Introduction To International Introduction To International RelationRelation

►By:By:►Hadaitullah BaqriHadaitullah Baqri►Email:hadaitbaqri@gmail.comEmail:hadaitbaqri@gmail.com

►CHAPTER.1CHAPTER.1

International RelationsInternational Relations

►Defense and Strategic studiesDefense and Strategic studies

►Political Economy Political Economy

International RelationsInternational Relations

► Human rights,Human rights,► Environmental Environmental

issues issues ► Nuclear issues Nuclear issues ► international lawinternational law

► food issuesfood issues► health and diseases health and diseases ► disaster disaster ► sport sport ► Education Education ► cultural exchangecultural exchange► transportation transportation

Geo-politicsGeo-politics

►WarWar►Territorial expansionTerritorial expansion►Human rightsHuman rights►Arms raceArms race►Drug Smuggling Drug Smuggling ►RefugeeRefugee► Ideological conflict Ideological conflict

Geo-economicGeo-economic

►Dispute over tradeDispute over trade► Intellectual property rightIntellectual property right►Economic development Economic development ►MNCMNC► Industrial policyIndustrial policy►Non violence diplomacy Non violence diplomacy

Evolutions of IREvolutions of IR

►Developed WorldDeveloped World► IR since 1945 (New phase in IR, IR since 1945 (New phase in IR,

decolonization and incorporation of decolonization and incorporation of newly independent state in world newly independent state in world affairs even as a peripheral affairs even as a peripheral

► IR and emerging economies of the IR and emerging economies of the SouthSouth

►Non state actors and IRNon state actors and IR

Realism (Power Politics)Realism (Power Politics)Essential RealismEssential Realism

► State centric (Statism)State centric (Statism)► Unitary ActorUnitary Actor► Survival of the fittest (Survival)Survival of the fittest (Survival)► Military spending/ Security (Self Help) Military spending/ Security (Self Help) ► Competition Competition ► FearFear► Insecurity Insecurity ► Anarchy Anarchy ► Hegemonic power and stability (diplomatic, political, economic Hegemonic power and stability (diplomatic, political, economic

and cultural clout)and cultural clout)► PowerPower► National interest (Prime)National interest (Prime)► Rational ChoiceRational Choice► SovereigntySovereignty► Neo-Realism…Kenneth Waltz.. predictability of state behaviour, Neo-Realism…Kenneth Waltz.. predictability of state behaviour,

game theory (rational choice/prisoners dilemma.. Thomas game theory (rational choice/prisoners dilemma.. Thomas Schelling Schelling

Alternative to PowerAlternative to Power

Three Aspects Three Aspects Liberal Internationalism, Idealism, Liberal Institutionalism Liberal Internationalism, Idealism, Liberal Institutionalism

1. Morality1. Morality► David Hume and John Locke’s view David Hume and John Locke’s view ► Social construct and institution conditioning human Social construct and institution conditioning human

conduct conduct 2. Autocracy and failed States2. Autocracy and failed States► Bad states Bad states ► Democratic and institutional states do turn to anarchyDemocratic and institutional states do turn to anarchy

3. Neoliberalism (History and Multidimensional approach)3. Neoliberalism (History and Multidimensional approach) Collective SecurityCollective Security► Institutionalism Institutionalism ► RegimesRegimes

Key Concepts of Liberalism Key Concepts of Liberalism

► Collective Security Collective Security ► Conditionality Conditionality ► Cosmopolitan Model of DemocracyCosmopolitan Model of Democracy► Democratic PeaceDemocratic Peace► Democracy Promotion Democracy Promotion ► Enlightenment (Science, reason, secularism, freedom)Enlightenment (Science, reason, secularism, freedom)► Idealism (Domestic Analogy) Idealism (Domestic Analogy) (Public opinion, state leaders, intellectuals, international (Public opinion, state leaders, intellectuals, international

organization)organization)Integration Integration ► Interdependence Interdependence ► Liberalism Liberalism ► Liberal Institutionalism Liberal Institutionalism ► Liberal internationalism Liberal internationalism ► Pluralism Pluralism

Critical TheoryCritical Theory

(Marxist/Gramscianism)(Marxist/Gramscianism)

