international mindedness: conceptualizations and
TRANSCRIPT
International Mindedness: Conceptualizations and Curriculum in an International School
in Brazil
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
BY
Nelson Peter Dewey
IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Advisor: Dr. Joan DeJaeghere
May 2017
© Nelson Peter Dewey 2017
i
Acknowledgements
The support, assistance and encouragement of many individuals have been
invaluable in my journey.
To my cohort, it was a blessing to share this journey with you. I think I learned
almost as much from you as from our classes. Whether in class or online, together or
spread across the world, working with you all made this process a lot more fun.
To my committee, Dr. Christopher Johnstone, Dr. Barbara Kappler and Dr. Neal
Nickerson, I thank you for your willingness to serve on my committee. Your
suggestions, advice and edits helped guide my work.
Dr. Joan DeJaeghere, I am grateful to have had you as my advisor. After every
meeting or Skype call, I felt encouraged and confident that I could take the next step. I
can't thank you enough for your assistance with my dissertation. I was amazed that you
could read my work and get it back to me so quickly, even when you were travelling to
the far reaches of the world. Your remarks were always insightful, direct enough to send
me in the right direction without telling me what to do and, most importantly, balanced
with positive and encouraging comments. I hope I can guide my students with similar
deftness.
Thank you to EAB and the participants of this study who gave their precious time
and shared their knowledge and experiences with me. I enjoyed getting to know you and
your school. You truly are learners inspiring learners.
Pan American Christian Academy, thank you for making this doctorate program
possible. Mike Epp, you inspired me in my first years of teaching, and now, despite the
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miles, our friendship is still a joy and encouragement. Remember how you used to call
me Dr. Dewey? Now, it's not just my father. Robin Rugg, I couldn't have done it
without your support. Thank you for encouraging me to take the challenge and
encouraging me along the way.
Carla Dewey Urban, minha irmã e editora, obrigado por todo sua ajuda, o espaço
que você nos da na sua casa, o carinho com qual você sempre nos recebe e agora a sua
ajuda editando minha dissertação. Obrigado!!
When we started the program, Dr. Magnusson warned us that life would happen;
some of us would get married, others would have children. Little did I know that I would
do both. Julia Dewey, when I started this doctoral process we were just coworkers. Now
we are married and parents to a beautiful, joyful daughter. What a journey it has been!
Thank you for your love, support, patience and encouragement.
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to:
my mother and father, in whose steps I find myself walking,
my wife, who walks at my side,
and my daughter, who has yet to take her first steps.
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Abstract
This dissertation is a qualitative, single case study of an international school in
Brazil that explores how school administrators and teachers conceptualize international
mindedness, and how it is developed within the curriculum of the International
Baccalaureate Diploma Program. I provide a rich, thick description of the context,
developing four themes that reveal what international mindedness looks like in this
context. I use a five-category typology in my review of constructs of international
mindedness in the literature of K-12 international education and apply the same
categories in my analysis of the participants' views. Drawing on literature from a variety
of sources, I develop five continua that proved to be helpful in the analysis of
international mindedness in the curriculum.
Data collection and analysis procedures were informed by a social constructionist
approach. Data sources include semi-structured interviews, documents, classroom
observations, field notes and pictures collected during three visits. Among the documents
collected are the school mission, vision and beliefs statement, the EAB learner profile,
curriculum maps for the IB classes, and the upper school handbook.
I found the American School of Brasilia to be a diverse and welcoming
community. The administrators and teachers with whom I spoke did not demonstrate
consensus in their conceptualizations of internationalization, though I found they had a
strong sense of school identity defined by their core documents. The school adopted the
IB program six years ago and they have made it their own. They have taken principles
from the IB program and applied them throughout the upper school. Teachers
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demonstrate a commitment to exposing students to a wide variety of perspectives and are
active in drawing on the rich experiences contained within the school's diverse
community. Participants provided examples of school administrators’, teachers’ and
students’ embodiment of international mindedness. However, some of the participants'
conceptualizations of international mindedness suggest that it is something students have
as a result of their lifestyles, not of the instructional program. The analysis of the
curriculum of the IB courses reveals a superficial understanding of culture and little
intentional development of international mindedness, though further study would be
required to determine to what extent teachers' practice matches what is recorded in the
documentation. The five categories of models of international mindedness and the five
continua developed for this case study were useful in the analysis of this case and could
be applied in other settings.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. i
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... x
List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem .................................................................................. 1
Evidence-Based Statement of the Problem ............................................................. 4
Statement of Study Purpose .................................................................................... 5
Related Research Questions .................................................................................... 7
Significance of the study ......................................................................................... 7
Definition of Key Terms ......................................................................................... 9
Context of the Study ............................................................................................. 11
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 13
Study Limitations and Delimitations .................................................................... 15
Expected Impact and Significance of the Study ................................................... 16
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature.................................................................................. 18
International Education ......................................................................................... 19
The International Baccalaureate ........................................................................... 30
International Mindedness ...................................................................................... 34
International Accreditation ................................................................................... 57
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Curriculum Framework ......................................................................................... 60
Summary ............................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods ............................................................................. 68
Purpose of the Case Study .................................................................................... 68
Philosophical Assumptions ................................................................................... 69
Values and Assumptions ....................................................................................... 70
Case Study Design ................................................................................................ 72
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 77
Data Analysis Procedures ..................................................................................... 84
Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................... 86
Anticipated Ethical Issues ..................................................................................... 87
Chapter 4: Description of the Site ..................................................................................... 90
History and Setting of the School ......................................................................... 91
What’s in a Name? ................................................................................................ 94
Hall of Flags ........................................................................................................ 101
Core Documents.................................................................................................. 105
Different Perspectives ......................................................................................... 110
Embodiment of International Mindedness .......................................................... 113
Summary ............................................................................................................. 117
Chapter 5: Conceptualizations and Curriculum for International Mindedness at EAB.. 119
International Mindedness at EAB ....................................................................... 119
Analysis of the Curriculum for International Mindedness ................................. 132
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Chapter 6: Implications, Limitations, and Recommendations ........................................ 149
Implications of this Study ................................................................................... 149
Limitations of this Study ..................................................................................... 155
Recommendations for Further Study .................................................................. 156
Summary ............................................................................................................. 158
References ....................................................................................................................... 159
Appendices ...................................................................................................................... 173
Appendix A: Some Interpretations of ‘International Education’ ....................... 173
Appendix B: IB Learner Profile ......................................................................... 174
Appendix C: School Consent for Participation .................................................. 175
Appendix D: Interview Questions for School Administrators ........................... 176
Appendix E: Focus Group Questions for Teachers ........................................... 179
Appendix F: Atlas Curriculum Template .......................................................... 182
Appendix G: Quirks/Coding List ....................................................................... 183
Appendix H: Permission to Use School Name .................................................. 185
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List of Tables
Table 1: Continua for Analysis and Comparison of School Curricula ............................ 15
Table 2: IB learner Attributes and International Mindedness .......................................... 42
Table 3: Interview participants and characteristics .......................................................... 80
Table 4: Descriptions of major themes ............................................................................ 90
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Brasilia's pilot plan. ......................................................................................... 91
Figure 2: Aerial view of EAB. ........................................................................................ 92
Figure 3: Sign located near the school's front entrance. Author. ................................... 94
Figure 4: Flags displayed in the foyer of the EAB auditorium. Author. ...................... 101
Figure 5: EAB learner profile posted on a classroom wall. Author. ............................ 105
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List of Acronyms
DMIS – Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
EAB – Escola Americana de Brasília (American School of Brasilia)
CAS – Creativity, Action, Service
CIS – Council of International Schools
IB – International Baccalaureate
IBO – International Baccalaureate Organization
GIN – Global Issues Network
MUN – Model United Nations
TOK – Theory of Knowledge
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Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem
The gospel of Luke relates the story of an expert in the law questioning Jesus
regarding the law “Love your neighbor as yourself.” “Who is my neighbor?” the man
asked. Jesus answered with the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:29-37, English
Standard Version). Jesus told the story of a traveler on the road from Jerusalem to
Jericho who was beaten, robbed, and left for dead along the side of the road. First a
priest, then a Levite saw the man and passed him by. Finally, a Samaritan stopped and
helped the injured man. At that time, Jews would not even speak to Samaritans, yet this
man crossed a cultural divide and demonstrated compassion to someone in need. Jesus
asked the expert in the law, “Which of these do you think was a neighbor to the man who
fell into the hands of the robbers?” The expert in the law replied, “The one who had
mercy on him.” Jesus told him “Go and do likewise.”
One of the lessons that can be drawn from this parable is that our neighbors,
whom we are to love, are the people we come across in our journeys not just the people
of our tight knit communities with whom we feel comfortable. The Samaritan was
prepared not only to understand the needs of others, but to have the courage to reach
across a cultural divide and act.
We live in a world that is increasingly interconnected; we are neighbors to more
and more people, whether they live next door or somewhere else in the world. Young
people need preparation to understand the relationship between global and local issues, to
interact well with those of other cultures and to act effectively in a world that is ever
more interconnected.
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International schools exist at the intersections of nations and cultures. Whether
by physically bringing together families from around the world or by bringing ideas from
around the world into the classroom, it is my belief that international schools can be
catalysts in preparing students to be good neighbors across the boundaries of cultures and
nations.
A cursory examination of the mission and vision statements of international
schools from around the world reveals the centrality of developing students’ international
mindedness. Although expressed in many ways, engagement across national and or
cultural borders is a pervasive theme, as witnessed by the mission and vision statements
of several such schools. For example:
Stanton College Preparatory School, United States:
Stanton emphasizes teaching cultural understanding and responsible citizenship to
its diverse student body so those students may become compassionate, informed
participants in local and world affairs. (Duval Schools, n.d.)
International School of Geneva, Switzerland:
A key element of this unity is a commitment to a particular kind of international
education. The Foundation has defined those main principles as follows:
▪ Encouraging important international values
▪ Supporting the student’s language development
▪ Ensuring an international dimension to the curriculum
▪ Recognizing the importance of global issues
▪ Showing respect for, and integration with, the host country. (International
School of Geneva, n.d.)
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Escola Graduada de São Paulo, Brazil:
Graded is an American school that serves an international community of learners
by inspiring individual excellence in a collaborative setting, fostering intercultural
competence and empowering students to become engaged, ethical citizens in a
dynamic world. (Escola Graduada de São Paulo, n.d.)
Harare International School, Zimbabwe:
Harare International School teaches the personal values, academic qualities and
sense of responsibility needed for life-long learning, community service and
world citizenship through educational programs that are relevant, challenging and
engaging. (Harare International School, n.d.)
Hong Kong International School, China:
Dedicating our minds to inquiry, our hearts to compassion, and our lives to
service and global understanding. (Hong Kong International School, n.d.)
Australian International School, vision statement:
To ensure a quality international and intercultural education which prepares
students for their futures in a global economy. (Australian International School,
n.d.)
American School of Brasilia, mission and vision:
Learners inspiring learners to be inquisitive in life, principled in character, and
bold in vision. To positively impact the world through excellence in academics,
activities, arts, leadership, and service. (American School of Brasilia, 2016a)
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Mission and vision statements outline what a school hopes to be. They arise from
a set of values to answer fundamental questions about the purpose of education and how
the school proposes to carry out the educational process (Boerema, 2006). The presence
of cultural and global concepts in each of the mission and vision statements cited above
provides clear evidence that international mindedness, or a related concept, is
fundamental to what these schools set out to do.
Although spread across six continents, each of the schools cited above participates
in the International Baccalaureate (IB), which “aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable
and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through
intercultural understanding and respect” (International Baccalaureate Organization,
2013e). The International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) offers curricula of
international education to schools and students around the world. Woven throughout the
IB learner profile and each of the programs is the development of international
mindedness.
For the students who attend international schools, these institutions provide a
framework from which they can make sense of life and the world around them (Poore,
2005). In the case of IB schools, this framework is international mindedness (see p. 10
for definition). Hill (2012), former deputy director general of the IB, stated, “The
product of successful international education is international mindedness” (p. 246).
Determining how school leaders interpret international mindedness and the pedagogical
plan for its development is essential in ensuring that mission statements are achievable.
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Evidence-Based Statement of the Problem
Despite the presence of culture in so many mission statements and its importance
to the IB curriculum, few people concur on a definition for international mindedness.
Lewis (2001), an international school administrator for more than 25 years, pointed out,
“I suspect that most of our (international) schools possess a mission statement or strategic
plan that aspires to nurture ‘global citizens’ or something of that order” (p. 26). He
further suggested that one must look to the curriculum “to find evidence of a thoughtful
approach to teaching global citizenship, whereby all students . . . are encouraged to
reflect on their broader identity” (p. 26–27). An examination of the literature
demonstrates an ongoing attempt to define international mindedness (Cause, 2011;
Haywood, 2007; Skelton, 2013); however, few attempts have been made to examine it
empirically in schools (Hurley, 2008). By examining the impact of school philosophical
statements and school developmental planning Alvarez (2014) found that “schools need
to clearly define within their philosophical statements what they mean by international
mindedness if this construct is to be fully embedded within the school” (2014, Kindle
location 2662–2863).
In this study, I seek to understand how leaders and teachers at an international
school in Brazil conceptualize international mindedness and how this shapes the
curriculum and pedagogy of the IB Diploma Program1.
1 In my writing, I use the American spelling of this phrase. When citing the IBO, I use
their spelling of Programme.
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Statement of Study Purpose
The purpose of this study is to explore the conceptualizations of international
mindedness in a school in Brazil that employs the IB program, and how these concepts
allow for the development and enactment of international mindedness. The pedagogic
approaches to developing international mindedness found in the curriculum were
analyzed and compared.
Through interviews with school administrators, focus groups with teachers and an
analysis of mission, vision, and core values and curricula, I assessed the dynamics
between how international mindedness is conceptualized, and the curriculum for helping
students develop international mindedness.
The resulting data informs the discussion of the development of international
mindedness in this school, within international schools in Brazil, worldwide and in the
larger academic setting. An ongoing discussion has occurred in the literature among
academics and practitioners regarding the definition of international mindedness. I hope
that this study will enrich the discussion by offering insight that is grounded in the
experiences of this school in one corner of the globe.
The study might also lead school administrators to examine to what extent their
curricula match their conceptualization of international mindedness. Given the variation
in definitions and the possibility that administrators and teachers have arrived at different
understandings of the idea, it is possible that a lack of consistency exists in the approach.
This might limit a school’s effectiveness at meeting its mission statement.
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Although spread throughout a large country, international schools in Brazil face
similar opportunities and challenges in developing international mindedness in their
students. Brazil is a diverse country, with people of many cultural backgrounds.
International schools work with this diverse population along with families from around
the globe in developing internationally minded students. Little research on international
education and international mindedness in particular has been done in South America,
much less in Brazil. This research might be a starting point for dialogue on developing
international mindedness in ways that uniquely fit the Brazilian context.
Related Research Questions
This study builds on the existing research on international mindedness by
examining it in a particular context. In this study, I answer the following questions:
1. How do school administrators and teachers in an IB school in Brazil
conceptualize international mindedness?
2. How do theories or models of international mindedness inform these
conceptualizations?
3. How are the constructs of international mindedness expressed in the
curriculum of the school's IB program?
