interpreters’ glossary of osteopathy · the interpreter will be explained. danica seleskovitch,...
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Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte
Hanne Verstraete
Interpreters’ glossary of osteopathy
and osteopathic treatment
Volume I
Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van
Master in het Tolken
2015
Promotor Prof. Dr. Buysschaert
Vakgroep Vertalen Tolken Communicatie
Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte
Hanne Verstraete
Interpreters’ glossary of osteopathy
and osteopathic treatment
Volume I
Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van
Master in het Tolken
2015
Promotor Prof. Dr. Buysschaert
Vakgroep Vertalen Tolken Communicatie
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor J. Buysschaert, who encouraged
me, patiently answered my numerous e-mail messages and guided me through writing this
thesis. I would also like to thank Mrs. Céline Van De Walle for her useful advice.
Next, I would also like to thank Marnix Olivier, DO, who provided all the useful information
about the subject of this thesis and explained some difficult concepts in osteopathy to me.
Without his help, writing this thesis would have been a lot more difficult.
Finally, I would also like to thank my friends and family. They often had to deal with my bad
moods when things were not going as I wanted.
ABSTRACT
This study aims to help interpreters and other language specialist, such as terminologists and
translators, by compiling a glossary with terms used by osteopaths. The terms dealt with focus
on osteopathy in general and on osteopathic treatment of several classes of patients. First of
all, 106 terms were selected from Dutch books and articles on the subject and were gathered
in a glossary. There are two versions of the glossary: an exhaustive version to be consulted
before or after an interpretation assignment and a simple version with only the Dutch term and
its translation to be consulted in the booth. Next, fifteen terms were selected to be discussed
using the GenTerm method. The GenTerm records give an overview of the Dutch terms and
the English translations and list grammatical information, collocations, definitions and
contexts from medical books and articles on the subject. The two glossaries and the GenTerm
records can help interpreters when confronted with unfamiliar terminology. However, there is
still a lot of uncharted territory and a lot of other subjects to discuss. Further research is
recommended.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 4
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 5
table of contents ......................................................................................................................... 6
Volume I ..................................................................................................................................... 8
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 8
2 Simultaneous interpreting .............................................................................................. 9
2.1 History ...................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 11
2.3 Code of Ethics ........................................................................................................ 14
2.4 Cognitive pressure ................................................................................................. 15
3 Osteopathy .................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 The status of osteopathy in the Dutch speaking and English speaking countries .. 16
3.2 Osteopathy vs. other designations .......................................................................... 18
3.3 When can an osteopath help? ................................................................................. 19
4 Terminology ................................................................................................................. 20
4.1 Glossary vs. term base ........................................................................................... 20
4.1.1 What is a glossary? ......................................................................................... 20
4.1.2 What is a term base? ....................................................................................... 21
4.2 Terms ..................................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Lexical gaps ........................................................................................................... 22
4.4 Interpreters and terminology management ............................................................ 23
5 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 24
5.1 Setting .................................................................................................................... 24
5.2 Term selection ........................................................................................................ 25
5.2.1 For the glossary .............................................................................................. 25
7
5.2.2 For the GenTerm records ................................................................................ 26
5.3 Final glossary ......................................................................................................... 26
6 Discussion of terms for the GenTerm records ............................................................. 27
6.1 Bekkenbodem ........................................................................................................ 27
6.2 bekkeninstabiliteit .................................................................................................. 28
6.3 bewegingsapparaat ................................................................................................. 29
6.4 dwarslaesie ............................................................................................................. 30
6.5 hartinfarct ............................................................................................................... 31
6.6 incontinentie ........................................................................................................... 33
6.7 lichaamsas .............................................................................................................. 33
6.8 ontlastingsincontinentie ......................................................................................... 34
6.9 overstrekking .......................................................................................................... 36
6.10 prikkelbaredarmsyndroom ................................................................................. 36
6.11 schedelnaad ........................................................................................................ 38
6.12 spatader ............................................................................................................... 39
6.13 urine-incontinentie ............................................................................................. 40
6.14 weke delen .......................................................................................................... 41
6.15 woekering ........................................................................................................... 41
7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 42
8 bibliography ................................................................................................................. 44
Volume II .......................................................................... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
1 Author’s record ..................................................... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
2 Genterm records .................................................... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
3 Interpreters’ Glossary: version I ............................ Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
4 Interpreters’ Glossary: version II .......................... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
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VOLUME I
1 INTRODUCTION
Interpreters are expected to master a wide range of specialized terminology in a variable set of
contexts. They can never entirely master the vocabulary that will be used in just any context,
but they can minimize the risk of falling short. One of the strategies used is preparing
glossaries, based on documents supplied by the client or other general documents about the
theme in question (Jiang, 2013, p. 83). Mastery and an active knowledge of specialized
terminology is necessary in community interpreting, but also very much in conference
interpreting. When interpreting in the simultaneous mode, the interpreter has only a matter of
seconds to come up with an acceptable equivalent for a word or an expression. If he/she fails
to do that, the ear-voice span could increase, which can lead to omissions (Defrancq, 2015, p.
26). Since the aim of the interpreter is to interpret as accurate as possible, it is a good strategy
to study terminology before the interpreting assignment.
Recent research on the use of glossaries in conferences has shown that the majority of
interpreters use and keep their glossaries (Jiang, 2013, p. 81). Especially the field of medicine
contains a lot of highly specialized nomenclature. Many glossaries have been drawn up on
medical topics, but there is still a lot of uncharted territory and therefore still a lot of subjects
to explore. This thesis aims to fill one of those gaps. It focuses on medical terms used when
talking about osteopathy in general and by discussing injuries and osteopathic treatment of
several categories of patients. The imagined setting of this thesis is a colloquium on the status
and the future of osteopathy organised by the ‘Nederlandse Vereniging van Osteopaten and
the ‘Belgische Vereniging van Osteopaten’. Given the fact that the colloquium will be
attended by some osteopaths from other countries as well, the organisation hired some
interpreters to interpret everything from Dutch into English. The glossary is bilingual from
Dutch into English.
This thesis is structured as follows. In the following chapter simultaneous interpreting will be
discussed: the history of simultaneous interpreting, its characteristics, the ethical code
conference interpreters have to abide by and finally also the cognitive pressure that is inherent
in simultaneous interpreting. The third chapter will go further into detail about the subject of
the glossary, i.e. osteopathy, and will include a status quaestionis of osteopathy in English-
9
speaking and Dutch-speaking countries. The chapter will also clarify relevant differences and
similarities between a number of medical disciplines. The fourth chapter will deal with
terminology. The difference between a term base and a glossary will be clarified and the
structure of the glossary that is part of this thesis will be set out. The fifth chapter is dedicated
to the methodology of this thesis: the setting and how the terms were selected for both the
glossary and the GenTerm records. Finally, in the last chapter fifteen terms chosen for in-
depth analysis will be discussed using the GenTerm method. The full glossary and the
GenTerm records can be consulted in the annex.
2 SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING
The present chapter discusses several aspects of simultaneous interpreting. Firstly, a general
overview of the history of simultaneous interpreting will be given. Secondly, some
characteristics will be listed. Furthermore, the Code of Ethics set out by the AIIC is
mentioned. Finally, the effects of the high cognitive pressure of simultaneous interpreting on
the interpreter will be explained. Danica Seleskovitch, the author of seminal publications on
the topic of interpretation, has suggested this definition: ‘Je postule que la traduction est un
double acte de communication avec changement de véhicule linguistique’ (cited in Widlund-
Fantini, 2007, p. 189).
2.1 History
Longley (1968, pp. 3-15) and Defrancq (2015, pp. 14-17) describe the history and the boom
of simultaneous conference interpreting. In the very beginning of the 20th
Century the
consecutive mode and sometimes chuchotage were used during conferences. Only after the
Nuremberg trials (November 1945 – October 1946) did simultaneous interpreting gain
importance and was it used in numerous international organisations, such as the United
Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation etc.
(http://aiic.net/node/47/interpreting-in-international-organisations/lang/1, retrieved 2015-04-
13)
After the First World War, a number of international organisations was set up, such as the
League of Nations, the International Labour Organisation and the Permanent Court of
10
International Justice. Those were the predecessors of the international organisations that are
active nowadays. French was the conference language at the time and because of the
importance of the British and the American nations in that era, English was also admitted as a
second official conference language. This meant that there was consecutive interpreting from
English into French and vice versa during all meetings. If delegates desired interpretation into
other languages, then they had to provide the interpreters themselves. However, consecutive
interpreting took considerable time – the speech had to be repeated – and since a lot of
delegates spoke both French and English it could be superfluous and tedious.
Therefore, some linguists started to experiment with a new mode. In between the two World
Wars a lot of experiments were carried out and finally they succeeded in their intent: they
were able to bring the interpreters’ voice to the listeners through a microphone and
headphones. In this way, it was possible to introduce more conference languages and to
almost halve the time of a conference by eliminating the time it took to repeat a speech in the
other official conference language.
The Nuremberg Trials (November 1945 – October 1946), during which the Nazi-German war
criminals were tried, will always be mentioned in the history books as the start of
simultaneous conference interpreting. The Americans wanted to have it over with as fast as
possible to avoid Nazi propaganda influencing more people and they preferred simultaneous
interpreting because it is less time-consuming than consecutive. A US Army general of
French descent, Léon Dostert, was given the assignment to organise the trials in the symbolic
German city of Nuremberg, which was definitely not an easy task, as the city had been
bombed to the ground. However, his efforts were successful. The languages of the winners
and the loser were adopted as conference languages, i.e. French, English, Russian and
German. The interpreters worked in teams of three and could in that way relieve and assist
each other. The interpreters were not trained in simultaneous interpreting, since no specific
training existed at the time. It was only after the Trials that interpreting schools mushroomed
all over the world.