► Anti Capitalist worldviewAnti Capitalist worldview► Commoditability of the world Commoditability of the world ► Exploitation of the Masses (Labour exploit)Exploitation of the Masses (Labour exploit)► Stratification of the world Stratification of the world ► Imperialism Imperialism ► Division of the world (Nation-state product of Division of the world (Nation-state product of

Capitalism)Capitalism)► Dependency world structure Dependency world structure ► Centralization of state affairsCentralization of state affairs► Cultural/Societal Hegemony/ Civil Society Cultural/Societal Hegemony/ Civil Society

Socialist World viewSocialist World view

►Welfare world (Bridge between the Welfare world (Bridge between the capitalist and the workers)capitalist and the workers)

►AccommodationAccommodation►Bridging the gulf of wealth distribution Bridging the gulf of wealth distribution ►State interference in public affairs State interference in public affairs

Feminism Feminism

►Role of women in politics Role of women in politics ►Subjugation of women Subjugation of women ►Masculine vs. FeminismMasculine vs. Feminism

Postmodernism Postmodernism

►A challenge to Modern assertions of IRA challenge to Modern assertions of IR► Invalidity and Incorrectness in IRInvalidity and Incorrectness in IR►Multiple RealitiesMultiple Realities►Traditionalist Theory…Graphs, history, Traditionalist Theory…Graphs, history,

table facts versus interdisciplinary table facts versus interdisciplinary approach approach

Constructivism Constructivism

►Nicholas Onuf and Alexander Wendt Nicholas Onuf and Alexander Wendt ►Socially constructed….Sociological Socially constructed….Sociological

approach approach ►Constructivist and Post-structuralism Constructivist and Post-structuralism ►Looking at data and people from a Looking at data and people from a

unique peculiarity unique peculiarity ►Phenomenal studies (Area studies)Phenomenal studies (Area studies)

Chapter Two

What is What is CivilizationCivilization

►An advance stage in human society An advance stage in human society ►Conditioned by Geography, politics and Conditioned by Geography, politics and

economic and technological cultureeconomic and technological culture►Controversial ConceptControversial Concept►Modernity and Modernization.. Influence Modernity and Modernization.. Influence

on civilization (Acceptability, on civilization (Acceptability, Advancement in every field, Advancement in every field, Modernization Modernization

What is CivilizationWhat is Civilization

ContinuedContinued

► Nations and Civilization Nations and Civilization ► Chinese (internal problem), India, Ottoman and Chinese (internal problem), India, Ottoman and

Kingdoms in Africa and global dominance Kingdoms in Africa and global dominance ► Why Europeans (Effect, Efficient, technology and Why Europeans (Effect, Efficient, technology and

political will power to subjugate other, racial and political will power to subjugate other, racial and religious motivesreligious motives

► Why and how Europe dominate the world Why and how Europe dominate the world (technological advancement, years of wars, political (technological advancement, years of wars, political

rivalry rivalry Roman Empire (modernized leadership, great military Roman Empire (modernized leadership, great military

power, good political structure and diplomatic power, good political structure and diplomatic system. Hegemonic overstretchsystem. Hegemonic overstretch

Western Imperialism Western Imperialism ► Stages in European development Stages in European development (Reformation, Renaissance, Enlightenment…Humanism)(Reformation, Renaissance, Enlightenment…Humanism)

► Technology and Imperialism (Navigation, expedition, Technology and Imperialism (Navigation, expedition, Christianization, colonialism, “No Man’s land”, Whiteman's Christianization, colonialism, “No Man’s land”, Whiteman's burden, Unculturedness of the others, racially lanced, height of burden, Unculturedness of the others, racially lanced, height of injustice and inequality injustice and inequality

► Gunpowder, naval ships and Canons Gunpowder, naval ships and Canons

► Emergence of the European Sovereign Nation-StateEmergence of the European Sovereign Nation-State(1618-1648) why war(1618-1648) why warTreaty of Westphalia Treaty of Westphalia (a)(a) Recognition of State’s SovereigntyRecognition of State’s Sovereignty(b)(b) No interference in domestic matters of other stateNo interference in domestic matters of other state(c)(c) King’s right and authority over territory and decision over King’s right and authority over territory and decision over

religionreligion(d)(d) Independence and equality of stateIndependence and equality of state

(e)(e) The end of Pope’s power, feudalism and recognition of KingThe end of Pope’s power, feudalism and recognition of King