Significance of the study
The construction of the concept of international mindedness is an ongoing
endeavor in international schools. Some teachers roll their eyes and throw up their hands
when asked what international mindedness means to them and what are they doing to
develop it in their students. An examination of how teachers and school administrators
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construe international mindedness will inform the ongoing discussion. Connecting the
definitions to curriculum and pedagogy can help improve delivery, and help set the stage
for developing effective assessment tools that will aid in understanding what helps
students make sense of life and the world around them.
Although international schools are not the only schools practicing international
education, many have the resources and flexibility to explore models of international
mindedness (Heyward, 2002). Students of international schools develop an interest in
other people and parts of the world, open-mindedness, flexibility and the ability to speak
multiple languages (Hayden, Rancic, & Thompson, 2000). The knowledge and
experience acquired by leaders in international schools can also inform national schools
that aim to provide international education (Savva, 2013). The IB program is growing
rapidly in school districts in the U.S. and around the world (Conner, 2008; International
Baccalaureate Organization, 2013). Schools hindered by financial constraints or lack of
curricular freedom can find models that work for their situations.
Walker (2000b), the former head of the IB, pointed out that many international
schools consider the interaction of students from different cultural backgrounds a
cornerstone of international education. Nonetheless, much work must be done to prepare
educators and curriculum to “help students to understand what is meant by culture, first
in relation to their own national identity and then – in a process based on knowledge,
open-mindedness and dignity—in relation to the traditions of others” (2000b, p. 12). One
of the aims of this study is to draw out evidence of this work in a way that can benefit
schools and educators both within and outside of the IB system who are looking for
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successful models for preparing students for the globalization of their world. This in-
depth exploration of the conceptualizations, practices and pedagogies of international
mindedness at one school provides a deep understanding foundational for the broader
work that must be done in international education.
Definition of Key Terms
Curriculum: A simple definition of curriculum is all student school experiences
relating to the improvement of skills and strategies in thinking critically and creatively,
solving problems, working collaboratively with others, communicating well, writing
more effectively, reading more analytically, and conducting research to solve problems
(Brown, 2006). However, this definition oversimplifies an important aspect of schools.
A more nuanced view recognizes distinctions among the recommended curriculum, the
written curriculum, the supported curriculum, the taught curriculum, the tested
curriculum, and the learned curriculum. The written, the supported, the taught, and the
tested curricula can be considered the intentional curriculum—the set of learnings that the
school system consciously intends (Glatthorn, Boschee, & Whitehead, 2009). The
complement to these curricula is the hidden curriculum that includes the implicit cultural
values that teachers and school culture unconsciously transmit (Mullen, 2007).
Culture: House, Javidan, Hanges, and Dorfman (2002) defined culture as “shared
motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations of meanings of significant events
that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are transmitted
across age generations” (p. 5). This definition serves as a starting point for a more
nuanced understanding of culture. Throughout this study, a variety of aspects of culture
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are addressed, including school culture, national culture, local culture and the intersection
of these within a community. Furthermore, culture is not necessarily static, but
something that adapts and changes over time.
International education: James (2005) defined international education as “All
educative efforts that aim at fostering an international orientation in knowledge and
attitudes and seek to build bridges between countries” (p. 315). International education
and international schools do not necessarily go together. It is possible to have one without
the other (Hayden & Thompson, 1995; Hill, 2000). There is little consensus on this
definition. The debate will be explored in Chapter 2.
International mindedness: Many definitions for this term will be explored in
Chapter 2. I chose not to adopt a singular definition of this term so that I could enter
conversations with school leaders without a commitment to a preset construct, allowing
me to explore what it meant in one school and in teachers' practices.
International school: Although quite diverse, most English-language
international schools offer a standard American college preparatory program, a standard
British Program or an IB diploma (Brewster, 2002). It should be noted that this
definition is rather US and Eurocentric as there are international schools that operate in
other systems and languages in some parts of the world. For the purposes of this study, I
accept schools offering the IB as international schools. The diversity of international
schools and the nature of the IB program will be discussed more fully in Chapter 2.
Pedagogy: The term pedagogy has been used to cover a wide range of aspects of
teaching (MacNeill & Silcox, 2003). I use the term to refer to the interactions planned to
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facilitate new knowledge, beliefs or skills. A common distinction I adopt is: curriculum
is about what we teach, pedagogy is about how we teach it.
Context of the Study
This case study was performed within an international school in Brazil. Brazil is
a diverse country, home to 206 indigenous ethnic groups, along with African
descendants, and a significant number of immigrants from Portugal, Spain, Japan,
Germany, Italy, Lebanon, Korea and other Latin American nations (Canen & Grant,
1999). With an area larger than the continental United States and a tremendous diversity
of plants, animals and ecosystems, Brazil has a unique environmental heritage. Once
seen as one of the world's strongest emerging markets and a contributor to global growth,
Brazil attracted numerous multinational corporations interested in accessing its markets.
A shrinking economy, growing unemployment, rising inflation and political turmoil have
stymied the country's rise. In attempting to address extreme social inequality, the country
has been discovering the strong influence of culture in shaping potential social
transformation. There is still a need for deeper understanding of culture in dealing with
indigenous people and afro-descendants, two minority groups oppressed by the social
imbalance (UNESCO, n.d.-a)
It is difficult to pin down the exact number of international schools in Brazil,
partially because of the difficulty of defining which schools are and which are not
international, and partially because no single entity or group exists to which all of them
belong that could provide a list. One commercial website lists 29 international schools
and 89 bilingual schools (Moura, n.d.), though the criteria for distinguishing between the
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two groups of schools are not clear. The site gives school representatives the option of
adding or editing their school listing. While both lists included schools from a variety of
national and cultural backgrounds such as American, British, German, Swiss, Jewish,
Brazilian and others, English-speaking schools were the majority on both lists.
Although many new schools are opening to meet a growing local demand for a
bilingual education and a diploma recognized outside of Brazil, many of the older schools
were founded to meet the needs of foreigners living in Brazil (Goulart, 2013; Schütz,
2014). The high tuition and entrance fees entail that most of these schools are composed
of students of high socioeconomic status. The schools are selective in their admission
requirements, sometimes requiring near fluency in the school’s primary language.
A common thread uniting many of these schools is that they offer the
International Baccalaureate Diploma. International mindedness is a central theme in the
IB program, and part of the IB learner profile. Brazilian law requires that all national
students studying in the country receive an education accredited by the Ministry of
Education and Culture, thus all international schools in Brazil offer at least two diplomas
(Goulart, 2013). Although the IB diploma and the Brazilian context are common
elements, the schools vary in their size, demographics, and the number of years in which
they have offered the IB diploma.
The American School of Brasilia was chosen as the site for this case study
because it promotes international mindedness through its implementation of the IB
Diploma Program, it holds accreditation with a U.S. based organization, and has a student
population including both Brazilian and international students. The process of site
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selection is described in more detail in Chapter 3. The school, commonly known as
EAB, the acronym of the Portuguese name, Escola Americana de Brasília, has offered the
IB diploma for six years as an option for students in addition to the American and
Brazilian diplomas. A rich, thick description of the site is provided in Chapter 4,
demonstrating what international mindedness looks like in this context.
Interviews of school administrators including the head of school, high school
principal, Brazilian program director and the IB coordinator, focus groups with teachers,
classroom observations, along with an analysis of school documents and curricular
material are included in this study. My aim was to find a balance between breadth and
depth, providing sufficient data to paint a rich portrait of the school within the limitations
of my availability to visit the school and process information.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework that guided this study was social constructionism
whose proponents suggest that individuals build their understanding of reality based on
their interactions with others, their cultural contexts, and their social and historical
conditions (Creswell, 2013; Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011). Constructionism goes
further, for its proponents suggest that the social phenomena and categories are in a
constant state of revision and that each member has a role in the group in determining
meaning (Bryman, 2008). Individuals, including the researcher, are shaped by their
experiences, and this will influence the knowledge generated (Lincoln et al., 2011).
In constructionism, the researcher acts as a co-constructor of knowledge who
might facilitate the understanding and interpretation of experiences (Lincoln et al., 2011).
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This approach guided the development of the methodology of the study. My questions
were broad and general so that the subjects could express their own understanding. In
this case, I interviewed school leaders regarding not only how they interpret international
mindedness, but also asking for examples of people in their community that demonstrate
it.
No school exists in a vacuum. School values, curriculum and ideas are
considered at conferences, formal classes, and staff meetings. In each of these venues,
and likely many more, the definition of international mindedness is shaped and reshaped.
Teachers move from one international school to another, carrying their ideas and
experiences to new schools. Neither the IB nor any international school can impose one
conceptualization of international mindedness. People will take what they have learned
and apply it in the way that makes sense for them in their context. Thus, each school
becomes a setting for testing and implementing a vision of international mindedness.
Within this constructionist approach, I have developed a framework for the
analysis and comparison of the ways in which schools set out to develop international
mindedness. Little research has been conducted on the curriculum and pedagogy of
international mindedness; therefore, in considering these continua, I have borrowed from
the fields of intercultural training, multicultural education, and citizenship education
including authors such as Freire, Ladson-Billings and others. Working in a
constructionist paradigm, I recognize that the ideas I have adopted come from specific
contexts. Freire, for example, worked primarily with the illiterate poor in Brazil, leading
to his critique of the banking model of education and his advocacy of critical pedagogy.
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Ladson-Billings studied the pedagogical practices of teachers of African-American
students in schools in the U.S. and argued for the importance of culturally relevant
pedagogy. Each of the authors on whom I drew worked in a specific context and argued
for attention to key ideas regarding the purposes of schooling, its curricula and practices.
I have heard their calls and applied their ideas in area of international education. I have
developed five continua that will allow for the analysis and comparison of school
curricula regarding international mindedness. They are diagramed here and will be
explored more fully in Chapter 2.
Table 1: Continua for Analysis and Comparison of School Curricula
Weak internationalization Strong internationalization
Banking model Critical consciousness
Discrete orientation Glocal orientation
Didactic Experiential
Culture-general Culture-specific
I used these five continua as tools to examine EAB's pedagogy and curricula. The
analysis provides a deeper understanding of the school's conceptualization of
international mindedness than would be available through interviews alone.
Study Limitations and Delimitations
Having taken a social constructionist stance, it is important that I recognize that
my own background shaped my interpretation of information. A researcher is not a
passive conduit of ideas, but one who reconstructs it into a theory or pattern of meaning.
I have not worked at an IB school; therefore, I had no preconceived definition of
16
international mindedness before I began this study. I lived in Brazil for six years as a
child, attended an international school, and have worked at an American school in Brazil
for 18 years; therefore, my experiences working with international students and issues
certainly color my approach to this study. For example, the minimization of cultural
differences I have experienced at the school where I work is one of the primary factors
that led me into this line of research. When I visit an international school, I find myself
trying to compare that community's intercultural sensitivity to my own community.
A second limitation is that only the intentional curriculum was examined. The
hidden curriculum is equally as important (Wilkinson & Hayden, 2010), but would
require a very different approach beyond the means of this study.
A delimitation of the study is the use of a case study to examine one school.
More than 2,500 schools worldwide offer the IB Diploma Program, 20 of which are
located in Brazil (International Baccalaureate Organization, n.d.-b). A study examining a
broader scope of schools would have greater generalizability; however, a case study
allows for a depth of engagement that provides a unique insight into the case.
Expected Impact and Significance of the Study
I expect this study to have an impact in three areas. First, this study will
contribute to the academic discussion of the meaning and practices of international
mindedness. The current literature contains numerous definitions for international
mindedness, but little empirical evidence of how it is constructed and applied within
schools. My desire is that this study will be beneficial to school leaders interested in
refining their understanding of international mindedness.
17
Second, I hope that the research process itself provided some benefit to EAB. I
found the participants excited to engage in a conversation about international mindedness
and quick to share interesting perspectives and questions on the topic. Furthermore, the
cross checking of the data along the way and the final analysis will afford the school a
stepping-stone in the development of international mindedness.
Finally, my ultimate desire is to increase the use of international mindedness and
similar constructs in schools worldwide. I believe that whether a school employs the IB
or not, furthering the understanding of international mindedness will lead to better
preparation of teachers and students for dealing with an increasingly complex and
interconnected world. Developing international mindedness should be more than just a
slogan; every school ought to be preparing their students to interact with people from
other cultures and to deal with complex issues that cross borders, whether they use
international mindedness or some other construct to describe it.
18
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
In this chapter, I set out to review the literature regarding international education,
international mindedness and the pedagogical framework I use for analysis of
international mindedness in the curriculum. I begin with an overview of the literature on
international education, clarifying in which branch this study resides to distinguish it
from other fields of study.
I then examine the characterization of international schools and international
education in the literature. I discuss the concepts of international schools, international
education, and the IB specifically to establish the context of the field and the research that
will be performed and to provide a sense of the diversity found in each international
school. Then I explore the IB and the Diploma Program using both the literature
published by the IB and that in outside journals.
Next, I examine models of international mindedness along with related
intercultural concepts. Of the many ways of expressing intercultural understanding,
international mindedness is used uniquely in the context of the IB. Educators who look
to the literature will find many definitions with little research to back them up. This
ongoing and unresolved discussion is the crux of this study: which definitions of
international mindedness have made their ways into schools and how are they being
implemented? I explore the definitions found in the scholarly literature and in materials
published by the IB.
International schools have some liberty in selecting an accrediting agency and
there is a marked difference in the emphasis on international mindedness or intercultural
19
concepts between the Brazilian, European and American agencies. I briefly examine the
standards for international mindedness and intercultural understanding set forth by the
relevant accreditation organizations.
Finally, I examine the literature supporting my framework for analyzing
international mindedness in the curriculum drawing on work from the fields of
intercultural training, multicultural education, and critical pedagogy.
Throughout this literature review, I focus on topics of most direct and practical
relevance to secondary education in international schools. Thus, I did not attempt to
provide a comprehensive history of international education, international schools or
international mindedness, nor did I examine every aspect of the internationalization of
education at the tertiary level. Rather, the focus is on what is currently in the literature
and being applied in secondary schools.
International Education
A wide variety of groups have appropriated the phrase international education and
have assigned it very different meanings. To some groups, it might refer to the
internationalization of universities, to others it might refer to American schools in other
countries. With the proliferation of the use of the phrase, Dolby and Rahman (2008)
have examined the literature on international education revealing six major approaches
that fall under that wide umbrella. Listed roughly in chronological order of their
development, they are: comparative and international education, internationalization of
higher education, international schools, international research on teaching and teacher
education, internationalization of Kindergarten–Grade 12 education, and globalization
20
and education. These authors note that the field of international education is so broad
that many researchers who work in one specific realm may be largely unacquainted with
work in another field. While I draw support for this research from a variety of fields, my
goal is to contribute to the fields of research on international schools and the
internationalization of Kindergarten-Grade 12 education.
Research on international schools has developed alongside the growth of
international schools. Due to the lack of consensus on the definition of what constitutes
an international school, it is difficult to ascertain when the first international school was
founded (Hill, 2000; Sylvester, 2002; Walker, 2000b). Hayden and Thompson (1995)
point out that the 1964 Yearbook of Education listed roughly 50 schools worldwide that
might be classified as international. Today there are more than 7,000 English-medium
international schools (International School Consultancy Group, n.d.). MacDonald (2006)
estimates that the international school industry represented an industry of 3–5 billion
dollars per year, though this number is certainly low and has increased because
MacDonald only included the 907 schools accredited by the Council of International
Schools (CIS) at that time. Though in the literature, the phrase international education is
often used to refer to what happens in English-medium schools in non-English-speaking
countries, there are many models of international education including state run
international schools and bilingual international schools (Hill, 2000). Examples of the
former are common in Nordic countries where a government school might offer an
international section taught exclusively in English. An example of the later is found in
21
France, where a school might offer curriculum taught in French in combination with a
second language such as English, Spanish, German or Portuguese (Hill, 2000).