Thanks to the success of simultaneous interpreting during the Nuremberg Trials, the new
method was also adopted in the many international organizations that were set up after the
Second World War. Nowadays, there are even more official conference languages. The
official languages in the European Union, for example, are: Dutch, French, German, Italian,
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Danish, English, Greek, Portuguese, Spanish, Finnish, Swedish, Czech, Estonian, Hungarian,
Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Bulgarian, Irish, Romanian and
Croatian
(http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/007e69770f/Multilingualism.html,
retrieved 2015-03-19). The United Nations has only six official languages: Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, Russian and Spanish. A delegate can deliver a speech in a non-official
language, but in that case he/she has to provide an own interpreter.
(http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/official-languages/index.html, retrieved 2015-04-01)
2.2 Characteristics
First of all, a distinction between the two interpreting modes should be made: simultaneous
and consecutive interpreting. In conference interpreting both interpreting modes can be used.
However, since the Nuremberg Trials, in 1946, the majority of speeches have been rendered
in the simultaneous mode, due to time pressure and the increasing number of official
languages. In some cases, such as highly technical meetings, business dinners, etc.,
consecutive is the preferred mode (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/scic/what-is-conference-
interpreting/consecutive/index_en.htm, retrieved 2015-04-06). Mary Phelan (quoted in
Azizmohammadi and Samadi, 2013, pp. 168-169) formulates the following descriptions of
simultaneous and consecutive interpreting. In the simultaneous mode the interpreter interprets
while listening to the speaker through a headphone in the booth. There are booths for all
language combinations and the listeners can choose which languages they want to listen to.
In the consecutive mode the interpreter takes notes during the speech, which can take up to
fifteen minutes. When the speaker finishes, the interpreter reconstitutes the speech in another
languages from his/her notes as faithfully as possible. Since this thesis is set during a
conference meeting where the simultaneous mode is used, the focus will be on the
simultaneous mode and its characteristics.
During the conference, interpreting takes place in a booth, which is supposed to be placed in
such a way that the interpreter has direct view of the speaker and of the projection of the
presentation if present. The booth is soundproof and equipped with headsets and a console. A
button that cannot be missed is the so-called mute button. Some noises, such as a cough, a
sneeze, are annoying to the listener and can be covered up in this way. In the conference room
all of the attendants have their own headsets. They can switch to the language of their
12
preference (Catarina Falbo et al, 1999, pp. 52-53). In optimal circumstances the interpreter
does not work alone in the booth: at least one or sometimes two boothmates are also present.
The working conditions are mentally very hard: ‘the work is performed under stress and time
constraints, which leads to fatigue’ (Chmiel, 2008, pp. 261-262). A working day should not
contain more than two sessions of about three hours. During those sessions the interpreters
alternate every thirty minutes. Those thirty minutes are not clock-timed: the interpreters
change role when there is a natural pause in the speech. Chmiel (2008, pp. 261ff) questioned
interpreters on teamwork in the booth and has made some observations. The presence of
another interpreter can be experienced positively as well as negatively. It is worth mentioning
that most of the interpreters are open to sharing the booth with another interpreter, since they
can be a great help during challenging assignments or challenging parts of an assignment, i.e.
technical terms, numbers etc. In that case, the interpreter can call upon his/her booth partner
who can then write down numbers or look up the meaning of a highly specific term. On the
other hand, the presence of another person can also be a burden. The interpreter can feel as if
someone is looking over his/her shoulder. The other interpreter can also have habits that are
experienced as annoying: click one’s pen, sniffle, eat in the booth, a lack of personal hygiene
etc. They should try to minimize these annoying habits. This requires an effort on both sides.
In some cases, the passive interpreter (who is not interpreting at that moment) can also choose
to use his/her time to prepare for the next part of the assignment by scanning documents they
have only received shortly before the beginning of the conference etc. In that case, the active
interpreter (who is interpreting at the moment) cannot depend on his/her partner.
The AIIC defines several classifications of the languages an interpreter can master. There is
the division between active languages and passive languages. The former, in turn, is again
divided into two groups: A-languages and B-languages. The passive languages are also called
C-languages. The definitions are as follows (http://aiic.net/page/6726, retrieved 2015-04-08):
Active languages:
A: The interpreter’s native language (or another language strictly equivalent to a
native language), into which the interpreter works from all her or his other languages
in both modes of interpretation, simultaneous and consecutive.
B: A language other than the interpreter’s native language, of which she or he has a
perfect command and into which she or he works from one or more of her or his other
languages. Some interpreters work in a ‘B’ language in only one of the two modes of
interpretation
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Passive languages:
C: Languages, of which the interpreter has a complete understanding and from which
she or he works.
The majority of interpreters master one active language and several passive languages, which
means that they always interpret from their passive languages into their active language.
Some interpreters, though, have more than one active language: subsequently they can
interpret into their second active language too. A very limited group has more than two active
languages (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/scic/what-is-conference-interpreting/language-
combination/index_en.htm, retrieved 2015-04-08). EU interpreting services require a certain
language profile. For example, an interpreter with Dutch as native language has to master
either three or more passive languages or one B language and two or more passive languages
(http://europa.eu/interpretation/doc/lang_profiles_in_demand.pdf, retrieved 2015-04-08).
Another element which plays an important role in the interpretation process is the ear-voice
span (EVS) or décalage, which indicates the time lag between the speaker and the interpreter.
In those few seconds, the interpreter carries out several tasks: ‘process and store the auditory
input and complete the interpretation process’ (Defrancq, 2015, p. 26). There is no ideal EVS,
but an equilibrium is needed, i.e. the EVS should not be too long or too short, to guarantee a
high quality interpretation. Keeping a long EVS has both negative and positive consequences.
Barik (1975, p. 290) and Gile (1995, p. 55) have made the following two assumptions: a long
EVS should diminish the number of errors made and the risk of transcodage. Anderson (1994,
p. 116) has made assumptions about the negative consequences: a long EVS tests the memory
and as such it can cause omissions.
A last element which can have an effect on the interpreter’s performance is the speaker’s
rhythm. Defrancq (2015, pp. 18-20) has elaborated on this subject and also mentions an
experiment conducted by Gerver in 1969. The average rhythm in Dutch is between 120 and
140 words a minute. Gerver (1969, pp. 162-184) researched the role of the speech rhythm on
the interpreter’s performance by accelerating the speech rhythm and comparing the reaction
of interpreters and ‘shadowers’ on the acceleration. ‘Shadowers’ repeat the speech without
having to interpret into another language. Therefore, Gerver makes the assumption that
‘shadowers’ have less difficulty following the speaker when the rhythm accelerates. After
conducting the experiment, she reached the following conclusions. Firstly, ‘interpreters do
react different than ‘shadowers’ to the acceleration of the speech rhythm’. Secondly,
14
‘’shadowers’ accelerate together with the speaker, but interpreters can only keep up until 110
words a minute.’. Thirdly, ‘when the speech rhythm accelerates, both interpreters and
‘shadowers’ pause less’. And finally, ‘interpreters monitor their own speech’, i.e. they listen
to themselves, detect errors and correct themselves.
2.3 Code of Ethics
The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC, Association Internationale
des Interprètes de Conference) has drawn up a code of ethics by which the AIIC interpreters
have to abide (http://aiic.net/code-of-ethics, retrieved 2015-03-20). The document consists of
four parts: ‘Purpose and Scope’, ‘Code of Honour’, ‘Working Conditions’ and ‘Amendment
Procedure’. Below the most important elements of the ‘Code of Professional Ethics’ are listed
(reformulation mine).
The interpreter has to handle all the information disclosed in closed meetings in strict
confidentiality;
The interpreter can only accept assignments for which they are qualified;
The interpreter is not allowed to discredit the profession in any way;
The interpreter should never work alone in the booth, but is always accompanied by a
colleague;
The interpreter has to request that any documents that will be read out during the
conference, have to be sent to the interpreter in advance;
The interpreter is not allowed to perform any other tasks than what they are hired for,
i.e. conference interpreting;
The interpreter has to request to be able to work in excellent technical conditions (eg.
sound, visibility, comfort…);
If any rules are breached, the Disciplinary and Disputes Committee will decide on the
appropriate penalties.
15
These rules were set up to facilitate the contact between the client and the interpreter and to
guarantee a high quality interpreting service. Not obeying the rules does not have legal
consequences, but the interpreters will have to appear before the Disciplinary and Disputes
Committee to justify their actions. The committee then decides whether the interpreter in
question can remain a member of the AIIC or whether sanctions should be imposed
(http://aiic.net/node/2344, retrieved 2015-03-20).
2.4 Cognitive pressure
Simultaneous interpreting is a challenging task, which is proven by the number of errors made
during an interpretation assignment. A simultaneous performance without errors does not
exist. Gile (1999, pp. 153-172) aimed to research whether errors are related to difficult parts
in the source text or whether they are inherent to the simultaneous interpretation process. To
find an answer to this question, he gave a group of professional interpreters the task to
interpret the same text twice. After the first performance, they received feedback about the
errors they made. Next, he compared the errors made during both performances. The results
showed that during the second performance other errors were made and that the errors were
spread randomly, which proves that errors are inherent to the interpretation process.
