international multidisciplinary e journal. mrs. manjeet ......mrs. manjeet kaur.(13-29) id:...

International Multidisciplinary e –Journal. Mrs. Manjeet Kaur.(13-29)

www.shreeprakashan.com Id: [email protected], Vol-IV, Issue–X, Oct, 2015. 3

GENDER DISPARITY IN SCHOOL EDUCATION IN INDIA

Author: Mrs. Manjeet Kaur

Assistant Professor

G.H.G. Harparkash College of Education for Women

V.P.O - Sidhwan Khurd

Dist. & teh-Ludhiana (PUNJAB), INDIA

ABSTRACT

Since independence, India seems to have great strides in getting larger number of girls to

school but still the country has lower participation of girls than boys in the system of

education. Girl children’s lacking access to school education and the gender gap remains a

problem with the country. India is one of the countries in the world, which are at risk of not

achieving gender equality in education even by 2015.The results revealed that gender

disparity exists in all the levels of school education though the magnitude of disparity is

different. Gender disparity was higher in secondary and senior secondary level of education

in comparison to elementary level.

Key words- Gender disparity, girl’s enrolment, school education

INTRODUCTION

“If you educate a man you simply educate an individual, but if you educate a woman you

educate a family”

Gender disparity is not only a women‟s issue but also a development issue. Educating

girls and women is significant in economic development. It is good engine for a person‟s

personal development, happiness, self-satisfaction and emotional wellbeing when he or she

learns to read and write, due to changes in the brain. The girls‟ and women‟s education can

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www.shreeprakashan.com Id: [email protected], Vol-IV, Issue–X, Oct, 2015. Page 14

create the reduction of poverty. It paves the way to increased economic productivity, higher

earnings more robust labour markets, and improved societal health and well-being. There are

convincing benefits associated with females‟ education. These consist of the reduction of

child mortality, lower fertility rate, good health, enhancement of women‟s domestic role and

their political participation, improvement of the economic productivity and growth, and

protection of abuses and exploitation by family and society. Girls‟ education gives the way to

some of the highest returns of all investments. Gender inequality means disparity between

men and women in different social, economic and political aspects. This problem is simply

known as gender bias, which in simple term means the gender stratification or making

difference between a male or a female. In India, this problem is found both in rural and urban

areas and vary spatially i.e. in offices, institutions, schools and in societies. According to

Nobel laureate Prof. Amartya Sen, (2001) in “Many faces of gender inequality”, has

mentioned that there are seven types of gender inequalities at present like mortality

inequality, natality inequality, basic facilities inequality, special opportunity inequality,

professional inequality, ownership inequality and household inequality.

Gender disparity therefore means unequal participation or the gap in the achievement

of men and women in these spheres of life. Gender disparity hampers the overall wellbeing of

society because blocking women from participation in social, political and economic

activities can adversely affect the whole society. In many countries, women are not given

equal rights as men. In some countries, women cannot vote, they are discriminated against in

the work place, they are not allowed to hold office, they are not allowed to drive, and are

subject to other inequalities. One of the main issues is that of women not being educated.

Gender disparities in education cannot be eradicated without ensuring universal primary

education, and universal primary education cannot be ensured without removing gender

disparity in education. Eliminating gender disparity in education and ensuring universal

primary education are two of the millennium development goals set forth by the United

Nations (UN) which all countries must accomplish by the year 2015.

According to the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

education is a fundamental right of every individual, irrespective of gender, class,

background, creed, religion or race. Education plays a vital role in human development and

investment in education has been increased in recent years. Yet educational gap at attainment

levels between male and female in India is staggering. Reduction in such gap is essential for

more than one reason. Existence of gender gap in educational attainment thus becomes an

important dimension of entitlement failure that threatens sustainable human development.





Thus gender disparity leads towards economic losses in the form of less job opportunities and

limited occupations. Gender disparity is found almost all over the world. According to UNDP

(1998) gender disparity can be seen, through the lens of the gender-related development index

(GDI) and the gender empowerment measurement (GEM), both introduced in the UNDP

human development report (1995).

“Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the

elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory…

Education shall be directed to the full development of human personality and to the

strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms” (Universal

Declaration of Human Rights, Article 26).