In tandem with the proliferation of schools is a growth in the body of knowledge
about them. Formal practitioner-oriented organizations formed in the 1950s and 1960s,
including the International Schools Association (ISA) in 1951 that then organized the
International Baccalaureate in 1964, and the CIS in 1965. These developments spurred
the evolution of research in international education. The two primary, refereed
publications in the field, the Journal of Research in International Education and the
International Schools Journal, are published by the IB Research Unit and the CIS
respectively. Although the journals are based in Europe, the research is performed
around the globe primarily by educators in international schools (Dolby & Rahman,
2008). The confluence of the development of the IB, along with an accrediting agency
and two influential journals demonstrates the hegemony of these organizations in the
definition of international education and its practices.
International schools. Even to researchers and practitioners in the field, no clear
definition exists of what constitutes an international school. In this section, I explore
some of the attempts to define or categorize these institutions. Hayden and Thompson
(1995) state, “for the most part the body of international schools is a conglomeration of
individual institutions which may or may not share an underlying educational
philosophy" (p. 332). Many international schools have their origins in expatriate
communities around the world where globally mobile employees of the United Nations or
multinational organizations encouraged the creation of schools to meet the needs of their
22
transient children. The perceived lack of suitability of local schools and the need for
access to universities around the world were additional factors (Hayden & Thompson,
2008). Other schools founded on international principles might or might not serve an
international clientele. More recently, international schools have been founded to serve a
national community interested in the opportunities afforded by an internationally
recognized diploma.
Hayden and Thompson (1995) offer a classification of schools according to
differences in their nature and purpose citing categories developed by several authors. A
utilitarian school (Jonietz & Harris, 1991) caters to international families working abroad
and seeking schooling for their children. A school might be pragmatic (Renaud, 1991) in
that it offers a variety of streams of education so that students can get what they need to
satisfy their national school requirements. The third category is the ideologically focused
schools (Gellar, 1993) that bring students of unique cultures and backgrounds together,
allowing them to enjoy the diversity.
Hayden and Thompson (2013) revisited and expanded the idea of categorizing
schools, lumping the utilitarian and pragmatic schools into “Type A traditional”
international schools, maintaining the ideologically focused schools as “Type B” and
added a “Type C non-traditional” schools. These are schools that are founded to serve
host country nationals, mostly the socioeconomic elite, seeking what they perceive to be
a higher quality form of education than is available in the national system (Hayden &
Thompson, 2013). The last category was added to recognize a relatively new, but
growing trend in international education. Investors and entrepreneurs have identified a
23
profitable market for primarily English-language schools offering internationally
recognized programs and improving access to universities in the United States and
Europe.
Bunnell (2008) points out two problems with these kinds of categorizations of
international schools. First, the nature of schools is not static. A school started for
pragmatic reasons might adopt the IB and evolve into an ideologically focused school.
Second, the scale of international education has grown to the point where a simple
categorization of mission as international or local is insufficient to organize the diversity
in the field. In addition, very few schools fit only one of those categories, making them
rather futile.
The diversity of student experiences is even greater than the variety of schools.
Based on his observations during a career in international education and extensive travel
visiting schools around the world, Hill (2006) identifies three types of students: national,
immigrant (including refugee), and internationally mobile. He offers a typology of
schools using three factors: (a) the nature of the educational program, (b) the degree of
cultural diversity of the student body, and (c) the external context in which the school is
located. Although the predictions have yet to be tested in the field, Hill envisioned a
variety of types of cultural exposure.
Murphy (2000), editor of the International Schools Journal, echoes the frustration
of many who have tackled the definition of international schools in concluding, “No one
has so far come up with a definition of ‘international school’ that does not exclude some
schools which consider themselves international, and does not include others which may
24
not” (p. 8). Hill (2006) relieves some of the tension of trying to define international
schools by suggesting that we “accept that there is not necessarily any relationship
between international education and international schools, and we stop trying to create
one” (p. 30). In this study, I do not try to parse out the difference and accept that schools
offering the IB diploma and working towards the development of international
mindedness are international schools.
International Education. An international education can be many things to
many people. James (2005) lists 11 different ways in which the phrase has been used in
the literature (Appendix A) ranging from educational systems catering to internationally
mobile expatriates to educational efforts aimed at fostering international orientation,
knowledge and attitudes. International education might also include the offering of one
nation's curriculum outside the country's borders. The issue is more complicated than
merely the education offered at an international school. In this section, I will explore
some of the applications of international education along with the potential for growth in
the field and equity concerns.
The phrase 'international education' is often used to describe what happens in an
international school, but not every international school provides international education.
Belle-Isle (1986, as cited in Hayden & Thompson, 2000)), a distinguished educator and
longtime head of an international school points out
An international school whose diploma serves as a passport for admission to
universities and colleges at large is not necessarily providing an international
education… The mission of international education is to respond to the
25
intellectual and emotional needs of the children of the world, bearing in mind the
intellectual and cultural mobility not only of the individual but, most of all, of
thought. (p. 51)
Not only is it possible for an international school not to offer international education, it is
possible for a national school to offer an international education. Walker (1995, as cited
in Hayden & Thompson, 2000) insists,
International education is not a concept exclusive to the international community,
and is not simply about ‘teaching groups of students of different nationalities; . . .
not studying the history, geography and customs of other countries; . . . not
arranging foreign exchanges; . . . not having a strong modern language
department—although each of these things might help’.” (p. 52)
Ultimately, Walker (Walker, 2000a, as cited in Roberts, 2012) concludes “International
education celebrates diversity and ensures that every act, every symbol, every exchange
involving teachers, administrators, students and parents reinforces the belief that in the
end, human diversity is an enrichment and source of strength” (p.69).
From another perspective, Hill (2000) argues international education should strive
to fulfill the UNESCO (1995) declaration that identified the following aims of
international education for peace, human rights, and democracy: development of
universal values, recognizing and accepting the values of others, nonviolent conflict
resolution, respect for cultural heritage, the cultivation of solidarity and equity at the
national and international levels (p. 9). Hill does not point out the conflict inherent in the
development of universal values and recognizing and accepting the values of others.
26
UNESCO’s desire is that these principles be included in the national education programs
of the countries whose ministers would accept it (Hill, 2000). These three authors argue
for different views of international education differentiated by purpose or audience.
However, international education must also be understood through what it teaches.
An important distinction in international education is the curriculum offered in
international schools. One can distinguish between curricula offered internationally and
international curricula. For example, a school in Brazil offering an American curriculum
might not be considered international. International education might start with adaptation
of an existing curriculum, integration of the best practices of various systems, or creation
of curricula from first principles (Hayden & Thompson, 2000).
Gellar (2002) lists an educational and an ethical distinction between an
internationally minded school and all the others. First, its curriculum stresses studies in
world history and literature, world cultures, highlighting the interdependence of nations
and peoples, and avoiding the study of such topics from a single perspective. Second,
Gellar (2002) states, “Its ethical aim is to actively espouse and uphold certain ‘universal’
values and to make them an integral part of the life of the school, its community and,
particularly the children in its care” (p. 31). Gellar (2002) does not expand on what these
universal values ought to be, but it became clear that an international school, even one
offering an IB program, could operate without engaging in international education.
Again, it is possible to offer an international education at a national school.
Carber (2009) offers a working model for international education in American public
schools to spark a dialogue on questions regarding nurturing globally minded students.
27
Carber suggests that schools should pursue several criteria, including an international
student profile, international accreditation, foreign language instruction leading to
multilingualism, genuine student interactions with varied cultures, an internationally
recognized curriculum, and overseas experienced teachers. With proper preparation,
teachers who have worked at international schools can develop a deep sense of
intercultural awareness and bring it back to schools in the United States (Savva, 2013).
The need for this is growing as the diversity in American classrooms grows along with
the pressure to prepare students for globalization.
Gellar (2002) and Carber’s (2009) recommendations for international education
show the depth of understanding that Walker (1995, as cited in Hayden & Thompson,
2000) calls for. Gellar (2002) recognizes the importance of including multiple
viewpoints. Carber (2009) adds the importance of genuine cross-cultural interactions,
and the importance of the teachers’ experience.
With the growth of international education in many schools and with diverse
purposes, some authors express concern. Lauder (2007) brings up the question of equity,
noting that the IB has increasingly been seen as the “gold standard” qualification and that
international schools might provide a fast track to the top universities for global and
indigenous elites and thus they might constitute one element in the construction of a
transnational ruling class (p. 441). This perceived standard might create an equity issue
for those who do not have access to IB schools. The Brazilian literature includes an
extreme example of this view. In an examination of school choice among families of
means in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Nogueira, and Aguiar (2007) reach the conclusion that
28
strategies of internationalization employed by a small fraction of the upper class such as
the selection of an IB or other international school, are just a modern way of perpetuating
the inequality of educational opportunities in Brazil.
The concern that international education might further social stratification is not
uniquely Brazilian. Writing in the U.S. and reviewing systems worldwide, Igarashi and
Saito (2014) argue that international education systems legitimize cosmopolitanism as a
form of social capital. The authors define cosmopolitanism from a sociological
perspective as "a set of dispositions of openness to foreign others and cultures, as well as
competencies to enact such openness with ease" (p. 233). The educational systems
distribution of this capital is unequal across countries, schools and curricula. Families
with greater economic, cultural and social capital are likely to have more access to these
systems. Educational systems come to value cosmopolitanism as an academic
qualification by which students may be judged, further entrenching the social
stratification.
In critique of the prescribed ideas of international education by some scholars,
Rizvi (2007) argues that the popular notions of the internationalization of curriculum are
based on mistaken assumptions about culture and cultural learning and have led to
reforms that are narrow in scope and do not provide adequate preparation for a critical
engagement with the cultural politics of globalization. For example, he cites the
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development's (OECD) definition of
internationalization of the curriculum: "an attempt to introduce an 'international
orientation in content, aimed at preparing students for performing (professionally/
29
socially) in an international and multicultural context, and designed for domestic students
as well as foreign students'" (OECD, 1996 as cited in Rizvi, 2007 p. 391). Rizvi's
critiques revolve around the definition's lack of specificity, pedagogical direction, the
development of intercultural skills and competencies, and issues of values and attitudes.
Rizvi (2007) charges that the internationalization reforms brought attention to the
importance of intercultural understanding and communication, but that they are founded
on a simplistic understanding of the complexity of culture that is insufficient to
understand and succeed in a world of dynamic cultural interactions. He suggests
internationalization ought to focus on developing the attitudes and skills necessary for
understanding the global developments that lead to economic and cultural exchange that
transform identities and communities rather than simply studying other cultural
traditions.
Similar to Rizvi's critique, Leal and Moraes (2016) examine the
internationalization of curricula in the Brazilian context and identify weaknesses in the
process of internationalization in accounting for a broad range of cultural differences, but
at the same time contributing to the formation of citizens who are sensitive to important
subjects within society, capable of challenging engrained patterns of thought and ready to
intervene critically in a complex world. Although Rizvi and Leal and Moraes write for
the university level, the critiques can be applied to secondary schools and provide
momentum for the examination of the curriculum for international mindedness and to
what extent this concept allows for a broader understanding of global developments and
cultural change.
30
Despite the lack of clarity on the definition of international education and the
existence of some important critiques, international schools are a growing segment of
secondary education. Significant potential exists for exploring methods of
internationalization of education in international schools, and the application of
international education in national schools.
The International Baccalaureate
Walker (2012) claims that “for many working in the field, international education
is not merely exemplified by the IB but is synonymous with it…” (p. 276). While
Walker may have overstated his case, the IBO and the CIS have a strong influence on
what international education looks like in many schools. For that reason, I chose to the
use of the IB as an essential element in the selection of a school for this study. In this
section, I will the describe the IB program with an emphasis on the Diploma Program and
highlight the growth of the program worldwide and in the U.S.
The IB is comprised of four curricula, the Primary Years Programme, the Middle
Years Programme the Diploma Programme and the Career-related Programme. This
study and this discussion are limited to the Diploma Program. The IB Diploma Program
is a 2-year curriculum designed for students ages 16–19. Students must take six subjects,
choosing one subject from each of the main areas and a sixth subject either from the arts
or from a permitted substitute from one of the other five groups. The six subject groups
are: studies in language and literature (the student’s primary language); language
acquisition (an additional language); individuals and societies; science; mathematics; and
the arts. Students study at least three of the subjects at the higher level, while the other
31
subjects are taken at the standard level. External IB examiners assess written
examinations. The IB’s working languages are English, French and Spanish
(International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013e).
The core of the Diploma Program consists of three elements. The extended essay
requires students to research a question related to one of the Diploma Program subjects
that they are studying. Candidates must write a research essay of up to 4,000 words on a
topic from an approved list (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2012). The
Theory of Knowledge (TOK) class, required for all Diploma Program candidates, focuses
on the question “How do we know that?” Students develop critical thinking through an
examination of the nature of knowing and knowledge as a human construction
(International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013d). The Creativity, Action, Service
(CAS) element provides students with a counterbalance to their academic pressures
through opportunities for personal growth, self-reflection, and intellectual, physical, and
creative challenges via involvements in the arts (creativity), athletics, or other personal
activity (action) and social or community work (service) (International Baccalaureate
Organization, 2013e). Each of these three elements is a requirement for the award of the
IB Diploma.
The IB has seen remarkable growth worldwide. The number of programs being
offered rose 66% between 2008 and 2013 (International Baccalaureate Organization,
2013c). In the United States, the IB Diploma Program’s growth has been a result of its
reputation for rigor (Burris & Welner, 2005; Conner, 2008; Matthews & Sidhu, 2005). It
is also seen as a challenging program that enables students to master content standards
32
(Conner, 2008; Daniel & Cox, 1992), even in addressing federal incentives and standards
such as NCLB requirements (Mayer, 2008). This growth is not without danger. Doherty
examined the growth of the IB program in Australia and concludes that while the IB
program may distinguish a school from others in the market, that benefit requires
scarcity. As the program becomes a more common solution to falling standards or lack
of curricular choice, it will no longer distinguish the institution nor the graduate
(Doherty, 2013).
Researchers have also described the accessibility of the IB Diploma Program.
The IB does not create formal barriers for enrollment, in most cases access is virtually
unlimited (Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Mayer, 2008). Burris and Welner (2005) examined
a diverse suburban district in New York that opened its high track IB curriculum to all
students. The results show that the achievement gap was reduced significantly when all
students were taught the high track curriculum. Mathews and Hill (2005) provide
anecdotal evidence of educators at schools in Virginia who were passionate about getting
low-income and minority students enrolled in IB courses. Not only did their students see
success, the prestige of the IB program also curbed some of the white-flight occurring in
the schools. Though the IB does not create barriers for student enrollment, the cost of the
program, teacher training and student examinations represent a barrier for the adoption of
the program.
One of the reasons for the growth of the IB in the U.S. may be that districts
struggling with low student achievement are turning to rigorous curriculum like the IB to
improve student performance (Mayer, 2008). The Nation at Risk report of the National
33
Commission on Excellence in Education and the A Nation Prepared report written by the
Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy both express dissatisfaction with
American schooling. However, Daniel and Cox (1992) examined the IB program and
conclude that the IB offers an excellent education that would address international
understanding and appreciation for the cultural diversity that characterizes our nation and
its school population.