Because of this, Gile (1985, p. 200-201) formulates a hypothesis, i.e. the ‘tightrope
hypothesis’, which is a part of his ‘Effort Model’. It states that interpreters constantly work
against their capacity and surpass it. This hypothesis assumes that interpreting consists of four
different efforts: a listening effort, a memory effort, a production effort and a coordination
effort which coordinates the three other efforts. Every effort has a maximum available
capacity and interpreters use the full capacity or even more. When they interpret over their
capacity, it results in errors.
3 OSTEOPATHY
This chapter will discuss the subject of the glossary, i.e. osteopathy, and in particular the
osteopathic treatment of several classes of people, such as newborns, children and athletes.
First of all, we will mention the history and the status of osteopathy in five Dutch-speaking
and English-speaking countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Australia
16
and the United States, and make a short comparison. Then, the term ‘osteopathy’ will be
defined and the difference between a number of related designations, i.e. osteopathy,
acupuncture, chiropractic, homeopathy and physiotherapy and their Dutch equivalents, will
be explained. Those terms are used in different ways in Belgium, the Netherlands, the United
States, Australia and the United Kingdom. Finally, a short extract is dedicated to one question
in particular: when exactly can an osteopath help?
3.1 The status of osteopathy in the Dutch speaking and English speaking countries
Osteopathy is a medical discipline which is not yet a recognized form of health care in all
countries. The present subchapter will deal with the history and status of osteopathy in five
Dutch-speaking and English-speaking countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, the United
Kingdom, the United States and Australia.
Andrew Taylor Still is considered to be the father of osteopathy. He was an American doctor
from Virginia who lived at the end of the 19th
and the beginning of the 20th
Century. He
abandoned classic medicine and introduced a new way of looking at diseases, which he called
‘osteopathy’ (http://www.gnrpo.be/historiek-osteopathie, retrieved 2015-04-19). In 1892 he
founded the first school of osteopathy, i.e. the American School of Osteopathy in Kirksville.
The discipline was introduced in Europe thanks to a student of Still, John Martin Littlejohn. In
1917 he returned to the United Kingdom and founded the British School of Osteopathy in
London. Osteopathy is currently practised in more than 50 countries (van Dun, 2013, p. 1).
Until 1999, osteopathy was not organised in Belgium and in theory, just about everybody
could claim to be an osteopath without any kind of training. In 1999, the Colla-law was
passed, which aimed at the recognition of four branches of Complementary and Alternative
Medicine (CAM): osteopathy, chiropractic, acupuncture and homeopathy. However, it was
not until 2010 that the minister of Public Health, Laurette Onkelinx, took some further steps.
She set up a committee to make decisions which will then be incorporated into a Royal
Decree. The committee has not yet come to a consensus. At present, a patient cannot get a
refund from the Belgian National Institute for Health and Disability Insurance, but most
Health Insurance funds (called ‘mutualiteiten’ in Belgium) offer a refund.
17
In the Netherlands, osteopathy is still considered an alternative method of treatment, which is
not yet recognized by law. The ‘Nederlandse Vereniging voor Osteopathie’ (Dutch
Osteopathic Association, own translation HV) was founded in 1986. The association warrants
the quality of osteopathic treatment, by restricting membership to student-osteopaths and
osteopaths who attend(ed) one of the five schools of Osteopathy recognized by the NRO
(Nederlands Register voor Osteopaten, Dutch Osteopathic Register, own translation HV).
They are also lobbying for osteopathy to be recognised by law.
(http://www.osteopathie.nl/de_nederlandse_vereniging_osteopathie.html, retrieved 2015-04-
19).
In the United Kingdom, osteopathy is regulated by the General Osteopathic Council (GOsC).
The osteopaths registered with the GOsC have to renew their registration annually so that the
GOsC can guarantee the quality of treatment. They also have to meet a number of criteria
which are set out in a guide: ‘Osteopathic Practice Standards’
(http://www.osteopathy.org.uk/standards/osteopathic-practice/, retrieved 2015-04-19). An
important regulation is that nobody who is not registered with the GOsC can carry the name
osteopath. Should somebody use the title illegally, he/she can be prosecuted. The guide can be
consulted on this site: http://www.osteopathy.org.uk/news-and-resources/document-
library/osteopathic-practice-standards/osteopathic-practice-standards/.
The profession is widely spread in the United States, the cradle of osteopathic medicine. In
the US, there are two kind of physicians, Medical Doctors (MD) and Doctors of Osteopathy
(DO). The education is alike. Both are doctors and osteopathy is considered a parallel branch
of American medicine. To become a DO, the prospective osteopath has to graduate from one
of the schools of osteopathy accredited by the ‘American Osteopathic Association’
(http://www.osteopathic.org/osteopathic-health/about-dos/about-osteopathic-
medicine/Pages/default.aspx, retrieved 2015-04-19). One out of twenty doctors in the US is a
DO. Moreover, one out of ten doctors in the US Army is a DO (Newiger, 2008, p. 20).
18
The last country in this overview is Australia. Osteopaths are registered with the government
and have to complete a training at the university of minimum five years with a curriculum that
offers a wide range of subjects, such as anatomy, pathology and osteopathic techniques.
Osteopaths also have to take refresher course in order to be allowed to keep on practising. The
costs are covered by most private health funds
(http://www.osteopathy.org.au/pages/qualifications-and-training.html, retrieved 2015-04-19).
3.2 Osteopathy vs. other designations
There are quite a few designations for medical branches that are similar to osteopathy and
there is confusion about when exactly a certain designation should be used. In Belgium, for
example, there are many types of alternative medicine which are quite similar to each other,
such as homeopathie, chiropraxie, acupunctuur and kinesitherapie (Newiger, 2010, pp. 30-
40). Moreover, in the Netherlands a kinesitherapeut is named a fysiotherapeut, which is
something different in Belgium. Finally, there is also a difference between chiropractors,
osteopaths and physiotherapists in the English context.
First of all, a general definition of osteopathy will be given. Newiger (2010, pp. 14-27)
enumerates the building blocks of the medical discipline. Osteopaths adopt a holistic view of
the body: all body parts are interconnected and influence each other. Loss of function disturbs
the equilibrium of the body and osteopaths look for that disturbance and try to remove it in
order to bring the body back to its state of equilibrium. Traditional medicine, by contrast,
focuses on the injury in particular and not the functional cause. Another important theory is
that the body is self-regulating, which means that when the equilibrium is disturbed the body
does everything to try to restore the equilibrium. The osteopath tries to reactivate the system
that is responsible for the healing of the disturbance. Therefore, he/she does not use
painkillers. Finally, also the arterial rule is important. This rule states that the body has a non-
stop supply system and when the supplying is hindered, loss of function or disease is a result.
Chiropractic has the same roots as osteopathy and also manipulates the body. However,
chiropractic only focuses on the locomotor system and the spinal cord in particular, while
osteopathy also treats the visceral system and the cranium
(http://www.osteopathie.eu/faq/wat-het-verschil-tussen-osteopathie-en-chiropraxie, retrieved
2015-05-14). Acupuncture was invented by the Chinese some 3500 years ago. Energy
19
channels cross the body and can be blocked. By sticking needles into pressure points the
blockage can be eliminated. In contrast to osteopathy, acupuncture focuses on energy and
does not treat manually (Newiger, 2010, p. 36). Kinesitherapie, which is called physiotherapie
in the Netherlands, does not adopt the holistic view that osteopaths do. Its aim is to lessen the
pain of the injury, but not to tackle the cause. Moreover, they also use non-manual techniques,
such as electric manipulation etc. (Newiger, 2010, p. 38). In English, there can be some
confusion between physical therapy and physiotherapy. Physiotherapists are the English
equivalents of kinesitherapeuten. They treat in different ways, i.e. with massage,
manipulation, electrotherapy and acupuncture. They also prescribe exercises to help
rehabilitate the body. Physical therapists are defined by the Institute of Physical Therapy and
Applied Science Limited as ‘a holistic approach based on the manual treatment of soft tissue,
i.e., muscles, tendons, ligaments and fascia’.
(http://www.mmphysiotherapy.com/featured/difference-between-physio-physical-
therapist.html, retrieved 2015). The Dutch equivalent to physical therapy is manuele therapie.
3.3 When can an osteopath help?
Newiger (2010, p. 42-44) explains that doctors and osteopaths treat different problems.
Osteopaths treat functional problems and doctors treat structural problems. When a doctor
does not find a cause for the problems, even after taking blood and examining the locomotor
system and the organs, he/she can send the patient to an osteopath because he/she has come to
the conclusion that the symptoms are caused by a functional problem. Moreover, when
disturbances are not helped with drugs, the patient can also be sent to an osteopath.
However, it is also possible for patients to consult an osteopath without referral of a doctor,
since osteopathy has not yet been officially recognized by the government as an alternative
medicine. For example, one may visit an osteopath as a preventive measure, as many athletes
do or when the patient himself/herself thinks that his/her disorders are caused by functional
problems. However, it is recommended to apprise one’s general practitioner of visits to other
types of caregivers.
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4 TERMINOLOGY
4.1 Glossary vs. term base
The aim of this thesis is twofold. On the one hand, an interpreter’s glossary is compiled,
which is meant to be used by conference interpreters in the booth. There is also a more
exhaustive version of the glossary that can be used by community interpreters or for any other
purposes. On the other hand, this thesis contributes to the GenTerm project of the Faculty of
Arts and Philosophy of Ghent University. The project aims ‘to record and store
terminographical data’ for future use and reference (GenTerm,
http://www.cvt.ugent.be/genterm.htm, retrieved 2015-03-08). In this chapter, the differences
between a glossary and a term base, such as GenTerm, will be discussed. Furthermore, a part
is dedicated to lexical gaps, a phenomenon interpreters often have to deal with and the
strategies they use to overcome this difficulty.