This right is also repeated in the U N Declaration of the Rights of the Child which

seeks to ensure, „Right to free and compulsory education at least in the elementary stages and

education to promote general culture, abilities, judgment and sense of responsibility to

become a useful member of society and opportunity to recreation and play to attain the same

purpose as of education‟. The part IV of the National Policy on Education (1986) clearly

promised equality in education with respect to women, scheduled caste, Scheduled tribes,

minorities and handicapped. The constitution of India makes provision for free and

compulsory education for all children up to the age of fourteen years. The 86th Constitutional

Amendment Act 2002 made education in India a Fundamental Right for children in the age

group of 6-14 years by providing that:

“The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of

six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.”

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 considers

“compulsory education” as an obligation of the government. This Act provides for free

elementary education and ensures compulsory admission, attendance and completion of

elementary education to every child in the 6-14 age groups in a neighbourhood school.

Education helps in generating awareness among women about their legal, social,

political and economic rights, provisions and privileges to fight against all sorts of social

discrimination. It enables them to realize their potentialities, developing skills, seeking

employment and improving their nutritional and health conditions. Therefore, educating

women encourages not only their political participation and economic independence but also

improves their quality of life and through them of the whole family and then of whole nation

in a broader sense.





Women‟s literacy and educational levels help secure social equality and human

development, higher economic productivity and a tolerant democratic society. Equality and

equity in education is directly related to democratic development. The gap between male and

the female literacy is a sensitive indicator of social discrimination. Education is the key to

gender equality. This is a fact that investing in the human capital is one of the most effective

means of reducing poverty and encouraging sustainable development. Yet, women in

developing countries usually receive less education than men. Throughout the world there

still exist large gender disparities in basic human rights, resources and economic opportunity.

So until nations are able to solve this issue of gender inequality and resolve it, the vicious

cycle of poverty will continue to pervade, this is because poverty leads to and aggravates

gender discrimination . Gender discrimination hinders development. It is the gender equality,

which strengthens a country‟s ability to grow, to reduce poverty and provides its people –

men, women and children – A better life. The issue of Gender equality is at the core of

development policies –both in national and international arenas.

Massive educational deprivation of girl child is a reality. Education must be used as an

agent of basic changes in the status of women. It should be visualized as a milestone of

women‟s development. India is poised to become a super power, a developed country by

2020 and this aspect must be supported by ensuring universalized gender free education. The

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) targets, MDGs, sustainable development

of country, all these aims require universalization of education.

Education of Girls is very crucial because on it depends upon the education of families

and which is turn would positively affect the education of next generations. There has been

shift in concept of Girl‟s education, from equality of opportunity in access to equality and

empowerment. The National policy on Education and its Programme of action (1986 & 1992)

gave stress on Education of Women‟s Equality & Empowerment.

Issue of women development has been brought to the main stream in the five year

plans since 6th

five year plan (1980-85) after the first comprehensive report on women issues

i.e. CSWI (1974), highlighted in the National Perspective Plan for Women (1988-2000), the

Shramshakti Report (1988). The participation of women in the field of education is not very

satisfactory. There is a wide gap between male-female literacy rates in India. According to

Census report (2011) the literacy rate for women is 65.5 % and 82.1% for men. Gender

disparity has been a major issue in India‟s pursuit for achieving the goal of universal

elementary education. In order to address this problem and develop appropriate interventions,

it is necessary to understand the nature and extent of the problem, as well as possible





explanations for the disparity.

Moreover the research conducted on women is being reported separately in different

Surveys of Educational Research (Desai 1988, Nayar 2000, Anitha 2006). The Indian govt.

has launched „Saakshar Bharat Mission‟ for Female Literacy. The National Sample Survey on

Status of Education in India 2005 showed that 50% in rural India and 20% in urban India do

not have even one literate girl child in their families above the age of 15. The progress in

literacy and education in the country is plagued by countenance of Gender Disparity

especially at elementary stage of school education since the government was committed to

Gender Equality in educational process by end of Eleventh Five Year plan. It is important to

look in to the status of Disparities in educational development in India in terms of;

1. Primary level

2. Upper primary level

3. Secondary level

4. Senior secondary level

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

“GENDER DISPARITY IN SCHOOL EDUCATION IN INDIA”

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following were the objectives of the study:-

1. To study school enrolment at primary, upper primary, secondary and senior secondary

level over the period 1951–2014 in India.