Despite the potential benefits of the IB program, it is a program that has grown
from a western humanist tradition that may challenge some communities (International
Baccalaureate Organization, 2008). Drake (2004) contends that even with careful
adjustments the adoption of IB programs in non-western regions will inevitably produce
"dissonance and cultural tension" (p. 203) as the system challenges local culture. In the
hands of a proactive teacher, however, that cultural dissonance, might itself become a
tool used in promoting intercultural learning as students are guided in recognizing a
plurality of learning styles, allowing them to reach their academic potential and
developing self-esteem (Allan, 2003).
In summary, the IB provides a rigorous product that is gaining an increasing
foothold in schools in the United States and around the world. At the heart of an IB
education is the IB learner profile (see Appendix B), a description of the student
attributes valued by IB schools. This document makes explicit, the aim of developing
internationally minded students (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013b).
34
International Mindedness
Like international education, there seems to be no consensus on the definition of
international mindedness. Haywood (2007) observes, “Regarding international-
mindedness, there seems to be a prevailing perception that ‘we know what we mean even
if the definition is still under construction’” (p. 80). Because of this openness and
ambiguity, educators have been able to define the term in whatever way suits their needs.
Skelton (2013) states, “It (International-mindedness) often seems to be a huge depository
for everyone’s pet themes such as peace studies, the environment, globalization, the
economy and more” (p. 13). The history of the phrase goes back at least as far as 1929
(Mead, 1929); however, rather than taking a historical approach, I will focus on the
current definitions that have most influenced my thinking.
Because international mindedness is a term not used widely outside of the IB and
its related publications (Castro, Lundgren, & Woodin, 2013), it may be helpful to
differentiate between it and other forms of intercultural competence before delving into
the various interpretations of the construct. International mindedness is an overarching
concept in the IB program, both an approach to education and an expected outcome for
students (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2008). A related construct,
intercultural competence and similar concepts deal with an individual’s proficiency in
navigating interactions with individuals of other cultures. J. M. Bennett (2008) defines
intercultural competence as “a set of cognitive, affective, and behavioral skills and
characteristics that support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of cultural
contexts” (p.97).
35
Categorizations of models of international mindedness. Spitzberg and
Changnon's (2009) review of various models of intercultural competence was very
helpful in my understanding of the topic. They offer five categories of models of
intercultural competence. Causal models propose specific relationship among
components and are easily translated into testable predictions. Adaptational models
suggest multiple interdependent components, adaptation of the individual and may have
multiple outcomes. Developmental models recognize that competence evolves over time
in recognizable stages. Compositional models identify the components of competence
without specifying the relationship among them. Co-orientational models are primarily
devoted to conceptualizing the interactional achievement of intercultural understanding
(Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009). I have adapted this framework of five categories and
applied it to the categorization of international mindedness. These categories are helpful
in differentiating the definitions of international mindedness and will be instrumental in
analyzing the connection between the school's conceptualizations of the idea and its
curriculum and pedagogy.
Causal models. Hill (2012), director general of the IB from 2000 to 2012 and
probably the most prolific author on the subject of international education and
international mindedness in particular, developed a definition through discussions and
feedback at conference sessions:
Education for international mindedness is the study of issues which have
application beyond national borders and to which competencies such as critical
thinking and collaboration are applied in order to shape attitudes leading to action
36
which will be conducive to intercultural understanding, peaceful co-existence and
global sustainable development for the future of the human race. (p. 246)
Hill’s (2012) causal model focuses on the process; it does not actually define the
elusive international mindedness. An attractive aspect of this definition is the idea that
the study of certain issues ought to shape attitudes that lead to action. It should be
feasible and informative to investigate whether the study of certain topics using critical
thinking and collaboration actually lead to the outcomes Hill predicted. With a causal
model, one can examine the components of the issues studied, how they were
approached, and make predictions about the outcomes of intercultural understanding,
peaceful co-existence and global sustainable development, or at least students’ attitudes
towards these things.
Educators seem to find difficulty in conceptualizing international mindedness in a
way that demonstrates that it applies across national and or cultural boarders. For
example, a matter that would fit within the intent of Hill's definition would be the rights
of indigenous peoples in the Amazon region. Although the issue can be considered
completely within the borders of one nation, it certainly requires critical thinking. If
approached well, the issue could challenge students’ intercultural understanding and help
them see that better solutions are needed to produce peaceful coexistence and sustainable
solutions for the groups involved.
Heyward (2002) offers another critique that could be leveled at Hill's definition.
In Heyward’s practice and research, he saw that “the international experience and with it
the international schooling experience often produce the subtractive, negative responses
37
of cultural chauvinism and distancing from the host culture, marginalization or ‘passing’”
(p. 19). Heyward (2002) argues that the social context within which the formal
curriculum was presented was what was most likely to make a positive difference. Hill’s
(2012) definition of the process of education for international mindedness lacks this key
ingredient.
Adaptational models. Haywood (2007) suggests an adaptational model in which
international mindedness is like intelligence in that it might exist in multiple forms, or as
a multifaceted entity with a wide variety of practical categories. He offered a tentative
typology, including diplomatic, political, economic, commercial, spiritual, multicultural,
human rights, pacifist, humanitarian, environmentalist, and globalization intercultural
mindedness. This list is not exhaustive, but shows the multiple outcomes of international
mindedness that make this an adaptational model, not just a list of components. He also
notes that these forms should not be viewed as educational outcomes, but rather as adult
expressions of international mindedness that reveal directions in which an educator might
encourage a student to develop. Haywood envisions that this typology will encourage
schools to provide a variety of experiences whereby students might develop international
mindedness in the form that is most natural to them. He suggests that essential elements
and supporting attributes exist in education for international mindedness. Haywood
(2007) identifies five essential components: (1) Curiosity and interest in the world around
us, using knowledge of the earth and its human and physical geography. (2) Open
attitudes towards other ways of life and a predisposition to tolerance regarding other
cultures and belief systems. (3) Knowledge and understanding of the scientific basis that
38
would identify the earth’s environment as a common entity of value to everyone. (4)
Recognition of the interconnectedness of human affairs (in place and time) as part of the
holistic experience of life. (5) Human values that combine respect for other ways of life
with care and concern for the welfare and well-being of people in general.
The list comprises what Haywood (2007) sees as the essential core of the
international learning experience. The school will design the rest of the learning program
in consideration of the local cultural forces. This definition is particularly relevant to this
study in that Haywood acknowledged that every school might do this in a unique way.
With this adaptational model, Haywood recognized the interdependence of the essential
and supporting attributes in leading to multiple outcomes.
In a recent study, Beek (2016) examines contextual interpretations of international
mindedness by IB students at two schools and found it to be comprised of three
components: the development of an intercultural identity, the ability to take alternate
perspectives and the capacity to resolve disconnection from important others. She also
finds that privilege, parent influence and exposure to diversity were contextual factors
that characterized the student experience of international mindedness. Beek concludes
that the concept of international mindedness warrants reconceptualization in local
situations and suggested that the IBO ought to require school-based policies to ensure the
development of international mindedness.
Developmental models. Skelton (2007, 2013) offers a developmental model for
international mindedness with recognizable stages that develop over time. He referenced
Gardner (1981) who said that the whole course of human development is a decline in
39
egocentrism. Skelton’s (2007, 2013) view of international mindedness is that it is a part
of the continuum that represents the development of self. An infant exists in a pre-self-
stage and grows to recognize herself as an entity separate from her world through
progressive stages of involvement with others until this “self” can accommodate the idea
of being a member of a nation and the independence and interdependence that exists on a
global scale. Skelton calls for the recognition of the effect of brain development on
international mindedness and recommends the development of goals that are attainable
for the average student at a particular age. A unique aspect of his view is his recognition
of the messiness and difficulty of intercultural development. Bad experiences might
cause an individual to take a step or two back in their development. Skelton’s view of
international mindedness may not be the central tenet of a school’s construction of the
idea but the developmental model might have an influence on pedagogical choices and
curriculum design.
Like other authors, Gunesch (2007) found that no coherent picture exists of the
internationalism or international mindedness that students are supposed to develop. He
offers cosmopolitanism as a form of personal cultural identity and a potentially desirable
outcome for individuals in international education. The impetus behind the work was to
find a model that would transcend the idea of internationalism and even nation states, and
that might serve as an alternative or complementary element to internationalism. His
developmental model introduces three types labelled 'Advanced Tourist', 'Transitional
Cosmopolitan', and 'Interactive Cosmopolitan'. Gunesch (2007) contended that
cosmopolitanism could provide “a cultural depth of engagement with other cultures, loci
40
and locals which internationalism, for reasons of its inherent traditional geographical,
geopolitical and political definition and scope, even within the educational context of
international education, cannot provide” (p. 97). Gunesch (2007) further argued that
while certain characteristics of cosmopolitanism suggest a model for individual
outcomes, it can also serve to enrich international education by encouraging a greater
depth of cultural engagement that a view limited by traditional views of geographical,
geopolitical and political definitions cannot provide. If so, cosmopolitanism might be a
useful tool in addressing the local to global continua, especially among students with less
attachment to any one nation. However, this also raises the common critique that
cosmopolitanism detracts from individual's commitment to their nation.
Compositional model. The IBO offers a compositional model of international
mindedness that has evolved over time. Despite the controversy over the meaning of
international mindedness, it is an essential element of the IB Diploma Program. In 1968,
the IBO established the Diploma Program to provide a challenging and comprehensive
education that would enable students to understand and manage the complexities of our
world and provide them with skills and attitudes for taking responsible action for the
future. Such an education was rooted in the belief that to equip people to make a more
just and peaceful world requires providing an education that crosses disciplinary, cultural,
national and geographical boundaries (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013e).
In 2009, the IBO highlighted the stance it hoped to encourage in offering the
following definition for international mindedness: “an attitude of openness to, and
curiosity about, the world and different cultures. It is concerned with developing a deep
41
understanding of the complexity, diversity, and motives that underpin human actions and
interactions” (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2009, p. 4).
The IBO further elaborated its definition of international mindedness in the IB
learner profile (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013b) that indicated that IB
learners strive to be inquirers, knowledgeable, thinkers, communicators, principled, open-
minded, caring, risk-takers, balanced and reflective. The list of transdisciplinary learner
outcomes, known as the IB learner profile (see Appendix B), is at the heart of the
program philosophy. This compositional model offers 10 outcomes for students, but the
connection between them is not specified, nor is it clear how culture or international
mindedness are a part of the model.
In one of the few empirical studies of international mindedness in IB schools,
Cause (2009b) followed the implementation of the IB Primary Years Program in a school
in Australia. One of Cause’s findings was that it was possible for learners to demonstrate
all the attributes of the learner profile without doing so in a global sense. In the school
she studied, Cause (2009b) did not see the internationalization of learning topics in the
classroom, instead ideas of culture were addressed in culture day activities each semester.
It seems that further clarification is needed.
The IBO has recently broadened its vision of international mindedness by
identifying three components: global engagement, multilingualism and intercultural
understanding (International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013a). Singh and Qi (2013)
extracted the definitions of the three concepts of international mindedness and associated
them with the attributes of the IB learner.
42
Table 2: IB learner Attributes and International Mindedness
Core elements of IM
Attributes of IB
learner
Supportive
attributes
Multilingualism
Learning to communicate in a variety of
ways in more than one language . . . supports
complex, dynamic learning through wide-
ranging forms of expression.
Communicators
Multilingual &
multimodal
communication
Effective collaboration
Cognitive
competence:
Inquirers
Thinkers
Reflective
Disposition:
Principled
Caring
Risk-takers
Balanced
Intercultural understanding
Recognizing and reflecting on one’s own
perspective, as well as the perspectives of
others.
Increasing intercultural understanding by
learning how to appreciate critically many
beliefs, values, experiences, and ways of
knowing.
Understanding the world’s rich cultural
heritage by inviting the community to
explore human commonality, diversity, and
interconnection.
Open-minded
Appreciation of own
cultures and personal
histories
Open to other values,
traditions, and views
Seeking and evaluating
different points of view
Willingness to grow
from experiences
Global engagement
A commitment to address humanity’s
greatest challenges by critically considering
power and privilege, recognizing that they
hold the earth and its resources in trust for
future generations.
Exploring global and local issues, including
developmentally appropriate aspects of the
environment, development, conflicts, rights,
and cooperation and governance.
Developing the awareness, perspectives, and
commitments necessary for local and global
engagement.
Knowledgeable
Exploration of local
and global concepts,
ideas, and issues
Knowledge and
understanding across
disciplines
43
Core elements of IM
Attributes of IB
learner
Supportive
attributes
Aspiring to empower people to be active
learners who are committed to service with
the community.
Source: (Singh & Qi, 2013)
In their exhaustive analysis of IB documentation, Singh and Qi (2013) note the
expansion in the conception of international mindedness within the IB and clarified the
intended relationship between the components. International mindedness focuses on
intercultural understanding, promoted by teaching themes of global significance and
enhanced through multilingualism and student engagement in global and local issues.
This approach to international mindedness is a compositional model. It defined the basic
scope and contents included in international mindedness, but the aspect of defining
intercultural understanding was left undefined.
The literature provides a variety of definitions for international mindedness,
though many of these definitions lack empirical substantiation. According to many
educators, international mindedness has the potential to be a transformative learning
experience. The definitions of international mindedness that have informed this study
fall into four of Spitzberg and Changnon’s (2009) five categories for models of
intercultural competence. My research did not reveal a co-orientational model. At this
point, no pattern emerges from this categorization, but it has proven to be a useful tool in
the analysis of participants' conceptualizations of international mindedness. Further work
is needed to investigate how school administrators and teachers conceptualize
international mindedness, and enact it in their curriculum and pedagogy. Encouraging
44
educators to consider different conceptualizations of international mindedness may lead
to new approaches as to how it is taught and learned (Drake, 2004).
Evaluation of international mindedness. Despite the lack of consensus in the
research to support a particular definition of international mindedness, one group is
developing an evaluation tool. The Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring at Durham
University is in the process of developing an instrument to evaluate the development of
international mindedness in terms of curriculum provision and school ethos, and within
the mindset of students as they grow up through the school (Bailey & Harwood, 2013).
Bailey and Harwood’s (2012) assessment uses yet another definition:
International-mindedness (global consciousness) is a person’s capacity to
transcend the limits of a worldview informed by a single experience of
nationality, creed, culture or philosophy and recognise in the richness of diversity
a multiplicity of ways of engaging with the world. (p. 79)
Bailey and Harwood (2013) built a framework of five areas, or strands: worldviews,
language, culture, human society, and global issues within which the student experience
is monitored at four different levels: me, my school, my country, my world. The idea is
that the students’ perspectives would grow out of their individual experiences to cover
the appreciation of global experiences that affect everyone. Schools will assess their
students through surveys and submitted materials. Results can be used at a school level
for school improvement and accreditation or at the personal level for tutorial and personal
social development. As of the spring of 2013, the researchers were assembling surveys
and were looking for schools to pilot the materials, I did not find evidence that they have
45
published any further results. The usefulness of the tool may depend on how the tool
fares in schools with highly mobile third culture kids who may have little allegiance to
the particular school or even to the given country.
With the rise of globally mobile professionals, an increasing number of children
are experiencing international education and are often characterized as 'international' in
some way. Hayden, Rancic, and Thompson (2000) interviewed over 200 teachers and
more than 1,200 18-year-old students in schools worldwide regarding what they thought
it meant to be “international.” Hayden et al.’s findings show that students and teachers
considered important attitude factors such as being interested in and informed about other
people and parts of the world and factors relating to open-mindedness and flexibility.