4.1.1 What is a glossary?
Vanopstal et al. (2011) point out that there is a lot of confusion about the distinction between
different types of terminological collections, such as ‘glossary’ or ‘term list,’ because they are
used in different contexts. They suggest the following definition for glossary: ‘a list of terms
in a particular field of knowledge, with definitions or explanations’ (p. 529). This would
mean that glossaries are by definition monolingual. However, examples abound of resources
that call themselves glossaries and that are bi- or multilingual. Another distinction should be
made between a translator’s glossary and an interpreter’s glossary. Moreover, the latter
category can be divided further into glossaries for interpreters using the simultaneous mode
and those for interpreters using the consecutive mode. According to Jiang (2013, p. 78), the
latter distinction should be made because of the different conditions to which both types of
interpreters are exposed. An interpreter using the simultaneous mode can use the glossary in
the booth. He/she can leaf through the glossary relatively easily, while an interpreter using the
consecutive mode cannot because he/she is busy taking or reading notes. Therefore, a
consecutive interpreter has to study the glossary before the actual interpretation. Simultaneous
interpreters, though, do not necessarily have to know all the terms by heart (although it
21
remains an important advantage): they can use the glossary terms ‘as triggers for mental
processing’ (Jiang, 2013, p. 78).
Jiang (2013, p. 89-91) carried out a survey about the use of glossaries in conference
interpreting. He reached a number of conclusions. Firstly, almost all interpreters make use of
glossaries while interpreting. Much depends, though, on the topic: interpreters are more likely
to prepare a glossary for a technical conference than for other, more general conferences.
Secondly, the majority of items added to a glossary are ‘technical terms, acronyms and names
of organizations’ (p. 89). Thirdly, the primary function of a glossary is ‘learning vocabulary’,
followed by ‘understanding issues and concepts’ and ‘speed[ing] up output into target
language’ (p. 89). So, by using a glossary interpreters can reduce the mental effort which is
inherent in simultaneous interpreting. Fourthly, many interpreters edit their glossaries after a
conference, save them and use them as a reference for other assignments. Fifthly, glossaries
are often updated and edited on-the-job. And sixthly, in spite of the increasing importance of
technology, interpreters still prefer loose paper for their glossary (this is also confirmed in
Bilgen 2009).
4.1.2 What is a term base?
Allard (2012) makes a distinction between term banks and term bases. She uses the former
term to refer to larger databases, such as TERMIUM® and IATE. A term base, on the other
hand, is ‘an electronic collection of structured term entries in the form of individual or client-
server databases of a relatively smaller size and with a more limited audience than a term
bank’ (Allard, 2012, p. 16). Using this definition as a reference, we can conclude that
GenTerm, currently holding 11,138 records, is an example of a term bank but that the
contributions to GenTerm by individual students are examples of the second category, i.e.
term bases.
4.2 Terms
Wright and Budin (1997, p. 13) use this definition of terms: ‘the words that are assigned to
concepts used in special languages that occur in subject-field or domain-related texts’. Not
only single-word or compound terms can be part of a terminology list, but also many other
22
kinds of terminological units, multiword terms, set phrases, collocations, standard texts,
abbreviated forms of terms and canonical forms of terms. Most terms refer to nouns, but also
other word classes can be part of a terminology collection or a glossary. Especially, an
interpreter’s glossary can contain a lot of other word classes. The rules for compiling such a
glossary are more flexible than for a terminologists glossary. The main reason for including a
term is when the interpreter feels that the lexical item, be it a verb, a noun, an adjective or
even an expression, can constitute a translation problem (Jiang, 2013, p.75).
4.3 Lexical gaps
A lexical gap occurs when there is ‘lack of direct lexicalisation for a certain concept’, i.e.
there is no direct equivalent for a lexical item from one language into another (Civilikaité,
2006, p. 127). Interpreters often encounter such lexical gaps during assignments and have to
resort to certain strategies in order to faithfully translate a concept.
Cvilikaité (2006, pp. 127-132) enumerated some strategies that can be used – and will be used
in this thesis - to translate lexical gaps. The equivalent is a ‘free word combination’, so not a
compound noun. The following three strategies can be used to find the adequate equivalent.
Firstly, the interpreter can look up the word in a bilingual dictionary. However, this strategy is
not preferable, since there is no context and there can be discrepancies between translations in
different dictionaries. Secondly, the interpreter can consult parallel corpora. This strategy is
preferable, since the translations are used in real language situations. When no adequate
equivalent is found, the interpreter can resort to a final strategy, i.e. coining his/her own
translation.
The following three strategies can be used to find the adequate equivalents of terms. Firstly,
the interpreter can look up the word in a bilingual dictionary. However, this strategy is not
ideal, since dictionaries rarely provide enough context and there can be discrepancies between
translations in different dictionaries. Secondly, the interpreter can consult parallel corpora or
comparable corpora. This strategy is preferable, since the equivalents are used in real
language situations. When no adequate equivalent is found, the interpreter may conclude that
there is a ‘lexical gap’ in the target language and s/he can resort to a final strategy, i.e. coining
his/her own translation.
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A lexical gap occurs when there is ‘lack of direct lexicalisation for a certain concept’, i.e.
there is no direct equivalent for a lexical item from one language into another (Cvilikaité,
2006, p. 127). Interpreters often encounter such lexical gaps during assignments and have to
resort to certain strategies, like giving a descriptive alternative, in order to faithfully translate
a concept.
4.4 Interpreters and terminology management
In his thesis ‘Investigating Terminology Management for Conference Interpreters’, Bilgen
(2009) argues that at present interpreters are not using many technological means to assist
them in managing their terminology and he formulates some reasons for this. Moreover, he
suggests some possible adaptions to the existing technology to make it more accessible to
interpreters.
Other language users with interests in terminology, e.g. translators and terminologists, also
use terminology management and current terminology management programs are adapted to
the needs of those two target groups. However, they have other needs and priorities than
interpreters. Bilgen’s survey (2009) has shown that interpreters are not against using
computers in the booth, but that major adaptions are needed to the existing technology, as it is
still not conform to their needs. He states several reasons for this. A first reason is the tight
time schedule, which is an important and inherent element of the interpretation process.
Interpreters have to adhere to a tight time schedule before, as well as during the conference.
Before a conference, they have to gather a lot of information on a lot of subjects in a relatively
short time. As such, interpreters do not wish to carry out the extensive preparation that
terminologists tend to invest in. Instead, they prefer ‘ad hoc preparation’ (Bilgen, 2009, p.
16). During the conference, i.e. in the booth, time management also plays a role.
Simultaneous interpreting is an effort that requires maximum concentration. Therefore,
conference interpreters have little time to look up terminological information. A second
reason is that terminologists are also occupied with terminology standardization, which means
that they want one term to correspond with one context. In that case they prepare a
monolingual terminology list. However, both translators and interpreters work in two or more
languages. As such, terminology management technology has to be able to process bilingual
as well as multilingual information. A third and last reason is that also due to the time
constraint, interpreters do not need as much information on a term as terminologists and
24
translators do. The latter, for example, often use definitions to check what term is to be used
in a certain context. Interpreters, though, have no need for this information, since they do not
have time to consult it when interpreting.
Based on his survey, Bilgen (2009, pp. 81 ff) formulates six general guidelines for
terminology management tools aimed at interpreters’ needs. Firstly, users should be able ‘to
create and manage terminology records in two or more languages’, which they can select
themselves (Bilgen, 2009, p. 82). Secondly, it should be possible to indicate different term
types. As such, interpreters can ‘retrieve a list of acronyms, official titles, etc. within a subject
field’ (Bilgen, 2009, p. 83). Thirdly, a sample record should be available, so that interpreters
do not have to develop every term record from scratch. Fourthly, several output formats
should be available, adapted to the needs of interpreters before, during and after a conference.
Fifthly, a fast-searching option should be added for interpreters working under high time
pressure in the booth. The sixth requirement is that the program should not be too complicated
nor too expensive.
5 METHODOLOGY
5.1 Setting
The imagined setting of this thesis is a colloquium about osteopathic health care and its status
which will take place in Brussels, Belgium. The colloquium is organised by the association
for osteopathy in Belgium and its Dutch counterpart (Belgische Vereniging voor Osteopathie,
Nederlandse Vereniging voor Osteopathie). Members from both associations, coming from all
over Belgium and the Netherlands, are present to talk about and discuss injuries and possible
treatments. The official conference language is Dutch, but interpretation is also available into
several other languages, since also osteopaths from abroad will participate in the Colloquium.
Providing interpreters is a responsibility of the organisers and the interpreters they selected
are all AIIC members. Of particular interest for this thesis is the interpretation from Dutch
into English.
The conference is set in Brussels because it is the European capital and also a city where
many conferences and colloquia take place. Therefore, they have the equipment to perfectly
25
organise a colloquium of this scale. The main aim of the conference is to exchange ideas
about injuries and their treatment, but there is an underlying objective: to come closer to
acceptance of osteopathy as a separate medical discipline. As such, osteopathy will also be
discussed in general terms.
5.2 Term selection
5.2.1 For the glossary
Several steps were taken in order to reach a relevant number of terms for inclusion in the final
version of the glossary, for which we aim at selecting 100 worthwhile terms. Terms can be
selected either automatically or manually. When terms are automatically collected,
terminology extraction systems, such as SDL Multiterm Extract, are used. However, for this
thesis terms have been selected manually, i.e. from several books and articles about
osteopathy. The latter method is more labour-intensive, but is often used by interpreters
(Mohammadi, 2013, p. 7).