2. To study gender disparity in primary, upper primary, secondary, senior secondary

levels over the period 1951–2014 in India.

DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY

The required data on various indicators of education were taken from various

published sources like Census Reports of Government of India, Economic survey reports,

Selected Educational Statistics (GOI), All India Educational Surveys, MHRD Reports,





District Statistical hand book, District census abstract and HDR report, NSSO surveys, DISE

Analytical report, UNESCO Reports, UNDP Reports, World Bank Reports, NCERT reports,

Books, Journals, Magazines, and supplemented with State Digest of Statistics and other

published work wherever necessary. The findings were discussed in the light of published

literature. The gender disparity in each level was measured from share of girls enrolment to

the total enrolment, number of girls enrolled per hundred boys enrolled and Gross Enrolment

Ratio. Data were analysed through the techniques of trend analysis and percentage analysis.

An evaluative approach with the help of historical-cum-descriptive methods of research was

followed in the conduct of the proposed study.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Gender disparity in Enrolment

Table 1 presents the growth of school enrolment in different stages of school

education in India from 1950-51 to 2013-2014. The total enrolment at the Primary stage has

increased by about 277%, from 19.2 million in 1950-51 to 130.0 million in 2013-14. In case

of Upper Primary stage, it has increased by 373 %, from 3.1 million in 1950-51 to 62.05

million in 2013-14. The increase in enrolment at Secondary/Senior Secondary accounted

3846.6%, from 1.5 million in 1950-51 to 59.2 million in 2013-14. The girls‟ enrolment at the

primary stage has increased by 10.62% from 5.4 million in 1950-51 to 62.8 million in 2013-

14. In upper primary stage, girl‟s enrolment has increased by 63% from 0.5 million in 1950-

51 to 32.0 million in 2013-14. However the trend depicts that transition of girls from primary

level to upper primary level is low indicating higher dropout rate among girls. At

secondary/senior secondary level girls enrolment increased by 137.5% from 0.2 million in

1950-51 to 27.7 million in 2013-14. Trend reveals that in each academic year at every level of

education, enrolment of girls is low in comparison to enrolment of boys indicating gender

disparity at each level of education.





Table 1: Enrolment by Stages of the School Education in India- All Categories of

Students from 1950-51 to 2013-14 (In millions)

Year Primary(I –V) Middle/Upper

Primary (VI-VIII)

Sec./Sr. Sec./Inter/

Pre-Degree (IX-XII)

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1950-51 13.8 5.4 19.2 2.6 0.5 3.1 1.3 0.2 1.5