ContinuedContinued

The rise of Absolute Monarchy (Old Wine The rise of Absolute Monarchy (Old Wine in a New Bottle)in a New Bottle)

Rise of financiers and trade expedition Rise of financiers and trade expedition

Technological Development for Technological Development for Imperialism and warfare Imperialism and warfare

Urbanization due to the end of Feudalism Urbanization due to the end of Feudalism (transformation of the society) (transformation of the society)

Political RevolutionPolitical Revolution

►Enlightenment (from monarch to popular Enlightenment (from monarch to popular rule)rule)

►Absolute Monarchy (1648-1789) Absolute Monarchy (1648-1789) repression, oppression, injustice, dearth repression, oppression, injustice, dearth of political freedom and equal of political freedom and equal representationrepresentation

►Political philosophers and DemocracyPolitical philosophers and Democracy

(Liberty, Equality and Fraternity)(Liberty, Equality and Fraternity)

Literacy rate, printing press, nationalism, Literacy rate, printing press, nationalism, urbanization (demand of rights) urbanization (demand of rights)

Economic RevolutionEconomic Revolution

► Ideology and Change Ideology and Change ► Industrial revolution (from subsistence to Industrial revolution (from subsistence to

industrial production, surplus, profit)industrial production, surplus, profit)►Expansion of Market and demand of raw Expansion of Market and demand of raw

materials (Imperialism and colonialism)materials (Imperialism and colonialism)►England the Pacesetter but why and howEngland the Pacesetter but why and how

(a) Systematic agricultural practice (large (a) Systematic agricultural practice (large scale farming and for population and scale farming and for population and factoryfactory

ContinuedContinued

((b) Before revolution was trade revolution (good b) Before revolution was trade revolution (good national and international trade network)national and international trade network)

(c) Ship building and water ways and British (c) Ship building and water ways and British Merchants….Commercialization of British Merchants….Commercialization of British goods)goods)

(d) Marriage of scientific knowledge and trade (d) Marriage of scientific knowledge and trade skills, and the influence of government skills, and the influence of government geared at maintaining British hegemonygeared at maintaining British hegemony

Effects of the RevolutionEffects of the Revolution► Population Explosion in the city Population Explosion in the city

(Urbanization)(Urbanization)► New life style (Away from home) and (Closer New life style (Away from home) and (Closer

to workplace)to workplace)► Development of transportation system for the Development of transportation system for the

Urban and industrial life Urban and industrial life ► Colonialism (social Darwinism)Colonialism (social Darwinism)

The 20The 20thth Century Century

►The First and Second World WarsThe First and Second World Wars

(Versailles Treaty, the 14 points of (Versailles Treaty, the 14 points of Windrow Wilson and the birth of the Windrow Wilson and the birth of the League of NationsLeague of Nations

► Italian, German, Japanese and Russian Italian, German, Japanese and Russian factors and the dawn of the Second factors and the dawn of the Second World War (The Nuclear threat, World War (The Nuclear threat, Potsdam Treaty, the appearance of Potsdam Treaty, the appearance of the United Nations and a New World the United Nations and a New World Order) Order)

Chapter ThreeChapter Three

Society Society

► Tradition….Generational knowledge, simply Tradition….Generational knowledge, simply norms, values which are agreed upon by certain norms, values which are agreed upon by certain community within certain period and preserved community within certain period and preserved through from generation to anotherthrough from generation to another

► Culture a broad term shouldering human history, Culture a broad term shouldering human history, tradition, language, social political and economic tradition, language, social political and economic behaviours of a particular people in a given behaviours of a particular people in a given locale. locale.

(What determines our identity as a nation)(What determines our identity as a nation)► Civilization, a modernized aspect of culture Civilization, a modernized aspect of culture

reflected by advancement in political, socio-reflected by advancement in political, socio-cultural, economic and technological behaviours. cultural, economic and technological behaviours. (Catches admiration of others, ability to influence, (Catches admiration of others, ability to influence, accommodate and expand) accommodate and expand)

NationNation

► Ideology....creed, doctrine, belief, fundamental Ideology....creed, doctrine, belief, fundamental principle un-compromisable (A set of ideas that principle un-compromisable (A set of ideas that drives and maintains the existence of a drives and maintains the existence of a system) system)