To begin with, several books and articles were selected, both in Dutch and in English. As it
was chosen to make a Dutch-into-English glossary, the source terms were selected from the
books and articles written in Dutch. The English works were used as reference material, i.e. to
search for equivalents. This method of searching through parallel texts for equivalents in
another language is preferred in terminological work, because books that have not been
translated and were therefore originally written in English, are considered to use the correct
terminology. Dictionaries, instead, often do not show the context of words, so that the
terminologist/interpreter can never be entirely sure to have found the correct equivalent. The
books and articles were suggested by certified Belgian osteopaths. After scoring the books
and articles, 154 terms were selected and included in a first version of the glossary. The list
was then sent to the same osteopaths that suggested the books and articles in order to verify
the importance of the selected terms. Some of them also added terms which they thought
should be part of the glossary. Several scholars have recognized the superiority of experts , so
because of their authority in this field, those terms were automatically included in the final
glossary. Many medical terms are derived from Latin and can be directly translated or with
26
only slight adaptions (Sager, 1990, p. 91). Because of their transparency, such terms were
discarded from the selection. The final glossary contains 106 terms.
After completing the Dutch terminology list, the English articles and books were consulted in
order to search for equivalents. In case of doubt, frequency was decisive. We adopted the
criterion that when a term is only used once in all consulted articles and books, there is less
chance that the term will be used in the conference. Instead, a term which is used frequently,
is more likely to be used in the same conference.
5.2.2 For the GenTerm records
This thesis also contributes to the GenTerm project of the Ghent University. 15 terms were
selected from the final glossary to be discussed in depth, which involved analysing them via
GenTerm records. The selected terms were randomly selected, because the author thought
they would result in interesting terminological analyses.
5.3 Final glossary
There will be two versions of the glossary: one can be used by conference interpreters during
an assignment, the other can be used by conference interpreters to study before the
assignment. The latter can also be used by community interpreters and other language
professionals. The first version contains only three columns: a column with the Dutch term, a
column with Dutch synonyms and a column with the English equivalents. The reason for this
is that interpreters in the booth have hardly any time to consult a glossary. Before the
conference, though, they can consult and study the second version which has five columns: a
column with the Dutch term, a column with synonyms, a third column with a definition in
Dutch, a column with a reliability code and finally a fifth column with the English
equivalents.
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6 DISCUSSION OF TERMS FOR THE GENTERM RECORDS
In the following chapter, the terms selected for discussion in GenTerm records are analysed.
The terminological research followed more or less the same pattern. First of all, the Dutch
term was looked up in several dictionaries, amongst which the Dikke Van Dale, the Pinkhof
Geneeskundig Woordenboek and the Winkler Prins Medische Encyclopedie. Next, the
term was queried in Google Books, Google Scholar and the Nederlands Tijdschrift voor
Geneeskunde in order to check how frequently it is used. This was one of the criteria used to
decide whether to include terms in the GenTerm records or not. Subsequently, the translation
for the term was looked up in a number of bilingual dictionaries, amongst which Reuter,
Kerkhof and Mostert. Finally, the English equivalents were analysed in the same way as the
Dutch terms: they were looked up in dictionaries, such as Mosby and Dorland’s and queried
in Google Books, Google Scholar and the New England Journal of Medicine.
6.1 Bekkenbodem
While the term bekkenbodem frequently occurs in specialized literature and on Google
(154,000 hits), not many dictionaries enter the term. The Dikke Van Dale defines the term as
‘afsluiting van de bekkenuitgang bestaande uit spieren en bindweefsel’. Pinkhof offers a
similar definition, offering an overview of the specific names of the muscles of the
bekkenbodem.
Wikipedia (entry bekkenbodem, retrieved on 3.05.2015) claims that bekkenbodemspieren is a
synonym, but none of the other sources confirm this. A handbook on gynaecology provides a
definition of bekkenbodem: ‘De bekkenbodem bestaat uit verschillende spieren. Hij
ondersteunt de baarmoeder, de blaas en de darmen. Aan de voorkant zit de bekkenbodem vast
aan het schaambeen en de achterkant aan het staartbeen’ (Van Damme & Essed, 2013, p.
125). From the context, however, it can be derived that there is a slight difference between the
terms. Bekkenbodem is a hyperonym: the bekkenbodemspieren are a part of the bekkenbodem.
Glosbe EN fairly systematically offers pelvic floor as a translation of bekkenbodem. Also
Reuter and Mostert propose pelvic floor. Collins describes it as ‘the muscular area in the
lower part of the abdomen, attached to the pelvis’. This definition more or less corresponds to
the Dutch definition, since it mentions both the pelvis and that it is muscular. To check the
28
reliability of the translation a last step was undertaken: the term was entered in both Google
Books and Google Scholar. The former had 311,000 hits and the latter 288,000 hits. As a
result, it is concluded that the term pelvic floor is an acceptable translation.
Another possible synonym is pelvic diaphragm. Mosby gives this definition:
the inferior aspect of the body wall, stretched like a hammock across the pelvic cavity
and comprising the levator ani and the coccygeus muscles. It holds the abdominal
contents, supports the pelvic viscera, and is pierced by the anal canal, the urethra, and
the vagina. It is reinforced by fasciae and muscles associated with these structures and
with the perineum.
Platzer (2011, p. 106) defines the pelvic floor as follows: ‘the pelvic floor is the closure of the
trunk inferiorly and posteriorly. It is formed by the pelvic diaphragm and the urogenital
diaphragm.’. Therefore, it can be concluded that pelvic floor is a hyperonym: the pelvic
diaphragm is a part of the pelvic floor. The equivalent in Dutch is diaphragma pelvis.
6.2 bekkeninstabiliteit
Pinkhof Geneeskundig Woordenboek, the Dikke Van Dale and dokterdokter all mention
the term bekkeninstabiliteit and suggest very similar definitions. The authoritative source
Pinkhof Geneeskundig Woordenboek suggests the following definition: ‘pijn, gelokaliseerd
rond het bekken of laag in de rug tijdens de zwangerschap en/of daarna, toenemend en zo
leidend tot beperking van de mobiliteit’.
Pinkhof Geneeskundig Woordenboek, the Dikke Van Dale and Gezondheidsplein.nl offer
the term symfysiolyse as a possible synonym. Mens (2010, p. 20-21) clarifies the difference
between symfysiolyse and bekkeninstabiliteit. There are three types of bekkeninstabiliteit: type
I, type II and type III. The second type can again be divided into type IIa, type IIb and type
IIc. Another name for type IIb is symfysiolyse. Therefore, symfysiolyse is a hyponym and not a
real synonym. Another synonym was suggested by the Dikke Van Dale, i.e. bekkenpijn.
From the definition in Pinkhof it can be derived that bekkenpijn is in fact a symptom of
bekkeninstabiliteit. In specialized literature on medicine and pregnancy, though, the terms are
often both used in the same context. Bekkenpijn however, seems a vaguer descriptive term
29
that is better suited as a lay term; as it is also less common (162 hits in Google Books as
opposed to 470 for bekkeninstabiliteit), it will be regarded as an extra synonym. A last
possible synonym, peripartaal bekkenpijnsyndroom was suggested by Pinkhof
Geneeskundig Woordenboek. This term also rendered few hits, but is a highly specific
medical term that deserves mention in a glossary.
Glosbe EN, Mostert and Van Dale EN both offer the translation pelvic instability and Van
Dale EN also adds a possible synonym, i.e. pelvic girdle pain. Pelvic instability is ‘a
musculoskeletal condition which causes pain and mobility problems during and/or after
pregnancy’ (Polhaupessy, 2007, p. 8).
According to Irish Health Service, pelvic girdle pain ‘is a specific form of low back pain
defined as pain experienced between the posterior iliac crests and gluteal folds particularly in
the vicinity of the sacroiliac joints’
(http://www.hse.ie/eng/about/Who/clinical/natclinprog/obsandgynaeprogramme/no16.pdf,
retrieved 2015-05-03). The Australian Pelvic Instability Association has stated on its website
that pelvic girdle pain is the preferred term (http://www.piaaustralia.com/what_is_pgp.html,
retrieved 2015-05-04). No sources from other countries were found, though. A search on
Google Books to find out which term is used the most is not univocal: pelvic instability gives
1750 hits, while pelvic girdle pain gives 966. Neither is a search on Google Scholar: the
former gives 2070 hits and the latter 2190. Moreover, the terms are often interchanged in
medical literature. Because of all reasons mentioned above, pelvic girdle pain is considered a
full synonym.
6.3 bewegingsapparaat
Pinkhof gives the following definition: ‘lichaamssysteem met het vermogen van actieve
verplaatsing, onafhankelijk van externe kracht; bestaat uit botten, gewrichten, spieren en
motorische zenuwstelsel’. The Dikke Van Dale also enters the term. However, the definition
is less complete: there is no mention of active movement, external powers or the motoric
nervous system.
Glosbe EN and Mostert offers locomotor system as a translation and Van Dale EN provides
the term locomotor apparatus. An alternative suggested by Mosby, Reuter and Mostert is
musculoskeletal system. According to Medichecks the locomotor system contains ‘the
30
structures of the body that are responsible for its movement’. Because of its etymology
locomotor apparatus can be considered a synonym of locomotor system. Collins points out
that apparatus is a term derived from Latin and in the context of anatomy it refers to ‘any
group of organs having a specific function’. Locomotor is also derived from Latin and is an
adjective which is ‘of or relating to locomotion’. The combination of the two definitions
brings us to the following definition: the organs responsible for locomotion or movement. The
last possible term musculoskeletal system is defined by Mosby as ‘all of the muscles, bones,
joints and related structures, such as the tendons and connective tissue, that functions in the
movement of body parts and organs’.