1955-56 17.1 7.5 24.6 3.8 1 4.8 2.2 0.4 2.6

1960-61 23.6 11.4 35 5.1 1.6 6.7 2.7 0.7 3.4

1965-66 32.2 18.3 50.5 7.7 2.8 10.5 4.4 1.3 5.7

1970-71 35.7 21.3 57 9.4 3.9 13.3 5.7 1.9 7.6

1975-76 40.6 25 65.6 11 5 16 6.5 2.4 8.9

1980-81 45.3 28.5 73.8 13.9 6.8 20.7 7.6 3.4 11

1985-86 52.2 35.2 87.4 17.7 9.6 27.1 11.5 5 16.5

1990-91 57 40.4 97.4 21.5 12.5 34 12.8 6.3 19.1

1991-92 58.6 42.3 100.9 22 13.6 35.6 13.5 6.9 20.4

1992-93 57.9 41.7 99.6 21.2 12.9 34.1 13.6 6.9 20.5

1993-94 55.1 41.9 97 20.6 13.5 34.1 13.2 7.5 20.7

1994-95 60 45.1 105.1 22.1 14.3 36.4 14.2 7.9 22.1

1995-96 60.9 46.2 107.1 22.7 14.8 37.5 14.6 8.3 22.9

1996-97 61.4 46.8 108.2 22.9 15.2 38.1 15.3 8.7 24

1997-98 62.3 48 110.3 23.6 15.9 39.5 16.1 9.3 25.4

1998-99 62.7 49 111.7 23.9 16.5 40.4 16.6 10.1 26.7

1999-00 63.6 50 113.6 24.3 17 41.3 17.2 10.8 28

2000-01 64 49.8 113.8 25.3 17.5 42.8 16.9 10.7 27.6

2001-02 63.6 50.3 113.9 26.1 18.7 44.8 18.4 12.1 30.5

2002-03 65.1 57.3 122.4 26.3 20.6 46.9 19.5 13.7 33.2

2003-04 68.4 59.9 128.3 27.3 21.5 48.7 20.6 14.4 35

2004-05 69.7 61.1 130.8 28.5 22.7 51.2 21.7 15.4 37.1

2005-06 70.5 61.6 132.1 28.9 23.3 52.2 22.3 16.1 38.4

2006-07 71.09 62.63 133.72 29.8 24.6 54.4 22.99 16.95 39.94

2007-08 71.09 64.38 135.47 31.05 26.15 57.20 25.15 19.32 44.47

2008-09 70.0 64.5 134.5 29.4 26.0 55.4 25.6 19.9 45.5

2009-10 70.84 64.82 135.66 31.82 27.59 59.41 26.73 21.53 48.26

2010-11 70.46 64.84 135.31 32.80 29.25 62.05 28.29 22.88 51.18

2011-12 72.60 67.2 139.9 32.7 29.9 61.9 30.2 24.9 55.1

2012-

13(P)* 68.10 63.9 132.1 32.9 31.4 63.0 28.7 25.4 54.1

2013-

14(P)* 67.20 62.8 130.0 33.7 32.0 65.7 31.2 27.7 59.2

Source: SES all India time series 2005-06

Selected Educational Statistics 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08, 2009-10

For 2008-09: Educational Statistics at Glance 2011 – Time Series Data





For 2010-11: Statistics of School Education 2010-11

For 2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14: Educational Statistics at glance -2014,

* Indicates Provisional Data

Figure 1:

Enrolment by Stages of the School Education in India-All Categories of Students

Trends in Share of Girls Enrolment to the Total Enrolment in India

The participation of girls at all stages of education has been increasing steadily

through the years as may be seen from table 2. Since 1950-51 girl‟s participation has

increased many folds in primary, upper primary, sec. /sr. sec stages from 28.1% to 48.3%,

from 16.1% to 48.3%, from 13.3% to 46.8% respectively. However, the girl‟s participation is

still below fifty per cent at all stages of education. The ratio between girls enrolment to total

enrolment decrease the higher the class. In India the percentage is highest at the primary stage

during the period 1950-51 to 2010-11 whereas it is lowest at secondary and senior secondary

level during the same period but from 2011-12 to 2013-14, the percentage of girls enrolment

to total enrolment is highest at upper primary stage and lowest at secondary and senior

secondary stage. In 2013-14, the percentage is highest at upper primary stage (48.7%), 48.3%

at primary stage whereas it is 46.8% at secondary and senior secondary stage.





Table 2: Percentage of Girls Enrolment to Total Enrolment in India

by Stages 1950-51 to 2013-14

Year Primary

I-V

Upper Primary

VI-VIII

Sec./Sr. Sec/Intermediate

IX-XII

1950-51 28.1 16.1 13.3

1955-56 30.5 20.8 15.4

1960-61 32.6 23.9 20.6

1965-66 36.2 26.7 22.8

1970-71 37.4 29.3 25.0

1975-76 38.1 31.3 27.0

1980-81 38.6 32.9 30.9

1985-86 40.3 35.4 30.3

1990-91 41.5 36.8 33.0

1991-92 41.9 38.2 33.8

1992-93 41.9 37.8 33.7

1993-94 43.2 39.6 36.2

1994-95 42.9 39.3 35.7

1995-96 43.1 39.5 36.2

1996-97 43.3 39.9 36.3

1997-98 43.5 40.3 36.6

1998-99 43.9 40.8 37.8

1999-00 44.0 41.2 38.6

2000-01 43.8 40.9 38.8

2001-02 44.2 41.7 39.7

2002-03 46.8 43.9 41.3





2003-04 46.7 44.1 41.1

2004-05 46.7 44.3 41.5

2005-06 46.6 44.6 41.9

2006-07 46.8 45.2 42.4

2007-08 47.5 45.7 43.7

2008-09 48.0 46.9 43.7

2009-10 47.8 46.4 44.6

2010-11 47.9 47.1 44.7

2011-12 48.0 48.3 45.2

2012-

13(P)*

48.4 49.8 47.0

2013-14

(P)*

48.3 48.7 46.8











Figure 2:

Percentage of Girls Enrolment to Total Enrollment in India by Stages

Number of Girls Enrolled per Hundred Boys Enrolled:

The number of girl‟s enrolment per hundred boys is indicated in table 3. The girl‟s

enrolment per hundred boys has increased from 39 to 93 in primary classes, 18 to 95 in upper

primary and 16 to 92 in secondary classes for every 100 boys since 1950-51 to 2013-14. In

India, in 2013-14 at primary level, upper primary, secondary and senior secondary level 93,

95, 90 and 89 girls are enrolled per hundred boys enrolled. The number of girls per 100 boys

enrolled in different levels of school education is on the rise over the years, but the gap still

continues well over 7 in primary education, 5 in upper primary, 10 in secondary level and 11

in senior secondary level.





Table 3: Number of Girls Enrolled per Hundred Boys Enrolled in India

(1950-51 to 2013-14)

Year Primary

(I-V)

Middle

(VI-VIII)

Secondary

(IX-X)

Sr. Sec

(XI-XII)

1950-51 39 18 16

1960-61 48 32 23

1970-71 60 41 35

1980-81 63 49 44

1990-91 71 58 50

1991-92 72 62 52

1992-93 72 61 51

1993-94 76 66 57

1994-95 75 65 57

1995-96 76 65 57

1996-97 76 66 58

1997-98 77 67 58

1998-99 78 69 62

1999-2000 79 70 64

2000-01 78 69 63

2001-02 79 72 65

2002-03 88 78 70

2003-04 88 79 70

2004-05 88 80 71

2005-06 87 81 73 72

2006-07 88 82 73 74

2007-08 91 84 77 76

2008-09 92 89 78 77

2009-10 92 87 81 80

2010-11 92 89 82 79

2011-12 93 90 84 81

2012-13(P)* 94 95 89 87

2013-14 (P)* 93 95 90 89











Figure 3:

Number of Girls Enrolled per Hundred Boys Enrolled in India

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER)

The Gross Enrolment Ratios for the Primary (class I-V), upper primary (class

VI-VIII) and elementary (I-VIII) stage in respect of all categories of students are presented

below in table 4. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of all categories of students has been

increasing through the years i.e. from 1950-51 to 2010-11 as at primary level GER increased

from 42.6 to 99.3, at upper primary stage from 12.7 to 87.4. At senior secondary level GER

increased from 33.26 to 62.0 from 2001-02 to 2013-14. In case of girls Gross Enrolment

Ratio, increased from 24.8 to 100.6 at primary level, 4.6 to 90.3 at upper primary level and

17.7 to 96.9 at elementary level. At senior secondary level, GER (girls) increased from 27.74

in 2001-02 to 62.1 in 2013-14. While comparing the GER of boys and girls, data depicts that

at all the stages of education over the years boy‟s GER is more than girl‟s GER. The

relatively lower 11-13 years GER compared to 6-10 years GER indicates that the transition of

students from primary to upper primary classes is relatively lower than the entry to primary

classes. Enrolment ratios at the secondary and senior secondary level are considerably low

than the enrolment ratio at primary and upper primary level in India. The enrolment ratios of

girls at upper primary stage, secondary and senior secondary stage are low than boys

indicating girls remain outside the system of formal learning.





Table 4: Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of All Categories of Students 1950-51 to 2013-14

Year Primary (I-V) Upper Primary

(VI-VIII)

Elementary

(I-VIII)

(IX-XII)