► Nation….a political term used for the Nation….a political term used for the classification of certain people within certain classification of certain people within certain boundary. Term used for people sharing boundary. Term used for people sharing common tradition, heritage, culture, history, common tradition, heritage, culture, history, language over a long period in time and language over a long period in time and believing on certain ideologybelieving on certain ideology

(A determinant of identity and distinction from (A determinant of identity and distinction from others) (There could be nations within others) (There could be nations within nations)nations)

StateState

► A political entity, abstract, determined by A political entity, abstract, determined by geography, people, government, geography, people, government, sovereignty, law, economic viability, sovereignty, law, economic viability, independentindependent

The birth of state (Westphalia treaty)The birth of state (Westphalia treaty)

► Nation-State….an outshoot of Westphalia Nation-State….an outshoot of Westphalia treaty which gave sovereignty to state, treaty which gave sovereignty to state, transported from Europe to the rest of the transported from Europe to the rest of the world (Colonialism)world (Colonialism)

(Nations within nation, integration, (Nations within nation, integration, common goal, distinction from others…common goal, distinction from others…Dilemma of the nation-states Dilemma of the nation-states

ValueValue

► Socialisation….a process of induction, learning, Socialisation….a process of induction, learning, norms, values, rituals and rites of the societies norms, values, rituals and rites of the societies

(Agents of Socialisation…..Home, School, Peer (Agents of Socialisation…..Home, School, Peer group, Religious institutions, Government group, Religious institutions, Government institutions and Mass Media)institutions and Mass Media)

Subculture….representation of smaller culture Subculture….representation of smaller culture within a bigger society (Latinos, African-within a bigger society (Latinos, African-American, Asian American, South Asian American, American, Asian American, South Asian American, Koreans, Chinese and Africans) Koreans, Chinese and Africans)

Supranational culture is the opposite of the Supranational culture is the opposite of the subculture, representing the bigger culture that subculture, representing the bigger culture that brings smaller culture together. (African culture brings smaller culture together. (African culture Western culture, Asian or American culture) for Western culture, Asian or American culture) for which many nationalities can claim linkage. which many nationalities can claim linkage. (Koreans, Chinese and Japanese any differences (Koreans, Chinese and Japanese any differences (Africans in diaspora) (Africans in diaspora)

Continued Continued

►Nation Building Dilemma Nation Building Dilemma

►Multi nationalism Multi nationalism

►Nationalism and Internationalism Nationalism and Internationalism

Chapter Chapter FourFour

Politics and PowerPolitics and Power► What is PoliticsWhat is PoliticsProcess of power distribution among interest Process of power distribution among interest

groupgroupAbility to manage, organise both human and Ability to manage, organise both human and

natural resources at a given political natural resources at a given political communitycommunity

Politics is the medium of resolving political issues Politics is the medium of resolving political issues Morgenthau, Dahl, Deutch….Power …ability of an Morgenthau, Dahl, Deutch….Power …ability of an

individual or group to mobilize appropriate individual or group to mobilize appropriate resources to get others to do, refrain from resources to get others to do, refrain from things of their likingsthings of their likings

Power, Politics and StatesPower, Politics and StatesNational Interest is the primary aim and National Interest is the primary aim and

objectives of every state geared to be achieved objectives of every state geared to be achieved and would disallow the derailment of it and would disallow the derailment of it achievementachievement

Power Assertion Power Assertion

► Power Relativity….Intended, Unintended, Curly, Power Relativity….Intended, Unintended, Curly, LogicLogic

► Diplomacy ability to bargain well with other state Diplomacy ability to bargain well with other state such that one’s state interest is not fully affected. such that one’s state interest is not fully affected.

Give and Take, Compromise, political, economic and Give and Take, Compromise, political, economic and socio-cultural diplomacy socio-cultural diplomacy

► Threat a symbol of power Threat a symbol of power A circumstance of insecurityA circumstance of insecurity Ability to make other state feel fear orAbility to make other state feel fear or To refuse other state from doing its willTo refuse other state from doing its willCompelling…force to give up, Deterrence Compelling…force to give up, Deterrence

(Continuity of an action might be followed by (Continuity of an action might be followed by consequence) Defense…when compelling and consequence) Defense…when compelling and deterrence fails deterrence fails

Continued Continued

►Success of Threat depends on C3…no Success of Threat depends on C3…no bluffing bluffing

