shop Magazinewww.gardnerweb.com/mms

Nikon(optical comparators and CNCVideo measuring systems)www.nikonusa.com

Sharnoa Corp. (CNC machine tools)www.sharnoa.com

South Bend Lathe Corp. (machine tools)www.southbendlathecorp.com

GOODHEART-WILLCOXWELCOMES YOUR INPUT

If you have comments, corrections, or sug-gestions regarding the textbook or its supple-ments, please send them to:

Managing EditorGoodheart-Willcox Publisher

18604 West Creek DriveTinley Park, IL 60477-6243

Introduction 15