A search on Google Books showed that the terms locomotor system, locomotor apparatus and
musculoskeletal system are used interchangeably. When entered apart from each other the
three terms rendered respectively, 55,700, 17,800 and 255,000 hits. The three terms are all
frequently used in medical literature, but locomotor system will be considered the main
equivalent, since this term focuses on the function rather than anatomy. As such, the meaning
is closer to the Dutch equivalent. Musculoskeletal system is considered a full synonym and
locomotor apparatus an extra synonym.
6.4 dwarslaesie
Pinkhof defines dwarslaesie as the ‘onderbreking van de continuïteit van het ruggenmerg
door een extramedullaire myelumcompressie of een intramedullaire aandoening’. In this
definition the cause is mentioned. In the definitions of dokterdokter and the Grote Van Dale
it is not the cause, but the symptoms that are mentioned. The Grote Van Dale gives the
following definition: ‘doorsnijding van het ruggenmerg in het dwarse vlak, waardoor het
lichaam vanaf de plaats van de beschadiging naar beneden toe geheel of gedeeltelijk verlamd
en gevoelloos raakt’.
Van Dale EN and Reuter offer spinal cord lesion as a translation and Glosbe EN and Van
Dale Medisch propose paraplegia. Spinal cord lesion and spinal cord injury are used
interchangeably in specialized literature. According to Medscape a spinal cord injury is ‘an
insult to the spinal cord resulting in a change, either temporary or permanent, in the cord’s
normal motor, sensory, or autonomic function’. On the grounds of this definition it can be
31
concluded that the terms spinal cord lesion and spinal cord injury are synonyms and
equivalents to the Dutch dwarslaesie.
Stedman defines paraplegia as the ‘complete paralysis of the lower half of the body
including both legs, usually caused by damage to the spinal cord’. According to etymonline
the word has its origins in the Greek language. It is derived from the Greek word paraplegie
which means ‘paralysis of one side of the body’. From the definition it can be deduced that
paraplegia is not an exact equivalent of dwarsleasie, but in fact a possible result. Therefore,
the term is not included in the GenTerm record.
Another possible synonym is transverse lesion, defined as ‘damage to the spinal cord and/or
to the nerves running through the spinal canal, resulting in an interruption in the continuity of
the ascending and descending nerve fibres’ (Eicher & Kockott, 2012). The definition
corresponds to the Dutch definition and there is also the division into complete and
incomplete transverse lesion as Dutch also distinguishes between complete dwarslaesie and
incomplete dwarslaesie.
Finally, to decide which terms will be accepted as full synonyms and which will not, the
terms were entered into Google Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Spinal cord injury
had respectively 369,000, 634,000 and 242 hits. Spinal cord lesion had 237,000, 18,000 and
74 hits. Finally, transverse lesion had 14,600, 1,620 and 55 hits. From the results, it can be
concluded that spinal cord injury and spinal cord lesion are used most frequently. They will
therefore be included in the GenTerm records as real synonyms. Transverse lesion is used less
often and will therefore be considered an extra synonym.
6.5 hartinfarct
Winkler Prins, the Grote Van Dale, dokterdokter and Pinkhof offer definitions of
hartinfarct. For a layman the definition suggested by Pinkhof is difficult to understand, since
it is full of medical terms which are not known to the general public. Winkler Prins,
however, formulates the same concept in more accessible language:
het afsterven van een deel van de hartspier door zuurstofgebrek in de harstpier. De
oorzaak is afsluiting van een van de kransslagaders, die het hart van zuurstof voorzien.
32
Deze afsluiting wordt veroorzaakt door atherosclerose. Vaak is aan het harinfarct al
een periode van pijn op de borst (angina pectoris) voorafgegaan.
The definition in dokterdokter contains the same information, but mentions it in another
order. The Grote Van Dale suggests a shorter definition in which it is not mentioned that the
kransslagaders are blocked.
The Grote Van Dale, dokterdokter and Pinkhof propose two possible synonyms:
hartaanval and myocardinfarct. Hartinfarct and myocardinfarct are often used
interchangeably. Myocardinfarct, though, is more specific, since it names the part of the heart
that is occluded, i.e. the myocard. The term hartaanval is considered a lay term, since it is
especially used by people who have not had any medical training (http://www.hartinfarct.eu/,
retrieved on 2015-05-06). On the basis of the above-mentioned findings, myocardinfarct and
hartinfarct are considered real synonyms and hartaanval a lay term.
Reuter suggests myocardial infarction and cardiac infarction as translations. Mostert
mentions only the former. Van Dale EN mentions four translations: coronary, myocardial
infarction, heart infarction and heart attack. It is also mentioned that myocardial infarction is
high register, heart infarction is a neutral term and heart attack is low register. Stedman
defines myocardial infarction as ‘necrosis of a region of the myocardium caused by an
interruption in the supply of blood to the heart , usually as a result of occlusion of a coronary
artery’ and also state that cardiac infarction is a synonym. Coronary is short for coronary
thrombosis. Mosby defines it as a ‘development of a thrombus that blocks a coronary artery,
often causing myocardial infarction and death’. From this definition, it can be deduced that
the two terms are no real synonyms, but rather have a semantic relationship of cause and
consequence. The term heart attack can be compared to the Dutch term hartaanval, since it is
a lay term for a myocardial infarction
(http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/heart_vascular_institute/conditions_treatments/conditions/
myocardial_infarction.html, retrieved 2015-05-06). A search on Google Books, Google
Scholar and the NEJM for heart infarction turned up the following number of hits: 39,400,
3,450 and 5 respectively. When compared to the results for myocardial infarction (1,720,000,
1,750,000 and 9632 hits) it can be concluded that the term heart infarction is not used
regularly and the term will therefore not be included in the GenTerm records.
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The words ending in infarct in Dutch or infarction in English are all derived from the Latin
word infarcire which means ‘to plug up or to cram’
(http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26016, retrieved 2015-05-06).
6.6 incontinentie
Winkler Prins, the Grote Van Dale and dokterdokter all enter the term incontinentie. The
Dikke Van Dale and Pinkhof also mention the division into urine-incontinentie and
ontlastingsincontinentie, which will be analysed below. Winkler Prins gives the following
definition: ‘het onvermogen om urine en/of ontlasting op te houden. Ondanks behandeling
kan de incontinentie zeer hardnekkig zijn. Met name als incontinentie het gevolg is van een
dwarslaesie of een ‘open rug’, is dit blijvend’. The definitions in the Dikke Van Dale en
dokterdokter also mention the first part, but not the possible causes of incontinentie as does
Winkler Prins. Dokterdokter suggests incontinentia as a possible synonym. Since this is the
Latin equivalent, it has been entered in the field Internat. Both terms are derived from the
Latin word incontinens, which means ‘niet beheersend’ and is a combination of the
preposition in and the verb continere (http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/incontinent,
retrieved on 2015-05-06).
Reuter, Mostert, the Van Dale EN suggest incontinence as a translation and Mostert adds
incontinentia and incontinency. Mosby defines it as ‘the inability to control urination or
defecation’ and also mentions the Latin alternative incontinentia. Merriam Webster also
mentions incontinency as a synonym. To decide whether or not to include all three synonyms,
they were searched in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Incontinence produced
1,450,000, 575,000 and 2499 hits respectively. Incontinentia procured 131,000, 14.600 and
19. Finally, incontinency yielded 37,800, 2,730 and 5, but has another meaning next to the
medical one. It can also be used in a religious context, where it means ‘the inability to control’
(http://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/incontinency/, retrieved 2015-05-18). As a
result, it can be concluded that incontinence is used most frequently. The other two terms
occur less often and will therefore be added as extra synonyms.
6.7 lichaamsas
34
Pinkhof offers the following definition of lichaamsas: ‘denkbeeldige assen die in de anatomie
worden gebruikt ter aanduiding van plaats of richting in het lichaam’. This is the definition of
lichaamsas, although the plural assen is mentioned. The plural is used because there are
several assen. From the definition it can be concluded that it is quite an abstract concept. The
Grote Van Dale, Winkler Prins and dokterdokter have not entered the term. There can be
some confusion whether the term lichaamsas or lichaamsvlak should be used in a particular
context. Kendall (2008, pp. 39-41) explains the difference. Lichaamsassen or in short just
assen are ‘denkbeeldige lijnen waaromheen beweging plaatsvindt’. There are three assen, so
these are collocations which are often used in anatomy: the sagittale as, the transversale as
and the longitudinale as. When used in a collocation lichaams is not mentioned and only the
word as is used. Movements take place around a lichaamsas and in a lichaamsvlak.
Reuter suggest axis as a translation. Variants which are often used in the specialized literature
are body axis and axis of the body. Also in English, there were some difficulties with the
difference between an axis and a plane. That difference was explained above for the Dutch
equivalents for axis (as) and plane (vlak) and the explanation can also be applied to the
English equivalents. The three equivalents axis, body axis and axis of the body will all be
included in the GenTerm records.
Dorland defines the concept as follows: ‘a line through the center of a body, or around which
a structure revolves; a line around which body parts are arranged’. The term is derived from
Latin and its plural is axes. There are different axes: the sagittal axis, the transverse axis and
the longitudinal axis. Next to those there are even more, although the equivalents were not
mentioned in the Dutch specialized literature that was researched.