Boys Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys Girl

s

Tota

l

Boys Girl

s

Tota

l

1950-51 60.6 24.8 42.6 20.6 4.6 12.7 46.4 17.7 32.1

1960-61 82.6 41.4 62.4 33.2 11.3 22.5 65.2 30.9 48.7

1970-71 95.5 60.5 78.6 46.3 20.8 33.4 75.5 44.4 61.9

1980-81 95.8 64.1 80.5 54.3 28.6 41.9 82.2 52.1 67.5

1990-91 94.8 71.9 83.8 80.1 51.9 66.7 90.3 65.9 78.6

1991-92 97.2 75 86.5 79.1 54.1 67.3 91.5 68.6 80.5

1992-93 95.5 73.8 85.0 73.4 49.3 61.9 88.4 66.0 77.6

1993-94 83.6 73.1 81.7 67.1 49.4 58.6 80.2 63.7 72.3

1994-95 96.6 78.2 87.7 68.9 50 60 87.2 68.8 78.4

1995-96 97.1 79.4 88.6 67.8 49.8 59.3 86.9 69.4 78.5

1996-97 97.0 80.1 88.8 65.8 49.2 58.0 85.9 69.4 78.0

1997-98 99.3 82.2 91.1 66.3 49.7 58.5 87.4 70.7 79.4

1998-99 100.9 84.1 92.8 65.1 49.5 57.7 87.6 71.5 79.9

1999-00 103.3 86 94.9 65.2 49.6 57.8 88.9 72.6 81

2000-01 104.9 85.9 95.7 66.7 49.9 58.6 90.3 72.4 81.6

2001-02 105.3 86.9 96.3 67.8 52.1 60.2 90.7 73.6 82.4 38.2

3

27.7

4

33.2

6

2002-03 97.5 93.1 95.3 65.3 56.2 61.0 85.4 79.3 82.5 41.2

9

33.2

1

37.5

2

2003-04 100.6 95.6 98.2 66.8 57.6 62.4 87.9 81.4 84.8 42.9

4

34.2

6

38.8

9

2004-05 110.7 104.

7

107.

8

74.3 65.1 69.9 96.9 89.9 93.5 44.2

6

35.0

5

39.9

1

2005-06 112.8 105.

8

109.

4

75.2 66.4 71.0 98.5 91.0 94.9 44.5

8

35.8

0

40.4

2

2006-07 114.6 108.

0

111.

0

77.6 69.6 73.6 100.

4

93.4 96.9 45.0 36.8 41.1

2007-08 115.2 112.

5

113.

9

81.5 70.3 78.0 102.

3

98.0 100.

2

49.4 41.9 45.8





2008-09 114.3 114.

4

114.

9

77.9 74.4 76.2 100.

5

99.1 99.8 50.6 43.1 47.0

2009-10 115.5 115.

4

115.

4

84.5 78.3 81.5 103.

7

101.

1

102.

5

52.4 45.9 49.3

2010-11 115.4 116.

7

116.

0

87.7 83.1 85.5 104.

9

103.

7

104.

3

55.5 48.4 52.1

2011-12 105.8 107.

1

106.

5

82.5 81.4 82.0 97.2 97.6 97.6 58.8 54.5 56.8

2012-

13(P)

99.3 102.

2

100.

7

82.3 86.9 84.5 93.1 96.6 94.8 56.5 56.1 56.3

2013-

14(P)

98.1 100.

6

99.3 84.9 90.3 87.4 93.3 96.9 95.0 61.9 62.1 62.0






Figure 4:

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of All Categories of Students





DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

In general, at the national level the number of girls, enrolled in all levels i.e. primary,

upper primary, secondary and senior secondary education is less than their counterparts.

However, the female-male ratio in education has been steadily improving over the years. Inter

connectivity is a significant aspect of the process of educational development as it is

concerned with linkages between different stages of education. All levels of education are

interlinked in such a way that the output of one stage becomes an input for the development

of the other stage. All those children who enter class-I will continue to move upwards without

any interruption up to a certain stage. In India these linkages are very weak. The high dropout

is pointer of this phenomenon. High dropout rate is a serious problem that comes in the way

of universalization of elementary education. UEE has three components – Universal

provision, universal enrolment and universal retention. While considerable progress has been

made in respect of provision and enrolment, retention is a vexed problem.

In India in case of girls about one-fifth of the dropouts are at the primary stage. If we

take the primary and the middle stages together (elementary), it is noted that about two-fifths

of the girls dropout at this stage. Evidently, it is only a small proportion of students who

proceed to secondary education. Universal primary education / UEE assume that all children

irrespective of the caste, creed and location would complete primary education. Security of

girls, congenial environment, absence of adequate female teachers in the school and absence

of nearby schools (in the villages, itself) are some of the reasons which discourage the poor

parents to continue the study of their daughters. Therefore more focused attention would be

required to provide access and facilitate the retention of girls and children belonging to the

deprived.

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http://www.ifuw.org/seminars/2007/banerjee.pdf

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