Such attitudes place the cultures and views of others on par with one’s own, showing
respect to others who hold views contrary to one’s own. A pragmatic factor both groups
considered important was the ability to speak more than one language.
Informal interactions may as important as the formal curriculum in the
development of international mindedness. Wilkinson and Hayden (2010) examined the
claim that the IB Diploma Program encourages the development of the attitudes
described in the IB mission statement and explored what aspects of the school program
led to the changes. The authors used two surveys and a case study to investigate the IB
student profile claim that students will become inquiring caring and thoughtful,
knowledgeable young people who will possess intercultural understanding, understand
that other people, with their differences, can also be right, and become lifelong learners.
They found that there was a measurable change in these attitudes and they were able to
46
tie it to a number of academic programs, particularly a global affairs class and the theory
of knowledge course. Both formal and informal discussions were shown to be major
factors. Wilkinson and Hayden (2010) highlight the importance of “interstitial learning”
(p. 94) or the context of international education to the attitude changes, an important
consideration in developing pedagogy.
One line of critique of the IB program addresses its educational culture. Drake
(2004), head of a secondary school in Hong Kong, points to the potential problems that
arise in importing a western curriculum along with its culturally specific pedagogical
expectations into other regions of the world. For example, Drake suggests that cultures
with high power–distance relationships, collectivism as opposed to individualism, and
high uncertainty avoidance may face tension in embodying the IB Learner profile. Gan
(2009) explored this issue more specifically in studying the experience of 11 Chinese
students undertaking the IBDP in an Australian high school. Gan found that the students
had trouble with aspects of the program; including active class participation, independent
research, and referencing for which their home learning culture had not prepared them. If
schools intend to develop international mindedness in all their students, they will need to
attend to the needs of all students in their curriculum and pedagogy.
The IBO recognizes that its programs have arisen from a western humanist
tradition promoting individual talents, responsible citizenship, critical thinking, and
informed participation (Walker, 2010). Although the content has become increasingly
international, the epistemology remains western (van Oord, 2007). The IBO
acknowledges that its educational culture must be affected by the transformations
47
occurring in non-Western countries where it operates (International Baccalaureate
Organization, 2008; Walker, 2010). Of course, that creates a tension as universities in the
west may disqualify students whose preparation lacks the emphasis on understanding and
conceptual learning (van Oord, 2007).
The literature provides few studies assessing international-mindedness in IB
schools. The IBO recognizes that "Rich opportunities exist for adapting current
intercultural assessment models to the IB's needs" (Castro, Lundgren & Woodin, 2013, p.
4). The development of assessment tools will lead to the clarification of concepts,
teaching and learning outcomes, helping schools better develop internationally minded
students.
Concepts Related to International Mindedness. Several alternative concepts
exist for international mindedness that can be applied in international education in
international secondary schools. They can be viewed as alternatives to or elements of the
intercultural understanding and the global engagement pieces of the IB program. There
are far too many models and constructs to include all of them in this review. I will focus
on those that have had the greatest influence on my thinking, and that have been or have
the potential to be applied in secondary education. I will specifically exclude models that
focus on the adjustment processes of those entering new cultures such as in the process of
moving to a new country or studying abroad. Although that material has a place in
international schools it is not the focus in the development of international mindedness.
Bennett’s (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) is one
of the core ideas in my thinking regarding intercultural competence. Bennett (1993)
48
developed the model to “allow trainers to diagnose stages of development for individuals
or groups, to develop curriculum relevant to particular stages, and to sequence activities
in ways that facilitate development toward more sensitive states” (p. 24). The DMIS is a
scale showing the developmental phases an individual may progress through from the
ethnocentric stages of denial, defense, and minimization to the ethnorelative stages of
acceptance, adaptation and integration (Bennett, 1998). The model emphasizes the ways
in which people construe cultural knowledge allowing for the development of
increasingly sensitive ways of understanding. The model focuses on complexity of the
cognitive experience rather than the behavioral and provides for consideration of how
different levels of sensitivity might influence individuals’ understanding of and practices
with cultural differences. Bennett (1993) presents the model with a level of specificity
that allows for diagnosis of the developmental stages of individuals or groups so that
relevant curriculum can be developed and sequenced to facilitate growth toward more
sensitive stages, clearly aligning this model with the developmental models discussed
A benefit of the DMIS is the existence of an instrument to assess an individual’s
intercultural development level. The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) reveals
an individual’s perceived orientation, developmental orientation and the gap between the
two (Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003). Extensive work verified the reliability,
validity and social desirability of the items (Paige, Jacobs-Cassuto, Yershova, &
DeJaeghere, 2003). It has been used as a research tool in K-12 schools in the United
States and abroad (Bayles, 2009; Hornbuckle, 2013; Straffon, 2003), and it could also be
used as part of refining and sequencing the curriculum in an international school.
49
Intercultural competence has also been examined as an outcome of
internationalization. Deardorff (2006) brought together 23 intercultural experts as part of
a Delphi study aimed at bringing about consensus on a definition, components, and
assessment tools of intercultural competence. A pyramid compositional model and a
circular process model display a synthesis of her results. The foundation of the pyramid
is made up of requisite attitudes such as respect, openness, curiosity, and discovery. The
second layer is skills, and knowledge and comprehension. Above that is desired internal
outcome or informed frame of reference shift. At the peak is desired external outcome
(Deardorff, 2006). The pyramid model is unique in that it includes internal as well as
external outcomes of intercultural competence. A shift in frame of reference might
enhance external outcomes or behaviors. A benefit the author claims of the model is that
it allows for the development of both context specific and general assessment of
intercultural competence. Deardorff’s model is comprehensive, but unwieldy. There
seem to be too many ideas included for it to be compelling.
Deardorff’s (2006) process model of intercultural competence includes the same
ideas and placed in a causal path model, a circle with arrows connecting each aspect of
intercultural competence. The idea that development in one area can lead to development
in the next is compelling and the model is much more visually engaging. As many of the
mission and vision statements of international schools include the idea of intercultural
competence, these models provide a basis for comparison to determine the type of model
the schools envision. Even if the model of intercultural competence a school has adopted
50
is not clearly stated in the school documentation, it should be possible to determine it
through the language in the curriculum and the expected student outcomes.
Another perspective related to international mindedness is identifying the effect of
a society's culture on the values of its members. Hofstede's (1984) cultural dimensions is
a model that is influential in the business and cross-cultural training arenas for
understanding of the variations that can exist among cultures. Dimmock and Walker
(1999) have restructured Hofstede's model into one more appropriate for use in a
comparative perspective on educational leadership. They suggest a model including six
dimensions of societal culture. Hofstede's power-distance construct is relabeled power-
distributed/power-concentrated to more accurately capture the power relationships in
various cultures. The group-oriented/self-oriented dimension replaces the
individualism/communitarianism category. The dimension describes the extent to which
individuals are integrated into groups and the closeness of relationships. To avoid
confusion and impressions of sexism that may result from Hofstede's
masculinity/femininity dimension, Dimmock and Walker have reconfigured it as
consideration/aggression. Uncertainty avoidance is replaced by the fourth dimension of
proactivism/fatalism, reflecting a culture’s belief in the ability to change or control
circumstances versus a discomfort with uncertainty and a belief that what will be, will be.
The fifth dimension, generative/replicative is unique to this model. Some cultures value
the generation of new knowledge and ideas while other groups are more likely to adopt
ideas and innovations developed elsewhere. The sixth dimension is limited
relationship/holistic relationship. In cultures with limited relationships, firm rules dictate
51
interactions and relationships across circumstances. Holistic relationships are founded on
personal considerations and association.
Dimmock and Walker's model is still awaiting empirical testing, but a refined and
validated model would be of use in school-based discourse on culture issues among the
leadership, teachers and even in the classroom. Though the model only addresses one
element of international mindedness, intercultural understanding, it could be used to
expand understanding of the influence of national or societal culture on international
education. While this model seems to be more applicable to an educational setting than
Hofstede's model, it has not received the same level of attention, development or
verification.
Rizvi offers another alternative to the intercultural understanding piece. After
critiquing the internationalization of education practices in higher education as largely
celebratory and inadequate in their engagement with complex dynamics and uneven and
unequal consequences of global processes, Rizvi (2007) suggested a focus on a more
critical form of internationalization. He argued for cosmopolitan learning that creates a
new way of learning about other cultures, requiring the development of intellectual skills
to examine the ways in which we come to understand other cultures and how we engage
with them. Rizvi's conceptualization of cosmopolitanism includes an even more nuanced
view of culture than Gunesch's construct described earlier. Rizvi emphasized the need
for a historical understanding of culture that shows that no cultural tradition can be
understood without reference to the historical interactions that produced it.
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Thus, instead of learning about cultures in an abstract manner, cosmopolitan
learning involves pedagogic tasks that help students explore the crisscrossing of
transnational circuits of communication, the flows of global capital and the
crosscutting of local, trans local and transnational social practices. (2009, p. 265)
While this is a much more nuanced view of culture and the internationalization of
education, it may be too complex for application at the secondary level.
The models describe above are constructs that address the intercultural
understanding aspect of international mindedness. They can be useful to school leaders
in teaching and guiding relationships in culturally diverse schools. However, they do not
address the global engagement and multilingualism that the IB suggests comprise
international mindedness.
There are other constructs related to the global engagement component. I have
chosen to examine models that have been applied at the secondary level and have a focus
that extends beyond national borders. Global citizenship education is a concept that is
like the global engagement piece of international mindedness. Like international
mindedness, global citizenship has no widely agreed upon definition (Bringham, 2011;
UNESCO, n.d.-b). After a systematic review of studies on global citizenship education,
Goren and Yemini (2017) concluded that the body of research in the field is convoluted
and complex with terms such as global education, cosmopolitanism, cosmopolitan and
world citizenship, transnational citizenship, global mindedness, and others intertwined
and often used synonymously.
53
Meyers suggests global citizenship education "gets at the issue of what citizens
look like- and what they can and should do- within a rapidly globalizing world in which
the role of citizenship is changing" (2006, p. 10). He goes on to develop three
foundational principles for global citizenship education: (a) international human rights as
the foundation of global citizenship, (b) the reconciliation of the universal and the local,
and (c) political action beyond the national state. These principals are similar to the
attributes of the IBO's concept of global engagement (see Table 2). Both argue for
exploring global and local issues, and encouraging action. Myers suggests a focus on
international human rights as the foundation for global citizenship, while the IBO urges a
commitment to addressing critical issues that emerges from a critical consideration of
power and privilege.
In another perspective on global citizenship, Bringham identifies Canadian
postsecondary schools' use of the concept of the concept as an approach to understand,
see and act.
A way of understanding- how the world works, links between our own lives and
those of people throughout the world.
A way of seeing- social justice and equity, other people's reality, diversity,
interconnectedness, and the way that people can make a difference.
A way of acting- exercising political rights, critical thinking, and challenging
injustice (Bringham, 2011, p. 16)
Though not developed in secondary schools, Bringham's model is very accessible and
could easily be adopted at that level.
54
There are many conceptualizations of global citizenship education, but most seem
to emanate from tertiary education. Global citizenship, a term popularized by Oxfam
(2006), is one of the strategic areas of UNESCO's education programs at the primary and
secondary levels. UNESCO's webpage on the topic uses the tagline "Nurturing respect
for all, building a sense of belonging to a common humanity and helping learners become
more responsible and active global citizens" (UNESCO, 2015). UNESCO clarifies that
global citizenship is not a question of legal status, rather, it is about membership in the
global community and a sense of common humanity. They go on to suggest that global
citizenship education principles should be integrated worldwide in teacher training, and
educational programs at all levels.
Morais and Ogden (2011) have developed a theoretically grounded and
empirically validated scale to measure global citizenship. The authors found three
dimensions that appeared consistently in the literature on global citizenship: (1) social
responsibility consisting of global justice and disparities, altruism and empathy, and
global interconnectedness and personal responsibility, (2) global competence consisting
of self-awareness, intercultural communication and global knowledge, and (3) global
civic engagement consisting of involvement in civic organizations, political voice, and
global civic activism. While this tool was developed for use in study abroad programs at
the university level, I first came across the scale in a study of leadership requirements for
K-12 school leaders at an international school in China (A. H. Lewis, 2015). By
including global competence, Morais and Ogden's scale includes both the intercultural
55
understanding and the global engagement elements of the IB's construction of
international mindedness.
Andreotti (2006), who spent eight years as a K-12 teacher in Brazil, introduces an
important classification of soft and critical global citizenship education. Working from
the perspective of critical pedagogy and postcolonial theory, she proposes soft
approaches provide learners with clear messages and solutions and appeal to empathy and
humanity. Critical approaches offer open spaces "without telling learners what to think"
and lead them to examine the causes of injustice. Goren and Yemini (2017) suggest soft
global citizenship education is equivalent to teaching 'about global citizenship', where
critical global citizenship education "provides students with the skills to reflect upon and
engage with global issues involving conflict, power, and opposing views; to understand
the nature of colonial, liberal and western assumptions; and to strive for change" (p. 171).
Andreotti (2006) is also critical of global citizenship education, accusing that it is
founded on latent and explicit western assumptions.
Global citizenship education overlaps with the global engagement piece of
international mindedness in the focus on global social and environmental issues and the
call for individuals to be active participants in change, but it lacks the multilingualism
and intercultural understanding emphases the IBO includes in international mindedness.
Additionally, in the U.S. at least, global citizenship education is largely focused on social
science classes (Myers, 2006), rather than being implemented throughout the curriculum
as the IBO proposes.
56
Global-mindedness is a construct similar to international mindedness, though
somewhat broader in its scope. The term was popularized by E. Jane Hett in her doctoral
dissertation where she suggests globally minded people are those who "possess an
ecological world view, believe in the unity of humankind and the interdependence of
humanity, support universal human rights, have loyalties that extend beyond national
borders, and are futurists" (Hett, 1993). Though some authors have used global-
mindedness and international mindedness interchangeably (Duckworth, Levy, & Levy,
2005), Hersey (2012) argues that global-mindedness more accurately parallels a
cosmopolitan perspective. She also points out that the international mindedness defined
within the IB learner profile lacks any overt reference to environmental concerns, cultural
pluralism, interconnectedness and a futurist perspective, all characteristics of global-
mindedness. Characteristics of global-mindedness also include: oppose prejudice,
responsibility and care, activists, additional language ability, seek to learn, unity of
humanity which are similar though phrased differently from attributes of the IB learner
profile (Hersey, 2012). Cause (2009a) contends that international mindedness
emphasizes relationships between and across nations, rather than the increasing
interconnectedness of a global world stressed in a school focused on developing global-
mindedness.
Hett (1993) also developed a 30-item global-mindedness scale for use in assessing
attitudes before and after classroom experiences or participation in study abroad
programs. The scale measures five factors: responsibility, cultural pluralism, efficacy,
global centrism and interconnectedness. Hersey (2012) used the global mindedness
57
scale to investigate the development of global-mindedness in the leaders of international
primary schools around the world. Her results substantiate the application of global-
mindedness in the study of international school.
These are but a few of the concepts related to the global-engagement piece of
international mindedness. There is significant overlap among all the models, though
differences exist in emphasis and wording. One concern the IBO has raised that is not
clearly addressed in any of the concepts I reviewed was the importance of bringing
together western and non-western intellectual cultures in engaging students in global
concerns.