6.8 ontlastingsincontinentie
Ontlastingsincontinentie is a form of incontinence. Pinkhof defines it as the ‘onvermogen om
ontlasting op te houden; kan veroorzaakt worden door algemene spierverzwakking,
neurologische stoornis, proctologische ingrepen, beschadiging van de rectale gevoelszone en
beschadiging van het sfincterapparaat’. The following synonyms are also suggested:
anusincontinentie, incontinentia alvi, anale incontinentie en incontinentia faecalis. Reuter
suggests fecale incontinentie. Incontinentia alvi and incontinentia faecalis are the medical
terms derived from Latin, which can in principle be used in any language. To decide whether
35
all terms are in use they were all searched in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NTvG
and collected in a chart because of the quantity of terms to be researched.
Google Books Google Scholar NTvG
ontlastingsincontinentie 7 7 1
anusincontinentie 1 2 0
fecale incontinentie 106 217 24
incontinentia alvi 11,200 707 38
incontinentia faecalis 41 3 1
anale incontinentie 10 14 2
From the searches it can be concluded that many of the terms are not frequently used. Only
fecale incontinentie and incontinentia alvi got a considerate amount of hits. Incontinentia alvi
rendered many terms in other languages, such as German and English. Therefore, this term is
entered as an international term.
Reuter suggests the following translations: fecal incontinence, rectal incontinence,
incontinence of feces, scatacratia and scoracratia. According to Gale fecal incontinence is
‘the inability to control the passage of gas or stools (feces) through the anus’, which
corresponds to the Dutch definition. Stedman enters scatacratia and describes it as
‘incontinence of feces’ adding that the term is derived from two Greek words: skat
(excrement) and akratia (lack of control). The same method as above will be used to decide
which terms to include into the GenTerm records and which not.
Google Books Google Scholar NEJM
fecal incontinence 49,800 42,700 132
faecal incontinence 14,600 19,700 1
rectal incontinence 4,500 1,860 20
incontinence of feces 7,570 692 60
incontinence of
faeces
44,600 821 11
scatacratia 112 5 0
scoracratia 138 1 0
36
From the chart it can be concluded that both scoracratia and scatacratia are seldomly used.
Therefore, those two will be included in the record as extra synonyms. Fecal incontinence,
rectal incontinence and incontinence of feces, however, will be included and the British
spelling variants faecal incontinence and incontinence of faeces will be included too.
6.9 overstrekking
Pinkhof defines overstrekking as the ‘overmatige mogelijkheid tot strekken van een gewricht
tot verder dan nul graden’. Van Putten (2009, p. 269) also mentions hyperextensie as a
possible synonym, as does Pinkhof. The terms were entered in Google Books, Google
Scholar and the NTvG to check whether they are used frequently. Overstrekking had 243, 92
and 35 hits respectively. Hyperextensie had 516, 321 and 93 hits respectively. As a result, it
can be concluded that Hyperextensie is the term which is used most frequently. However,
overstrekking also showed a significant number of hits and will therefore also be included.
Mijnwoordenboek suggests hyperextension as a translation. Mosby offers the following
definition: ‘movement at a joint to a position beyond the joint’s normal maximum extension’.
The term is derived from the Greek hyper and the Latin extendere, which means ‘to stretch
out’. Farlex adds two possible synonyms: overextension and superextension. The terms were
entered in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Hyperextension had 180,000,
49,800 and 330 hits respectively. Overextension had 66,000, 18,100 and 28 and
superextension 1,670, 678 and 1. In comparison to the first two terms, superextension is not
used frequently and will therefore be included as an extra synonym.
6.10 prikkelbaredarmsyndroom
According to Pinkhof, prikkelbaredarmsyndroom is a
motiliteitsstoornis van het colon, zich uitend in chronisch recidiverende buikpijn,
wisselend defecatiepatroon en vaak passage van slijm per anum, in afwezigheid van
aantoonbare morfologische of biochemische afwijkingen.
37
They also suggest the synonym spastisch colon. In Dutch the term is abbreviated to PDS.
Smout (2003, p. 11) points out that there are even more terms which are used in the
specialized literature, such as prikkelbare dikke darm syndroom, muceuze colitis, spastische
colitis, nerveuse diarree, colonneurose etc. However, he points out that the terms with colitis
are not entirely correct, because colitis concerns an infection of the colon. That is not the case
with PDS. Morever, also terms with nerveus or neuritis are less correct, because that would
mean that there is a psychological cause, which is not the case. Therefore, those will not be
included in the GenTerm records. The other three terms, prikkelbaredarmsyndroom, spastisch
colon and prikkelbare dikke darm syndroom were entered in Google Books, Google Scholar
and the NTvG in order to check the frequency. Prikkelbaredarmsyndroom gave 116, 265 and
113 hits respectively. The spelling variant prikkelbare darm syndroom gave 190, 114 and 9
hits. This spelling is not in accordance with the spelling rules in Woordenlijst (cf.
http://woordenlijst.org/leidraad/6/2). Spastisch colon gave 113, 101 and 7 hits respectively.
This term will also be included in the GenTerm records. The term prikkelbare dikke darm
syndroom gave 1, 1 and 0 hits respectively, which means that the term is hardly ever used.
Therefore it will not be included in the records.
Mostert gives a number of possible translations: irritable colon, irritable bowel syndrome
and spastic colon. Reuter also enters these translation and adds two more: irritable colon
syndrome and irritable bowel. Medterms defines irritable bowel syndrome as
a gastrointestinal disorder characterized by the presence of a cluster of symptoms and
signs that include cramping, abdominal pain, increased gas, altered bowel habits, food
intolerance and bloating (distention).
Mosby suggests three possible synonyms: functional bowel syndrome, mucous colitis and
spastic colon. Irritable bowel syndrome is often abbreviated as IBS. Another synonym is
suggested by Heritage: irritable colon. Medterms mentions that IBS is not the same as
colitis, which is an inflammatory disease. Therefore, mucous colitis is not a real synonym.
The other terms, i.e. functional bowel syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, irritable bowel,
spastic colon syndrome, spastic colon and irritable colon were entered in Google Books,
Google Scholar and the NEJM. Functional bowel syndrome yielded 20, 196 and 1 hit(s)
respectively. Irritable bowel syndrome gave 161,000, 144,000 and 123 hits respectively.
Irritable bowel produced 180,000, 158,000 and 141 hits respectively. However, because of
38
the way those three sites work also irritable bowel syndrome is included in these search
results. Therefore, the actual results for irritable bowel are the results for irritable bowel
minus the result for irritable bowel syndrome, i.e. 19,000, 14,000 and 18 hits respectively.
Spastic colon syndrome showed 4,400, 255 and 4 hits respectively. Spastic colon had 23,200,
4,430 and 485 hits respectively. Here, the same applies as to irritable bowel and irritable
bowel syndrome. Therefore, spastic colon has 18,800, 4,175 and 481 hits respectively.
Finally, irritable colon has 31,700, 7,550 and 110 hits. From these results, it is concluded that
irritable bowel syndrome, irritable bowel, spastic colon and irritable colon will be included
in the GenTerm records.
6.11 schedelnaad
Pinkhof defines schedelnaad as an ‘anatomische grenslijn van de schedel’ and suggests
sutura cranii as a synonym. The Grote Van Dale also adds sutuur as a another possible
synonym. Etymologiebank points out that sutuur can refer to either a schedelnaad or a
wondnaad. The word is derived from the Latin suere, which means aaneennaaien (i.e. to sew
together). The three terms, i.e. schedelnaad, sutura cranii and sutuur, were entered in Google
Books, Google Scholar and the NTvG. Schedelnaad rendered 120, 17 and 26 hits
respectively. Sutura cranii rendered 301, 10 and 0 hits respectively. Finally, sutuur rendered
1,950, 107 and 55 hits respectively. None of the terms are used very frequently, but
schedelnaad and sutuur appear to be the more common variants. Therefore, they will be
included in the GenTerm records. However, sutuur can also be used in another context
referring to chirurgical stitches, so the results have to be put into perspective.
Reuter translates schedelnaad as cranial suture, as does Van Dale EN. Reuter also adds
skull suture and sutura crania. Kerkhof also suggests fontanel as a translation. Heritage
defines cranial suture as ‘any of the sutures between the bones of the skull’. Either suture or
sutura are part of all the three terms. Etymonline confirms that those terms are also derived
from the Latin suere. Fontanel and its spelling variant fontanelle are derived from the French
fontanelle which is the diminutive of fontaine and means ‘small source, fountain, spring’.
Mayoclinic clarifies that cranial sutures and fontanelles are not the same. They explain that
‘joints called cranial sutures, made of strong, fibrous tissue, hold the bones of your baby’s
skull together […] the sutures intersect at the fontanels, the soft spots on your baby’s head’.
(http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/craniosynostosis/multimedia/cranial-sutures-
39
and-fontanels/img-20006785, retrieved 2015-05-13). Therefore, fontanelle is not accepted as
a real synonym. To decide whether to include the other terms, they were entered in Google
Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Cranial suture rendered 8,470, 6,060 and 0 hits
respectively. Skull suture rendered 1,840, 577 and 0 hits respectively. Suture rendered
11,200,000, 1,050,000 and 9243 hits. However, it should be put into perspective: suture can
have another meaning. Therefore, a number of the hits is not representative. Finally, sutura
crania rendered no hits at all. In conclusion, only suture and cranial suture will be added to
the GenTerm records.
6.12 spatader
Pinkhof, Winkler Prins and the Dikke Van Dale all entered the term spatader. Pinkhof
gives a simplified definition: ‘verwijding van een ader’. Winkler Prins, however, gives a
more detailed definition: ‘abnormaal verwijde en kronkelige aders. Als de druk in een ader
gedurende een langere tijd te hoog is, zet deze uit, waardoor de kleppen niet goed meer
functioneren en het bloed in de ader achterblijft. Op den duur leidt dit tot een blijvend
verwijde ader’. Pinkhof suggests a number of synonyms, i.e. flebectasie, phlebectasia, varix,
varicositas and aderverwijding. Also dokterdokter mentions flebectasie and varix as possible
synonyms. The terms were entered in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NTvG in order
to check how frequently they are used. Spatader rendered 357, 53 and 133 hits respectively.