►How to Avoid ThreatHow to Avoid Threat► Insecurity and threat leads to Military Insecurity and threat leads to Military

Alliance Alliance ► Isolation Isolation ►Self HelpSelf Help

Nature of PowerNature of Power

►Power can manifest itself from Power can manifest itself from political, economic, socio-cultural and political, economic, socio-cultural and technological strengthtechnological strength

►Relativity of Power among comity of Relativity of Power among comity of Nations (Population, size, military Nations (Population, size, military hardware, soldiershardware, soldiers

►Who is a teacher and Solider Who is a teacher and Solider

Tangibility of PowerTangibility of Power

► Tangibility of PowerTangibility of Power(military power, resources, GDP, geographical (military power, resources, GDP, geographical

size, population and technology)size, population and technology)► Intangible of Power…can influence but not Intangible of Power…can influence but not

visible (national cohesion, political will, visible (national cohesion, political will, cultural institution and integrity, prestige cultural institution and integrity, prestige and dignity, mass media (propaganda), and dignity, mass media (propaganda), education (British Council Total income for education (British Council Total income for the year has increased by 14 per cent (£80 the year has increased by 14 per cent (£80 million) to £645 million, compared with last million) to £645 million, compared with last year), Secret agencies, religious institution. year), Secret agencies, religious institution.

Ranking and measurement of Ranking and measurement of PowerPower

► The Core state and Capital (Wealth and Power The Core state and Capital (Wealth and Power concentration)concentration)

► Great Power…nuclear and conventional power (UNSC), Great Power…nuclear and conventional power (UNSC), global influence, global influence,

► Regional or Middle…. Conventional military power limited Regional or Middle…. Conventional military power limited to their region to their region

► Small power…others as no state exist without influence Small power…others as no state exist without influence and militarily containing internal orderand militarily containing internal order

► National military Budget National military Budget (Global military expenditure in December 2009 stood at 1.5 (Global military expenditure in December 2009 stood at 1.5

trillion US dollars. This represents a six percent increase in trillion US dollars. This represents a six percent increase in real terms over 2008. Compared to 2000, it is a 49 real terms over 2008. Compared to 2000, it is a 49 percent increasepercent increase

The entire UN budget--- the budget of the body charged with The entire UN budget--- the budget of the body charged with maintaining global peace--- in 2009 was only 1.8 percent maintaining global peace--- in 2009 was only 1.8 percent of global military expenditure in that year. of global military expenditure in that year.

It is significant that the US alone accounted for 46.5% of It is significant that the US alone accounted for 46.5% of global military expenditure in 2009. Swedish peace global military expenditure in 2009. Swedish peace institute, SIPRI institute, SIPRI

Continued Continued

► Gross Domestic Product (PPP)Gross Domestic Product (PPP)► Large military force and war (Russia and Large military force and war (Russia and

Afghanistan) (Israel and Lebanese Afghanistan) (Israel and Lebanese Hezbollah) (United States and Vietnam) Hezbollah) (United States and Vietnam) (Britain and Argentina)…Why(Britain and Argentina)…Why

► Democratization of weapon and foreign Democratization of weapon and foreign interest (Black market, third worldism) interest (Black market, third worldism)

► Soft Power….(mass media, culture, Soft Power….(mass media, culture, education and diplomacy…(Joseph Nye)education and diplomacy…(Joseph Nye)

► Nationalism, International Organization Nationalism, International Organization (UNO platform), mass media, etc (UNO platform), mass media, etc

Balance of Power Balance of Power

See-sawSee-saw► Classical view of Balance of Power Classical view of Balance of Power Enemy of my enemy is my Friend Enemy of my enemy is my Friend Concert of half dozen or more states allying together to offset any Concert of half dozen or more states allying together to offset any

aggressor state or coalitions of stateaggressor state or coalitions of stateEquality of powerEquality of powerAlliance of power Weapon Acquisition (Arms Race, MAD)Alliance of power Weapon Acquisition (Arms Race, MAD)Diplomatic strength Diplomatic strength Polarization of the world Polarization of the world Institutionalization (G6-7-8-20, BRIC, SCO, EU, UNASUR Union of South Institutionalization (G6-7-8-20, BRIC, SCO, EU, UNASUR Union of South