International Accreditation
As schools develop and implement their approaches to international mindedness
or other related concepts, often an accreditation process helps direct and solidify that
work. The accreditation process is particularly important because it is often a key
instigator of the process to review or create school philosophical statements (Alvarez,
2014). In this section, I will introduce the four primary accreditation agencies with which
international schools in Brazil may partner, each having a unique set of expectations for
development of international mindedness.
Schools in Brazil that wish to serve national children are required to be approved
by the Brazilian Ministério de Educação e Cultura (MEC), the Ministry of Education and
Culture (Goulart, 2013). MEC does not have any guidelines for the development of
international mindedness. Most schools also seek accreditation by one or more
58
international agencies. As they are independent, schools can choose the agencies that
best match their mission and context.
The CIS is a membership community that provides educational services,
including accreditation, to schools around the world. The community includes more than
660 schools including five in Brazil. Though they use a different terminology, CIS
(Council of International Schools, 2013) has made international mindedness a prominent
part of its accreditation process. Below are a few of these standards:
▪ STANDARD A2 – The school’s guiding statement shall clearly demonstrate a
commitment to internationalism/interculturalism in education, and this shall
be reflected throughout the life of the institution.
▪ STANDARD A3 – The school’s Vision for Students (or similar) shall
demonstrate a clear commitment to fostering desirable traits related to
internationalism/interculturalism, and this shall impact upon all students.
▪ STANDARD B1 – The curriculum, in its content, design, implementation,
assessment and review, shall reflect the school’s mission, learning objectives,
and policies and shall foster global citizenship and student achievement.
▪ STANDARD B4 – Students shall benefit from a curriculum and related
activities that shall be enhanced by the cultural diversity of both the host
country and the school community, hence contributing to the development of
global citizenship in students.
▪ STANDARD F3 INDICATOR F3a – The development and delivery of the
school’s complementary programmes demonstrate sensitivity to the needs and
beliefs of different cultures, foster engagement with the local culture and
promote global citizenship.
CIS requires a commitment to internationalism/interculturalism that leads to
global citizenship. In IB schools, this is expressed as international mindedness. The
purpose of this study is to determine how one school is fulfilling these kinds of
requirements in its mission statement, curriculum and pedagogy.
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The ISA is a similar organization that acts under the umbrella of the United
Nations. It has 42 member schools, one of which is in Brazil. Its mission is to promote
international and intercultural understanding and to support "all organizations which
share its conviction about internationalism, international mindedness and international
education in all its forms and wherever it may be found” (International Schools
Association, n.d.). The ISA enacts its mission through encouraging the creation of and
cooperation among international schools. One specific service they provide is a self-
study guide for internal use that helps schools: (1) Define their understanding of the term
“international” in education. (2) Use such a definition to reflect upon several areas of
school life and work. (3) Identify those areas that they may wish to improve. (4) Review
the original definition in the light of the outcomes of the study (International Schools
Association, n.d.).
One aspect of the guide that the ISA described as fundamental was that no
external criteria exist to be met, nor any measurements of assessments of the process of
the outcome. The process allows the school to speak to and for itself. The guide was
developed in collaboration with the Research Unit of the International Baccalaureate
Organization among others.
In contrast to these tools is AdvancED's accreditation protocol. AdvancED
(2017) claims to be the largest education community in the world, serving more than
30,000 public and private schools and districts in the United States and in more than 70
countries, including 18 schools in Brazil counting the subject of this case study.
AdvancED is the product of a merger of the PreK-12 divisions of the U.S. based North
60
Central Association Commission on Accreditation and School Improvement (NCA
CASI), the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Council on Accreditation and
School Improvement (SACS CASI) and the Northwest Accreditation Commission
(NWAC) (AdvanceED, 2017). A review of the primary accreditation tool, the
AdvancED Standards for Quality (AdvancED, 2011), reveals that international and
intercultural understanding are not a primary concern. No standards or indicators require
that culture or international issues be included in mission statements, curriculum, or
teaching. The pressure to include cultural issues is not coming from AdvancED.
Curriculum Framework
For a school to achieve its mission, there needs to be a strong correlation between
its construct for international mindedness, and the way it goes about developing it in
students. The literature on the curriculum and pedagogy for international mindedness is
scant. In fact, it has even been suggested that each school might have to develop its own
educational model (Haywood, 2007). This section will review that foundation of the
framework I have selected for the analysis and comparison of the pedagogy and curricula
for the development of international mindedness.
The first continuum, weak versus strong internationalization frames the discussion
by asking what counts for knowledge? Appadurai (2000) suggests that there are weak
and strong forms of internationalization. Weak internationalization is limited in
recognizing knowledge developed through the rigid rules of academia. A strong form of
internationalization is open to scholars from other societies, their forms of knowledge and
their rules for evaluating what counts as knowledge. Rizvi's (2007) cosmopolitan
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learning described earlier would certainly be a form of strong internationalization with its
emphasis on a historical perspective on culture. The IBO recognizes a weakness in its
program in that is has grown from a western humanist tradition (International
Baccalaureate Organization, 2008). Schools in Brazil have the opportunity to include
knowledge and perspectives from the native Brazilian cultures, students’ home cultures
and other non-Western sources in considering global phenomena. The presence of
minority voices and non-Western sources ought to be clear in the curriculum.
Continuum 2 is a banking model versus critical consciousness. It is drawn from
the field of multicultural education and critical pedagogy, specifically the work of
Ladson-Billings and Freire. Though these authors wrote with the disenfranchised in mind
and the students in the school examined come from privileged homes, benefitting from
the inequalities of society, that does not mean that they should not have the opportunity to
have their minds opened to a critical view of the world and to be prepared to take part in
the transformation of their world. Ladson-Billings (1995a, 1995b) worked with
exceptional teachers in public schools in low socioeconomic, mostly African American
school districts trying to determine what made them effective in a multicultural situation.
Ladson-Billings (1995b) proposed the construct culturally relevant pedagogy, arguing
that culturally relevant teaching has three essential characteristics: an emphasis on
academic success, the ability and willingness to support and include students’ culture and
cultural knowledge in the classroom, and fostering of critical consciousness.
Student academic success means overcoming social inequities and potentially
hostile environments to develop the literacy, numeracy, technological, social, and
62
political skills needed to participate in a democracy. Culturally relevant teaching is more
than making students “feel good,” it is getting them to choose academic excellence.
Culturally relevant teachers encourage students in their development of cultural
competence and help them maintain their cultural integrity as a vehicle for their learning.
In an international school, this may mean helping third culture kids take ownership of
their unique cultural heritage in an atmosphere that may not value their background.
Finally, Ladson-Billings (1995a) contends that it is not sufficient for students to achieve
individual success; they must also be given opportunity to analyze society with a vision
of participation in the change of oppressive structures. There are parallels between
culturally relevant pedagogy and Andreotti's (2006) soft and critical global citizenship
education. Though working in different arenas, both educators argue that students must
be encouraged to think critically about society and to work for change.
Continuum 2 is also informed by the work in critical pedagogy. The roots of this
thinking lie, appropriately for this study, in the work of the Brazilian educator Freire
(2005). He argued, in his seminal work Pedagogy of the Oppressed, that the “banking”
concept of education in which students are treated as passive receptacles to be filled with
the knowledge deposited by teachers represented hegemonic oppression. Freire urged the
“conscientização” or conscientization of students so that they might critically consider
reality and become involved in the struggle for their liberation.
Bruch, Jehangir, Jacobs and Ghere describe a celebratory approach to
multiculturalism in which the positive aspects and significant accomplishments of
different groups are taught with an emphasis on respect and the celebration of diversity
63
(Bruch, Jehangir, Jacobs, & Ghere, 2004). In contrast, a critical pedagogy can expose
how valued knowledge can privilege group identities, histories, languages and the desires
of dominant groups while drawing attention to the concentration of power and privilege
(Bruch et al., 2004).
The idea of preparing students not only to think critically, but also to involve
themselves fits well with the IB’s student profile and expectations for community service.
I have blended Ladson-Billings (1995b) and Freire’s (2005) vocabulary in a continuum
from a banking model to critical consciousness.
The third continuum is the discrete versus glocal orientation in regard to the
framing of international mindedness. A discrete orientation treats local and global
concerns as separate and unrelated. A glocal perspective couples the study of global
concerns with local actions and strengthens local rootedness in the face of global
interconnectedness (Oomen, 2015). Writing in the context of global citizenship
education, Myers (2006) observes that teaching often focuses on either the local or
universal perspectives with little attempt to reconcile or explain their relationship. He
argues that a “dialectic of the global and local” (2006, p. 377) with a critical examination
of globalization would demonstrate the complex relationships between local and global
phenomena. Myers (2006) is careful to note that this approach does not undermine
national citizenship or cultural identity, but reconciles them with the “reality of global
interdependency” (p. 377). The idea of glocalization captures "the idea that the local is
always with, through, and in the global. Put another way, the global always has a local
context for it operationalization" (Mannion, 2015, p. 23). The IB diploma's demanding
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content and assessment practices may lead to a focus on meeting standardized
requirements at the cost of an emphasis on local contextualization (Tarc, 2009). An
international school may suffer from the temptation to focus on global issues at the cost
of the examination of the local. A glocal perspective couples the examination of the
international with participation at the local level. I will examine the schools’ curricula to
ascertain if issues are examined from the perspective of global institutions and ideals, a
local perspective, or a glocal position.
I derived the final two continua in my pedagogical framework from the field of
intercultural training, the preparation of people to live and work effectively in cultures
other than their own (Paige, 1993). After a review of the literature that turned up little
focusing on the general design of the training, Gudykunst and Hammer (1983) developed
a scheme for classifying intracultural training methods. They use two central issues from
intercultural training to create a four-quadrant classification system. I propose to use
their two axes as continua to analyze the school’s pedagogical approach to the
development of international mindedness. My expectation is that the pedagogical choices
the schools make will provide insight additional insight into the school’s construction of
international mindedness.
The fourth continuum is the didactic versus experiential approach to instruction.
In general, a didactic approach generally depends on lecture where an expert shares
relevant cultural information. Experiential activities put trainees in situations they might
encounter in a foreign culture. These strategies incorporate opportunities to engage in
simulated intercultural situations, analyze the activity critically, abstract useful
65
information that might be applied in the future (McCaffery, 1993). This continuum may
reveal whether a school views international mindedness as primarily content information
or more experiential.
A culture-general versus culture-specific pedagogical approach is the final
continuum. According to Brislin and Pederson (1976), culture-specific training “refers to
information about a given culture and guidelines for interaction with members of that
culture” (as cited in Gudykunst & Hammer, 1983, p. 6). Culture-general training
develops the participants’ understanding of the importance of culture in determining
human behavior (Downs, 1969) and provides the individual with a variety of experiences
that help prepare them for the range of cultural habits, norms, roles and circumstances
that exist (Triandis, 1978). A school’s balance of the two reveals their pedagogical
choice of preparing students for specific intercultural encounters versus a general
preparation for unpredictable situations. A balance of the two is important, an over-
emphasis on the study of the “other” might promote a false sense of competence and may
even fuel intergroup hostility. Building critical self-awareness can enhance an
individual's ability to build more culturally appropriate knowledge and skills (Chao,
Okazaki, & Hong, 2011).
There are a number of other questions that might be posed of the school leaders or
the curriculum. These questions may reveal or clarify differences in the
conceptualization of international mindedness or its pedagogy and will be helpful in the
analysis of data. Of interest to me is what local perspectives are considered? To what
extent are the perspectives of the rich, the poor, the middle class, the native, the various
66
immigrant groups considered? Brazil is a developing nation facing many social issues,
including environmental and cultural issues in the school's region. In addition to
providing opportunities for students to consider the diverse perspectives of the people,
examination of these issues would allow for the application of a glocal orientation and
strong internationalization through inclusion of local voices and knowledge.
Examining the depth of questions regarding culture reveals if teachers are relying
on a banking model or a critical approach to culture. In a chapter in a recently published
book on international mindedness, Lockhart (2014) offered suggestions of how schools
might work to develop international mindedness. In one instance, she suggests a teacher
might ask her students, “How do you think children in Country X would react to this
situation?” This question might help students to develop their curiosity and
understanding of other points of view. However, a broader view of internationalization
would suggest that the teacher probe for several different viewpoints that might exist in
children of Country X. Students must be exposed to the idea of cultural variability
(Liddicoat, 2008).
Another key question is, does learning draw on the cultures of the students? “An
intercultural pedagogy is one which engages actively with the interrelatedness of
language, culture and learning and with the multiple languages and cultures present in the
classroom which shape learners and learning” (Liddicoat, 2008). Are lessons designed
specifically to target all cultural groups in the school? Is international mindedness a
theme throughout the curriculum, or is this present only in the social studies or language
curricula?
67
Due to the lack of empirical studies on the curriculum and pedagogy for
international mindedness, I have had to develop my own model for examining what is
happening in this case. The five continua are helpful tools in generating questions and
framing my analysis in international mindedness at EAB.
Summary
International schools represent a growing segment of education worldwide.
Although their numbers are relatively small in respect to national schools, in a rich body
of literature many researchers explored the nature and diversity of the schools and the
meaning of international education. The IBO is one of the main agencies at work in the
field. The Diploma Program has gained prominence as a rigorous system that is well
respected by universities worldwide. The understanding being developed in this field is
worthy of consideration by national schools interested in models for developing a more
international outlook.
The IBO has chosen international mindedness as its construct for cultural
considerations. In a significant body of literature, many researchers explored the
definition of the idea, but many of the models lacked empirical study. Further work must
be done to explore the conceptualizations of the idea in schools and to develop methods
of assessment so that programs can be analyzed for their effectiveness in light of the
growing importance placed on international mindedness by accreditation agencies.
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Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods
It is clear from a review of the literature on international mindedness that there is
an ongoing discussion on the meaning of international mindedness in the international
school context. This study will contribute to filling the gap that exists in the literature
regarding how international mindedness is constructed within schools and what strategies
are used to develop it. In this chapter, I review the purpose of using a case study and the
related research questions. I establish a philosophical foundation for the study and go on
to explain the procedures for data collection and analysis.
Purpose of the Case Study
The purpose of this case study is to explore the construction of international
mindedness in an international school in Brazil. In this study, I seek to identify how the
school administrators and teachers characterize international mindedness and how that is
expressed in the written curriculum. As outlined in Chapter One, the specific research
questions in this study are:
1. How do school administrators and teachers in an IB school in Brazil
conceptualize international mindedness?
2. How do theories or models of international mindedness inform these
conceptualizations?
3. How are the constructs of international mindedness expressed in the
curriculum of the school's IB program?
The case study will use a qualitative approach enabling me to obtain data through a
variety of sources in exploring international mindedness within a bounded system
69
(Creswell, 2012). A qualitative case study is an appropriate approach for questions that
seek to explain the “how” or “why” of a social phenomenon (Yin, 2013, loc. 676) such as
international mindedness. This case study will also reveal how international mindedness
is understood within an international school in Brazil, a region which is poorly
represented in the academic literature on the topic.
Philosophical Assumptions
As discussed in Chapter One, the interpretive framework guiding this study is
social constructionism. The philosophical assumption behind this work is that
individuals are in a continuous process of constructing their understanding of reality
based on their interactions with others, their cultural contexts, and their social and
historical conditions (Bryman, 2008; Creswell, 2013; Lincoln et al., 2011).