Flebectasie rendered 533, 23 and 12 hits respectively. The results from Google Books and
Google Scholar are not representative. Although the language was set to Dutch, results in
other languages, such as Italian, were also included. Phlebectasia rendered 5,360, 1,770 and 2
hits respectively. Again, the results from Google Books and Google Scholar are not
representative. The results include hits in German and English. Varix rendered 171,000,
23,200 and 89 hits respectively. Again the same problem occurred, the results in Google
Books and Google Scholar include results in other languages. Varicositas rendered 1,060,
230 and 20 hits respectively. Finally, aderverwijding rendered 9, 1 and 0 hits respectively.
Because of the non-representative results in Google Books and Google Scholar, only the
results in the NTvG will be considered in order to decide what terms to include in the
GenTerms. Spatader and varix will be included.
Reuter proposes the following translations: varix and varicose vein. Kerkhof adds varicosity
as a possible synonym. Mosby defines a varicose vein as a ‘tortuous, dilated vein with
40
incompetent valves’ and gives also a definition of varicosity: ‘an abnormal condition, usually
of a vein, characterized by swelling and tortuosity’. The definitions corresponds to the Dutch
definitions, but are less detailed than the one from Winkler Prins. The three terms were
entered in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Varix rendered 172,000, 23,200
and 328 hits respectively. The plural varices is also often used. Varicose vein rendered
37,300, 16,100 and 103 hits respectively. Finally, varicosity rendered 35,900, 13,000 and 101
hits respectively. Therefore, the three terms will be included in the GenTerm records.
6.13 urine-incontinentie
De Jongh (2005) mentions the WHO’s definition of urine-incontinentie: ‘het onwillekeurig
verlies van urine, twee of meer keren per maand, ongeacht de hoeveelheid verloren urine’.
The term is also found in the Dikke Van Dale and Pinkhof. Reuter suggests the synonym
incontinentia urinae, which is the medical term derived from Latin. Dokterdokter mentions
incontinentie voor urine. The terms were entered in Google Books, Google Scholar and the
NTvG. Urine-incontinentie rendered 455, 829 and 48 hits respectively. Incontinentia urinae
rendered 34,800, 1,590 and 109 hits respectively. The results in Google Books and Google
Scholar are not representative, though. The language was set to Dutch, but also results in
other languages, such as Latin and German, were included. Finally, incontinentie voor urine
rendered 147, 288 and 9 hits respectively. Urine-incontinentie and incontinentia urinae will
be included in the GenTerm records. Incontinentia urinae is derived from Latin and used in
several languages and will therefore be included as an international term.
Reuter suggests urinary incontinence and incontinence of urine as a translation. Kerkhof
also adds urine incontinence and enuresis. Medterms defines urinary incontinence as ‘the
unintentional loss of urine’. According to Mosby, enuresis is a term derived from the Greek
enourein, which signifies ‘to urinate’. Dorland considers enuresis a synonym to urinary
incontinence. Enuresis (Sturmey, 2012, p.16) often occurs in the following collocations:
nocturnal enuresis, primary enuresis, secondary enuresis, diurnal enuresis, mixed enuresis,
monosymptomatic enuresis and polysymptomatic enuresis. The four terms were entered in
Google Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Urinary incontinence rendered 227,000,
277,000 and 380 hits respectively. Incontinence of urine rendered 134,000, 13,300 and 641
hits respectively. Urine incontinence rendered 12,800, 3,210 and 5 hits respectively. Finally,
enuresis rendered 394,000, 68,500 and 283 hits respectively. Urine incontinence will not be
41
included in the GenTerm records, since the term does not occur frequently in comparison to
the other terms.
6.14 weke delen
The term weke delen is present in Pinkhof and the Dikke Van Dale. Pinkhof gives the
following definition: ‘weefsel rond parenchymateuze organen en onder de huid, waaronder
pezen, spieren, bindweefsel en vetweefsel’. The Dikke Van Dale adds geslachtsorganen as a
possible synonym. From the definition, however, it is clear that weke delen and
geslachtsorganen are definitely not synonyms. Pinkhof suggests zachte lichaamsdelen as a
possible synonym. When checked in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NTvG, weke
delen returns 2,170, 1,700 and 52 hits respectively. Zachte lichaamsdelen rendered 16, 5 and
0 results respectively. Because the term is hardly ever used zachte lichaamsdelen will not be
included in the GenTerm records.
Kerkhof suggests soft tissue as a translation and states that the plural form soft tissues is also
a viable alternative. Mostert adds soft-tissue sites and soft parts. McGraw-Hill gives the
following definition of soft tissue: ‘a generic term for muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood
vessels, or other supporting tissue matrix’. Farlex defines soft parts as ‘the nonbony and
noncartilaginous tissues of the body’, which corresponds to the definition of soft tissue, only
seen from another perspective. In order to check which (spelling) variant is used most
frequently, the terms were entered in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NEJM. Soft
tissue rendered 1,690,000, 2,170,000 and 2722 hits respectively. Soft tissues returned 799,000,
650,000 and 1355 hits respectively. Soft-tissue sites yielded 6,050, 1,710 and 4 hits
respectively. Finally, soft parts rendered 621,000, 52,500 and 1994 hits respectively. Onn the
basis of these results, it was decided not to include soft-tissue parts in the GenTerm records.
6.15 woekering
The Dikke Van Dale defines woekering as ‘iets dat zich ontwikkelt en toeneemt ten koste van
iets anders’. It is also mentioned that the term is often premodified and some examples are
given, i.e. beenwoekering, bindweefselwoekering, botwoekering, celwoekering,
huidwoekering, kraakbeenwoekering, littekenwoekering, schimmelwoekering, vleeswoekering
and weefselwoekering. The Dikke Van Dale mentions wildgroei as a possible synonym. This
42
term, however, can also be used in a figurative sense referring to something that has grown
uncontrollably. When entered in Google Books, Google Scholar and the NTvG, woekering
rendered 12,700, 661 and 101 results. Wildgroei was only checked in the NTvG, because its
ambiguity would have yielded non-representative results. The search resulted in 58 hits. Both
terms will be included in the GenTerm records.
Mostert suggests four possible translations: overgrowth, proliferation, hypertrophy and
increased growth. Van Dale EN suggest morbid growth. Mosby gives the following
definition of overgrowth: ‘an excessive growth, usually referring to organ or tissue
development’ and mentions hypertrophy as a synonym. Dorland defines proliferation as ‘the
reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells’. This term was not
included because it has a more specific meaning than woekering. Increased growth rendered
221,000 results in Google Books, but an analysis of the sources showed that the term can be
used in several contexts and is therefore not the best alternative for woekering. The contexts
found for morbid growth in Google Books, on the contrary, mostly applied to human
medicine. Overgrowth, hypertrophy and morbid growth were researched in Google Books,
Google Scholar and the NEJM. Overgrowth rendered 602,000, 204,000 and 906 hits
respectively. Hypertrophy rendered 2,410,000, 1,020,000 and 7591 hit respectively. Morbid
growth rendered 421, 1,920 and 199 hits respectively. The first two terms are often used in
medical literature and will therefore be included in the GenTerm records. In comparison, the
last term occurred less often and it will not be included.
7 CONCLUSION
The main aim of this thesis was to compile an interpreter’s glossary for language specialists
and conference interpreters in particular. The subject of the glossary is osteopathy in general
and osteopathic treatment of several classes of patients. 106 terms were selected from Dutch
books and articles on osteopathy and gathered in a glossary. Two version of the glossary were
composed. The first version is more exhaustive than the second version and is meant to be
used by the interpreter before or after an interpreting assignment. The second version, which
is composed of only the Dutch terms and its English equivalents, is meant to be used by the
interpreter in the booth.
43
This thesis also contributes to the GenTerm project of Ghent University. 15 terms were
selected from the glossary and GenTerm records were drawn up. The records contain
grammatical information, information on etymology, collocations, definitions and contexts of
both the Dutch terms and the English equivalents.
For the grammatical information, information on etymology and collocations monolingual
dictionaries, such as the Dikke Van Dale, Pinkhof Geneeskundig Woordenboek, Collins
and Mosby were consulted. Two other sites proved also useful for etymologic information:
etymologiebank and etymonline. The definitions of the Dutch and English terms were taken
from medical monolingual dictionaries, such as Mosby’s Medical Dictionary, Pinkhof
Geneeskundig Woordenboek and Winkler Prins Medische Encyclopedie. When no
definition was found, the term was entered in Google Books and a definition was taken from
an article or book that mentioned the term in question. Finally, the contexts were copied from
books found on Google Books or articles from medical journals, Nederlands Tijdschrift
voor Geneeskunde for Dutch terms and New England Journal of Medicine for English
terms.
Some terms proved to be more challenging than others, because some translations suggested
by bilingual dictionaries were not applicable or because the term was simply not entered. In
those cases, the term was researched in articles and books and an equivalent was looked for in
the target language. Subsequently, that equivalent was researched in order to determine
whether the term is actually used in the context in question.
This thesis only researched a minor part of the subject of medicine and osteopathy in
particular and a lot remains still uncharted. Many subjects with highly technical terms have
not yet been researched and can therefore offer interesting material for further research.
44
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