America Nations , Mercosur established in 1991 Argentina, Brazil, America Nations , Mercosur established in 1991 Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Venezuela, APEC, ASEAN, SAARC, AU, Paraguay and Uruguay. Venezuela, APEC, ASEAN, SAARC, AU, ECOWAS ECOWAS

Chapter Chapter FiveFive

Foreign PolicyForeign Policy

► What is International RelationsWhat is International Relations► What is Foreign PolicyWhat is Foreign Policy(a systematic plan, intention, aspiration and (a systematic plan, intention, aspiration and

ideals of any country on how to deal with its ideals of any country on how to deal with its neighbour and the world entirely)neighbour and the world entirely)

(Set of goals which outline measures and (Set of goals which outline measures and pattern a country would adopt in relating pattern a country would adopt in relating with other countries)with other countries)

Ideology, culture, and socio-political belief Ideology, culture, and socio-political belief and Foreign Policyand Foreign Policy

Why Foreign PolicyWhy Foreign Policy

►Systematic plan to achieving aims and Systematic plan to achieving aims and objective peculiar to all institutionobjective peculiar to all institution

►Short-terms and long-terms strategyShort-terms and long-terms strategy► Identification of immediate aspiration, Identification of immediate aspiration,

aims and objective aims and objective ►Manual, Code of Conduct for relating Manual, Code of Conduct for relating

with others and curtailing confrontationwith others and curtailing confrontation►Maintaining good standing in Global Maintaining good standing in Global

Politics Politics

Role of National Interest in Role of National Interest in Foreign PolicyForeign Policy

►National Interest and Foreign Policy National Interest and Foreign Policy ►FP tailored towards achieving best of FP tailored towards achieving best of

NINI►Discontinuity, Survival of the state Discontinuity, Survival of the state

and NI and NI ►National Interest, foreign policy and National Interest, foreign policy and

CitizensCitizens►Prestige, mutual respect, and NIPrestige, mutual respect, and NI

What Does a State wants to What Does a State wants to Achieve through its FPAchieve through its FP

► International Prestige and honour, analogy International Prestige and honour, analogy of individual respectof individual respect

► Achievement of NIAchievement of NI► FP a lobbying strategy for political, FP a lobbying strategy for political,

economic and diplomatic opportunity economic and diplomatic opportunity ► Moving among likeminded….cooperation Moving among likeminded….cooperation

and help (Democratic FP and other states)and help (Democratic FP and other states)► FP and Alliance, protection FP and Alliance, protection ► FP, systematic and aggressive short and FP, systematic and aggressive short and

long term planslong term plans► FP and international ReactionsFP and international Reactions

Do we Need Research in Foreign Do we Need Research in Foreign Policy Policy

► International Relations a vast Subject for ResearchInternational Relations a vast Subject for Research► Further Understanding of nature and behaviours of Further Understanding of nature and behaviours of

statestate► Reasons for change of intentions and behaviours, Reasons for change of intentions and behaviours,

present, past and possible future actionpresent, past and possible future action► Similarities and Dissimilates Similarities and Dissimilates ► Sharpening World View, predict the future, Sharpening World View, predict the future,

interpretation of facts for present comprehensioninterpretation of facts for present comprehension► Making Best Decisions and reduction of mistakesMaking Best Decisions and reduction of mistakes► Knowing the effectiveness of government Knowing the effectiveness of government

Institutions and non state actorsInstitutions and non state actors► Understanding others from their point of view and Understanding others from their point of view and

ability to see alternatives, molding behaviours ability to see alternatives, molding behaviours according to international normsaccording to international norms

Rational Choice Theory and Rational Choice Theory and Foreign Policy MakingForeign Policy Making

► Ranking and Value Maximization (cost Ranking and Value Maximization (cost and benefit) and benefit)

► Rational decision making of state goes:Rational decision making of state goes:1.1. Identification of Problem or issue to solveIdentification of Problem or issue to solve2.2. Goal Setting and RankingGoal Setting and Ranking3.3. Consideration of OptionsConsideration of Options4.4. Assessment of ConsequencesAssessment of ConsequencesValue Maximization Value Maximization ► Political Culture, Socialization and Public Political Culture, Socialization and Public

Opinion Opinion ► Predicting State’s Foreign Policy Predicting State’s Foreign Policy