Creswell (2013) discusses four philosophical assumptions that underlie a social
constructivist qualitative study. They are the beliefs about ontology, epistemology,
axiology and methodology that the researcher brings to the study. My understanding of
these beliefs was largely informed by the work of Lincoln, Lynham and Guba (2011).
Though both sources use the word 'constructivism', I have chosen to use the related
'social constructionism' which has a social rather than individual focus (Young and Colin,
2004). A social constructionist approach entails a relativistic approach to ontology. In
this case, the construction and application of a reality of international mindedness is
specific to the case being studied and is co-constructed by the members of the community
seeking to make meaning out of their experiences in that context. Epistemologically, I
recognize that my experiences, particularly of and about international education, have
70
shaped me and they have had an impact on the data that I generated. Even the unique
nature of this case study determined the nature of the knowledge I generated. An
axiological assumption is that I place importance on culture as part of the education
process and assume that an international school will also. My values and assumptions
shaped my interpretation of the data and the narrative of this study. Finally, the
methodological approach of constructionism was interpretive with naturalistic methods
including interviewing, observations and examination of existing documents. My
experiences in the field led to revision of my questions. An inductive approach to the
data produced a detailed description of the context and generalizations regarding the
meaning of international mindedness.
Values and Assumptions
The most basic value I brought to this work was that culture is a central issue for
international schools. I began my research using House et al.'s (2002) definition of
culture as “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations of meanings of
significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are
transmitted across age generations” (p. 5). My understanding of this topic has deepened
through this process. Culture includes all aspects of life including the relationships
within families and larger social institutions, the languages spoken, and forms of art and
music. While an assumption of homogeneity within any group has been dismissed, there
are still common elements shared within groups (Masemann, 2013). Schools play an
important role in the enculturation, socialization and acculturation of children. In these
cases, "culture" becomes a verb. Students who live between different cultures need a
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deep understand of the idea of culture to understand themselves and others. An
international school draws together families from different cultures and makes
understanding cultures a core part of its mission. International schools ought to move
beyond a celebratory approach to culture and help their community see that "cultural
traditions need to be viewed as dynamic and creative, and cultural relations as always
contingent and historically specific" (Rizvi, 2007, p. 395). I believe international schools
should be agents for preparing students to competently interact with people of other
cultures and to think about and act regarding important issues from global and local
perspectives. International schools might also be models for local schools facing similar
issues with fewer resources.
International mindedness is not a construct that I have worked with
professionally, and despite having read the IBO’s literature, the construct and how to
enact it in international schools is still not completely clear. I believe the intention of the
IBO is comparable to the construct of intercultural competence. These issues of how to
include culture have an impact on a school’s social and educational effectiveness. If
developing international mindedness includes or leads to intercultural competence in staff
and students, then a school's effort will have provided a valuable service for the social
health of its community and imparted an asset to its graduates. As part of many mission
statements, it is a goal in and of itself.
Based on my experiences as a student, teacher, administrator and accreditation
team member, it is my impression that many schools have not invested in developing a
school culture that values intercultural competence or international mindedness. In the
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school where I currently work, those which I have visited as part of an accreditation team
and others with which I am familiar, I suspect there is a recognition and even an
appreciation of cultural difference, but little engagement with cultural nuances in
relationships on campus, teaching or in the engagement with events outside the school. I
speculate that insufficient training is provided and that the inclusion of culture in mission,
vision and core values is often window dressing. Part of my motivation for engaging in
this study is to participate in developing a foundation of research to support better
practices in this area that I can apply in my own school.
Case Study Design
I have spent most of my career in education as a science teacher. Despite serving
six years as a secondary principal, I find that my scientific background continues to have
a strong influence on my thinking. When I began to plan for this dissertation, my natural
inclination was to design a quantitative study. As I discovered that there were no
quantitative tools for measuring international mindedness, I moved towards a qualitative
design that would examine a hypothesis by comparing two schools. In designing that
experiment, it became clear that given that lack of clear definitions, to truly understand
international mindedness in context would require a more in-depth investigation than I
had the resources to perform. I also came to believe that in comparing two schools, there
would be too many variables for me to be able to untangle differences between the
phenomenon and context. This led me to develop a case study, a form of empirical
inquiry that will allow me to investigate a phenomenon in depth in its real-world context
(Yin, 2013).
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Creswell (2013) defines case study research as
a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary
bounded system (a case) …, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving
multiple sources (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and
documents and reports), and reports a case description and case themes” (loc.
2083).
Creswell’s definition highlights several important aspects of a case study. First, a
case study examines a real-life current situation. These are not situations that a
researcher can reproduce in the laboratory. Second, the definition and the bounding of the
case are essential. According to Yin (2013), a case, or primary unit of analysis, may be
an individual, an event, a small group or community. A researcher may select an intrinsic
case because it has unusual interest in and of itself, or she may choose an instrumental
case because it illustrates a specific issue of interest (Creswell, 2013). The process of
bounding the case distinguishes who is included in the case from those who are excluded.
Bounding may also limit the time and geographical extent of a study (Yin, 2013). Third,
a good case study draws on multiple sources of information to lead to an in-depth
understanding of the case. Finally, the description of the case leads to the identification
of themes or issues the researcher has uncovered within the study which may then be
organized chronologically, analyzed across cases or presented as a theoretical model
(Creswell, 2013).
The selection and bounding of the case is an essential aspect of the design of a
case study. This study was conducted in an international school in Brazil. As discussed
74
in Chapter Two, there is no single definition of an international school. For the purposes
of this study, I used the following criteria to identify a suitable site: (a) the school
implements the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program and consequently promotes
international mindedness as a core value; (b) the school holds accreditation with an
organization from the United States; (c) the school’s student population included both
Brazilian and international students.
According to the IB website (International Baccalaureate Organization, n.d.-a)
there are 22 schools in Brazil that offer the IB Diploma Program. Of these, eight are
accredited by U.S. institutions and five have a significant percentage of international
students. I sent emails and placed phone calls to school leaders, starting with those in
Sao Paulo, where I live, and moving outwards. The leader at one school expressed
interest in the study, but when it came time to schedule a visit he informed me that there
were too many things going on that semester. Two schools never responded to my
inquiry. In a phone call with one school, the principal admitted that they had added
international mindedness to their mission statement, but were still figuring out what it
meant and asked me to share my results when I was done. These communications
narrowed my choice down to the American School of Brasilia (EAB). The principal and
IB coordinator with whom I spoke were enthusiastic about international mindedness and
the potential for my research.
Yin (2013) suggests there are five appropriate rationales for a choosing a case in
single-case design. The case ought to be either critical, unusual, common, revelatory or
longitudinal. The school chosen for this study is a revelatory case, the study of which
75
allows for the exploration of the meaning and implementation of international
mindedness in an international school setting. In my initial conversation with the
secondary principal and the IB coordinator, they were very excited about the idea of
exploring the meaning of international mindedness with me. Of all the school leaders I
contacted, they were the most curious about my work and had the most to share about
their experiences. EAB had been implementing the IB diploma for five years, not the
longest time of the schools I contacted, but also not the shortest. In addition, EAB was a
school with sufficient resources to dedicate to the proper training of teachers and
implementation of the program. This led me to believe that this school had the necessary
experience with international mindedness and a disposition that would permit me to
explore the topic deeply in their unique context.
One of the characteristics of a case study is the use of multiple sources of data
(Creswell, 2013). This study draws on interviews, the analysis of documents, focus
groups and direct observations. Through interviews, I explore school administrators’
understanding of international mindedness. I have drawn on Seidman's Interviewing as
Qualitative Research (2012) as a valuable resource for gaining a deeper understanding of
not only the skills and techniques of interviewing, but also the rationale for using them as
a qualitative research tool. He states, “At the root of in-depth interviewing is an interest
in understanding the lived experience of other people and the meaning they make of that
experience” (Seidman, 2012, p. 8). Interviewing is a valuable tool that gives the
researcher a measure of control over the line of questioning and can draw out historical
information (Creswell, 2013).
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A focus group allows the researcher to collect data on the opinions of a group of
people. It provides a more natural setting than an individual interview because
participants can influence one another as they do in real life (Krueger & Casey, 2009).
Focus groups are generally relatively homogenous. I chose to use focus groups
comprised of groups of teachers of similar subjects (e.g. humanity teachers) to gather
their conceptualizations of international mindedness. Coming from a social
constructionist approach, I was also curious to hear them talk to each other about the
topic.
Document analysis is an unobtrusive means of obtaining the language and words
of the participants and has the advantage of saving the researcher the time of
transcription. Data can be analyzed at the researcher’s convenience and demonstrates the
ideas to which participants have given attention (Creswell, 2013). The school mission
and vision statement, other core documents such as the student handbook, and the
curriculum of the IB Diploma Program classes will be the focus of the document
analysis. Yin (2013) lists retrievability, biased selectivity and reporting bias as
weaknesses in using documentation as a source of evidence. As the documents in
question are public, retrievability and selectivity are not an issue. Any questions
regarding the documents were addressed with school administrators, reducing the impact
of reporting bias.
A case study takes place in a real-world setting. This allows for the collection of
evidence by direct observation, providing context and immediacy to the study (Yin,
2013). The architecture, physical environment, symbols, signs, traditions and ceremonies
77
convey the culture of the organization (Deal & Peterson, 1999). In this case, informal
observations were recorded in a field journal and pictures were taken when appropriate.
The role of the qualitative researcher in a case study is to collect data themselves
through participant interviews, the examination of documents and the observation of
behaviors (Creswell, 2013). The case study approach places great demands on the
researcher. Yin (2013) suggests the researcher ought to practice the following behaviors:
ask good questions, be a good listener, stay adaptive, have a firm grip of the issues being
studied, and avoid biases. The constructionist approach being taken in this study
encourages the researcher to take the posture of a passionate participant in facilitating the
reconstruction of the voices of the participants (Lincoln et al., 2011).
Data Collection
Bounding the case is important in distinguishing which people and documents are
included in the study and which are not. In this study, I did not attempt to examine the
entire EAB program. The study was limited to the IB Diploma Program teachers and
curriculum. This limited the work and data to a manageable level in a manner that
maintains coherence in the data.
Initial contact was made via an email and a call to the head of school. He
accepted the invitation to participate in the case study and referred me to the upper school
principal who was the key contact in scheduling visits, interviews and focus groups. The
principal provided written consent to participation in the study (Appendix C).
The study involved three two-day visits to the school in March, May and
September of 2016. My familiarity with schools in Brazil, personal and professional
78
relationships with several staff members and my experience with accreditation allowed
me to quickly engage with and understand the setting. Interviews were held on campus,
either in a small conference room or in the teachers' classrooms. The first visit gave me
an opportunity to get to know the school and perform semi-structured interviews with
school administrators. Events during data collection interfered with the scheduling of
focus groups with teachers and observations of classes. In one instance, a prospective
head of school scheduled a last-minute visit during the same time frame as my visit. This
limited the time and assistance the principal could provide in scheduling focus groups,
along with limiting time available for teachers. In a second instance, the IB students
were taking their examinations, so I was unable to observe classes.
In planning my research, I had delimited the study to the IB diploma program
within EAB's upper school. However, during my data collection I discovered that that
boundary is not as firm as I had imagined. Of the 16 teachers that taught an IB class in
the second semester of 2016, only four did not teach additional non-IB classes. In
addition, interviewees often brought up classes or activities outside the bounds I had tried
to establish. In the end, I considered all information that interviewees presented,
recognizing that their inclusion of material outside the bounds I had set reveal something
of their thinking about international mindedness. I spoke to as many people as I could,
giving preference to those who were part of the IB program. Many of the documents I
considered, like the school mission and vision, and the student handbook were written for
the entire school. However, I did limit my examination of the curriculum to the IB
courses.
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Semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured interview format allows the
use of pre-formulated questions while retaining the flexibility to probe for more detail as
needed (Creswell, 2003). Through the interviews, I pursued in-depth descriptions of how
school administrators view the culture and diversity of the school, how they construct
international mindedness, and how it is embodied in their institutions.
A list of possible questions (see Appendix D) was developed based on the work of
Gigliotti-Labay (2010). The questions address three topic domains: (1) the individual's
understanding of international mindedness and commitment to infusing it within the
program; (2) the importance of culture within the classroom and curriculum; (3)
institutionalization of international mindedness within the IB school culture. Each
domain addressed several covert categories, included a leadoff question and several
follow up questions.
I scheduled interviews with the school administrators for my first visit during
which I also had one interview with a teacher who came to me and started a conversation.
My intention was to concentrate on focus groups with teachers during subsequent visits.
Focus groups. In line with the social constructionist stance of study, I chose to
use focus groups with the teachers so that I could observe teachers interacting with one
another regarding international mindedness. The goal of focus groups is not to arrive at
consensus, but to reveal how teachers construct international mindedness within the IB
program and draw out specific examples of how they develop it within their classes.
Krueger and Casey (2009) recommend groups of 5 to 10 people, however they allow for
groups as small as four. Given the number of teachers involved in the IB program, I
80
hoped to work with groups of 4 to 6 participants. While this allows for more
participation, it may limit the pool of ideas. The list of questions developed for the
interviews with school administrators was modified for use with teacher focus groups
(Appendix E).
IB teachers were invited to participate based on the evidence of international
mindedness I found in their curriculum maps and the recommendations of the secondary
principal and the IB coordinator. After finding little relevant material in the mathematics
and science curriculum maps I focused my efforts on meeting with the humanities
teachers. I attempted to schedule focus groups at times that were convenient for the
participants. Unfortunately, the teachers' schedules and the issues described earlier made
it impossible to bring together groups of four or five teachers for focus groups. Instead, I
interviewed teachers individually or in groups of two. Two interviews were performed
with two teachers and the positive dynamics of the conversations supported my stance on
social constructionism.
Eleven people were interviewed for this case study. Each interview lasted from
30 minutes to an hour. Interviews were performed in either English or Portuguese per the
interviewee's preference. Recordings of the interviews were sent to a service for
verbatim transcription. Follow-up emails were used to clarify findings as needed.
Table 3: Interview participants and characteristics
Nationality Gender Number of
years at EAB
Experience at previous
international school? Date
Canadian Male 6 Yes March 7
American Male 3 Yes March 7
Brazilian Male 9 No March 7
81
Trinidadian Female 1 Yes March 8
Brazilian Female 5 No March 8
Canadian Male <1 Yes May 10
Brazilian Female 3.5 No September
22
British
American
Male
Male
3
<1
Yes
Yes
September
23
Brazilian
Brazilian
Female
Female
3
21
Yes
Yes
September
23
Note: I have not included the titles by which I refer to the participants so as not
to reveal their identities.
Direct observation. During my visits, I observed 12 classrooms. The upper
school principal provided me with a class schedule and told me I was free to go into any
classroom. Teachers were uniformly gracious and welcoming, even when my visit was
unannounced. In selecting classes to observe, priority was given to IB classes,
particularly those with evidence of international mindedness or a consideration of cultural
topics in their curriculum maps. Due to scheduling issues, I did observe some non-IB
classes, such as a sophomore level history class and a philosophy class of teachers I had
scheduled to interview.
Each observation lasted from 20 to 40 minutes. Though I did not use a formal
protocol, during that time I took notes on the style of instruction, content, social
interaction and the class atmosphere. I looked for posters, signs or activities that may
reveal the school’s embodiment of international mindedness.
School documents. A variety of documents were collected for analysis including
the school’s mission statement, the school profile, the secondary student handbook and
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the curriculum for the IB Diploma Program classes in the document analysis. All were
available electronically and easily accessible.
A mission statement should be a living document that informs the day-to-day
practices of the administrations, teachers, and students (Slate, Jones, Wiesman, & Saenz,
2008). The use of the mission statement widely in EAB’s literature suggests that it is
more than just a sentence posted on the wall and forgotten. In analyzing documents, it
was important not to assume each one contains unmitigated truth (Yin, 2013).
Documents were analyzed considering the specific purpose for which they were written.
The largest group of documents collected for this case study was the curriculum
documents for the IB classes. EAB uses the service "Atlas Curriculum Mapping" as an
online management system for curriculum documents. I was given access to the school’s
online repository for curriculum and downloaded 37 curriculum files for the IB classes in
March 2016. These documents were organized by units and include ten columns titled:
intended learning, TOK integration, enduring understandings, essential questions,
students will know…, students will be able to…, assessments, learning activities,
resources, and reflections. A blank curriculum map table is included in Appendix F. The
intended learning column included the guidelines for the course from the IBO. The data
were available on a secure website which allowed the data to be downloaded as a
Microsoft Word file. The Portuguese curriculum documents are written in Portuguese.
Being fluent in Portuguese, I worked with the documents in Portuguese, only translating
quotes for inclusion in this dissertation.
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The principal and IB coordinator warned me that they have not required teachers
to include international mindedness in their curriculum. In nine of the documents, mostly
mathematics and science classes, I found nothing salient to my research, but in the
remaining documents I found relevant information. I also noticed that in most of the
maps, the TOK integration column was blank, indicating that this is not something the
teachers have been required to complete.
The authors of the EAB curriculum documents use course syllabi from the IBO
which outline core topics, applications and skills. This content is found in the Intended
Learning column of the EAB documents. For example, the IBO provides guidelines for
the IB for higher level, first year Biology. The guidelines include specific topics to be
studied, including "Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them"
(IB Biology HL Y1). The guidelines also include applications and skills, and general
guidance on the depth of study suggested. The guideline for this course also include
suggested topics for international mindedness such as:
2.2 Water - International-mindedness:
There are challenges for the increasing human population in sharing water
resources equitably for drinking and irrigation, electricity generation and a range
of industrial and domestic processes. (IB Biology HL Y1)
The IB guidelines for IB Portuguese were less prescriptive. For example, in the first unit
on language and mass communication, the IB provided eight aims including "develop in
students the ability to engage in close, detailed analysis of individual texts and make
relevant connections" (IB Portuguese LL Y1). Though there were no specific
suggestions for international mindedness, the guidelines included the following aim:
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In addition, the aims of the language A: language and literature course at SL
and at HL are to:
8. develop in students an understanding of how language, culture and context
determine the ways in which meaning is constructed in text (IB Portuguese LL
Y1)
All but one curriculum map included content guidelines from the IBO with
copyrights from 2009 to 2016, however, only the guidelines dated 2016 contained
specific suggestions for the inclusion of international mindedness topics in the units. The
classes with the 2016 guidelines were all mathematics and science. I saw no evidence of
these topics being applied in other columns of the document.
Data Analysis Procedures
Creswell (2013) contends that within a qualitative study data analysis occurs
simultaneously with data collection. Data acquisition and analysis are not separate and
sequential activities. The analysis of one interview may inform questions for the next.
An examination of the curriculum may inspire questions for the focus group that may
lead to a reexamination of the curriculum.
As the interviews with the school administrators were transcribed and documents
collected, I read all the data both to verify the accuracy of the transcriptions and to gain
familiarity with them. This process informed my selection of teachers to interview and
the questions used in interviews.
After the transcripts of the interviews from each visit were reviewed, they were
uploaded into a coding program called Quirkos for analysis. Quirkos is a relatively new
program that provides a visual interface enabling researchers to sort, manage and analyze
text data. Yin (2013) describes the process of coding as aggregating the text across data
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sources into small categories of information, seeking evidence for the codes from the
various sources being used in the study, then assigning a label. Some of the codes were
developed a priori, such as international mindedness, international education, and culture.
Other codes emerged from examining the data, such as core documents, leadership by
example and student experiences. I kept a codebook throughout this process (see
Appendix G).
The interviews were coded within two weeks of receiving them from the
transcription service, and observation notes were coded in October after all three visits
were complete. The codebook was updated after each round of analysis. I repeated the
coding process in preparation for final analysis, both as a means of ensuring that the early
data was coded considering all the emergent codes, and to refamiliarize myself with the
data.
The curriculum documents were not analyzed using the coding program. The size
and format of the documents was not conducive to this form of analysis. Each
curriculum map was read and any material relating to international mindedness or culture
was copied to a master document for examination. I tried to cast a wide net, highlighting
anything that might be related to any of the interpretations of international mindedness I
have heard at EAB or read in the literature.
To be clear, the documents I examined were not lesson plans, but rather maps of
the content and main ideas that are taught. They are designed to help teachers and
administrators track what content is being taught; they do not make clear how the content
will be taught. I was not able to follow the embedded links to see the actual assignments,
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resources or assessments that were included in some classes. These documents have been
written and modified by teachers over the years and are meant to be kept up to date as
changes are made. The documents I examined are a snapshot of the curriculum at that
point in time.
Through the analysis process, I looked for themes that appeared in multiple places
in the data and were relevant to my study. Yin (2013) recommends identifying five to
seven general themes. In reviewing the data, I identified six themes that explain the
constructions of constructions of international mindedness at this school and eventually
distilled them down to four: school identity, different perspectives, rich experiences, and
embodiment. In the next chapter I will provide a rich, deep description of the school,
placing these themes in context supported with evidence from interviews, school
documents and observations.
In Chapter 5, I will address my research questions more directly. First I will
examine the conceptualizations of international mindedness expressed by the
interviewees in light of the academic literature reviewed earlier. This discussion will
draw on quotations from the interview and classroom observations. Second, I will
examine the pedagogical approach to international mindedness using the five continua I
have developed. Evidence for this analysis is drawn from the curriculum maps and
classroom observations.
Validity and Reliability
Creswell (2013) offers a list of eight strategies for validating the findings of a
qualitative study. I implemented several of them in this study. First, I triangulated the
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data, using evidence from different sources to build coherent support for themes.
Multiple sources of data were required to corroborate themes. Second, major findings
and themes were reviewed with key participants for confirmation. This occurred through
emails and sharing a summary of my conclusions. Third, in Chapter 4, I provide a rich,
thick description of the school to provide readers with a clear understanding of the setting
and provide an element of shared experience to the discussion. Finally, I made a
conscious effort to include discrepant information. An account including contradictory
evidence becomes more realistic and more valid (Creswell, 2013). Special attention was
paid to teachers who demonstrated unique conceptualizations of international mindedness
and how it appeared in their curriculum.
Creswell (2013) also suggests several strategies for ensuring reliability, three of
which were relevant and were applied in this study. First, I documented the steps used in
this study and updated the plan as changes arose. This will allow others to analyze my
procedures and repeat them if the need arises. Second, I checked the transcripts to ensure
that they reliably recorded the interviews and focus groups. Finally, as I coded my data, I
noted my initial definition of each code and periodically crosschecked the meaning of the
codes to either ensure that there was no unconscious drift in the definition of the codes.
Deliberate changes in codes were updated in the codebook.
Anticipated Ethical Issues
The need to protect human subjects is a core issue in any educational research. It
is my responsibility as the researcher to conduct my work with care and sensitivity. The
nature of the study was reviewed with the head of school, and we agreed that due to the
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impersonal nature of the study, individual signed consent forms were not necessary.
Interviewees were invited to participate via email and gave of their time voluntarily. The
superintendent agreed to allow the use of the school name in this study (Appendix H),
though individuals are referred to by their roles rather than their names. Once my
preliminary findings were ready, I reviewed them with the head of school. After giving
him an overview of my conclusions via a Skype interview, he affirmed that my findings
are accurate assessment of the school. He asked for permission to review the draft of my
results my results and to share them with his leadership team. I was happy to comply and
pleased to receive additional feedback that supported my findings. Every effort was
made to select participants equitably so that no group of people is unfairly included or
excluded from the project both in fairness to the participants and in the effort to produce a
credible and valid analysis of the case.
A case study is not performed in the laboratory; it is work done in the real world.
I stepped into a functioning school. Sensitivity to the norms and schedules of the school
was necessary. I worked with the secondary principal and the IB coordinator in
scheduling interviews and focus groups at times that would minimize disruption to the
participants. I worked to establish a collaborative environment in the meetings so that all
the participants could benefit from the experience with a deep understanding of the topic.
As a fellow educator at an international school and a longtime resident in Brazil, I did not
experience unusual cultural differences.
The following procedures were employed to protect the rights of the participants:
(a) the objectives of the study were clearly presented to each participant; (b) participants
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were informed of all recording devices; (c) the rights and interests of the participants
were considered first in decision making regarding reporting the data; (d) the interviews
were conducted in the language of preference of the participant (Yin, 2013). A research
exemption was obtained from the University of Minnesota Institutional Review Board to
ensure that the study participants will not be placed at undue risk (Study Number:
1601E83321).
It is the role of the researcher to collect, sort, analyze and report on the data. This
requires an open mind. To avoid bias I reserved preconceived notions, allowing
conclusions flowing from the participants to determine the narrative. I also listened for
contrary thoughts and opinions as including them adds depth to the depiction of the
school.
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Chapter 4: Description of the Site
In this chapter, I will paint a picture of the American School of Brasilia (Escola
Americana de Brasília- EAB), developing the themes related to what international
mindedness means in this context. I use relevant information gleaned from interviews,
document analysis and personal observations.
Through this description, I will begin to examine how school administrators and
teachers construct international mindedness, my first research question. Each of the
research questions will be revisited in Chapter 5 considering the literature discussed in
chapter two, along with an analysis of how theories or models inform the constructions of
international mindedness found at EAB.
Through the analysis of the data I looked for ideas that appeared in multiple
places in the data and informed my study. From those ideas, the four themes which
emerged from the documents, observation and conversations regarding the school’s
understanding and development of international mindedness are listed and described in
the following table.
Table 4: Descriptions of major themes
Theme Description
School identity The EAB community has developed a strong identity; despite
calling themselves an IB World School, they have defined
themselves internally in their core documents. This suggests they
have their own definition of international mindedness rather than
relying on one from the IBO.
Different perspectives In discussions of international mindedness and culture in the
classroom, every teacher and leader brought up the importance of
helping students consider multiple points of view in developing
international mindedness.
Rich experiences EAB is a community of individuals with rich international
experiences. Teachers leverage these experiences in developing
international mindedness.
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Embodiment The EAB community has many individuals with high levels of
intercultural competence, students have the opportunity to learn by
observing their administrators, teachers and peers.
In the next sections, I will provide a rich, deep description of the school, placing these
themes in context supported with evidence from interviews, school documents and
observations.
History and Setting of the School
Figure 1: Brasilia's pilot plan.
Source: public domain, based on image from www.dominiopublico.gov.br U.S. Dept. of
State and edited by Felipe Micaroni Lalli.
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The city of Brasilia was built in 1960 in the highlands of the center-western
region of Brazil to be the new national capital. The city was laid out in a pattern shaped
like a plane with areas divided for specific uses such as the Hotel Sector and the Banking
Sector. (Governo de Brasilia, 2016). EAB is located on the south wing in the Embassy
Sector, near the box labelled EMBASSY on the map above. Because of the city’s recent
origin and its political nature, the residents are from all parts of the country.
Figure 2: Aerial view of EAB.
Google. (n.d.). [Google Earth image of south Brasilia].
The five-acre campus overlooks Lake Paranoá and consists of several
interconnected areas containing 50 classrooms, 4 science labs, a lower school computer
lab, three iCommons learning centers, a gymnasium, and a center for the arts. The school
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also boasts a regulation soccer field, basketball courts and elementary playgrounds
(American School of Brasilia, 2016c).
Walls and gates secure the campus. When I visited, I had to show my documents
to the guards and they called the principal to confirm my visit. Inside the gates, the
school has open walkways and many gathering areas for students. The campus is clean
and well maintained.
The school has recently remodeled several areas around campus. The
administration offices were redesigned, removing desks and filing cabinets and replacing
them with tables and comfortable chairs creating areas for conversation, rather than
focusing on organizing paper. Next door to the upper school office, a classroom was
turned into a maker space, stocked with 3D printers, tools and materials to inspire
students' creativity. Next to a computer lab, a room was converted into a film studio with
lighting, a green screen and other state of the art resources for creating video media.
In general, the school is well-resourced and comparable to other international
schools in Brazil. The buildings are beginning to show their age and a capital campaign
is underway for a major construction project. In many of the classrooms, traditional
individual student desks were replaced with tables, fostering greater interaction in the
classroom. The tables are covered with white laminate which students and teachers used
as a communal dry-erase marker writing surfaces. After watching clips from Dr.
Strangelove, a history teacher labelled four tables with themes from the movies and the
students moved around the room adding their observations to the appropriate table. The
notes on the tables served as focus points for class discussion. At the end of class, the
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students took pictures of the tables with their cellphones, added the images to their notes
on the unit and erased the tables.
What’s in a Name?
Figure 3: Sign located near the school's front entrance. Author.
Approaching the front gate of the school, one sees a sign bearing the name of the
school, American School of Brasília. I am struck that it is not in Portuguese. The
simplicity of this sign belies the complexity of the implications of that name.
One year after the inauguration of Brasilia, as embassies, missionaries and
businesses began to transfer offices to the new capital, the need for an English-language
school emerged. In March 1961, the U. S. embassy presented the local community's
request to the Franciscan Sisters of St. Anthony’s Parochial School. A provisional school
was opened and grew quickly. The American School of Brasilia was officially founded
in 1964 by a small American community, with financial assistance from the embassy and
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a parcel of land ceded by the city. The first building was ready in 1967 (American
School of Brasilia, 2016c).
The image to the left on the sign is known as Os Candangos [The Warriors], a
phrase used to designate the workers that participated in building Brasilia, and
consequently, the city's first inhabitants. The image is a representation of a bronze
modernist monument depicting two men standing with their arms around each other's
shoulders. The monument stands at the heart of the city, in the "Praça dos Três Poderes"
or the Three Powers Plaza, named for the presence of the three branches of government
located around the plaza. Though originally a pejorative term referring to the men who
came primarily from northeastern Brazil to build the city, the phrase, Os Candangos, and
the image have come to represent the idea of a great family and social equality (Secretary
of Education, 2017). The image is often used to represent the city of Brasilia. It is part
of the school's logo on the website, documents and sports uniforms.
EAB is accredited by two organizations. It holds an American accreditation
through the U.S. institution AdvancEd. The school is also accredited by the Secretary of
Education of the Federal District, the local agency of the federal Ministry of Education.
EAB has been offering the IB diploma for six years, their first cohort graduated in
2011. The impetus to offer the program came from the board. The head of school
reported that the board's decision was based on three factors: a service to cater to the
European community, the value of the program's reputation as a marketing tool, and the
educational approach. At the time, EAB was the only school to offer the IB program in
Brasilia. EAB is an authorized IB World School, meaning it has completed a two-year
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approval process with the IBO and is authorized to offer the diploma program (American
School of Brasilia, 2016b). Every five years the administration and teachers perform a
self-study to ensure they are meeting standards. The criteria for this assessment
implicitly support the need for international mindedness.
EAB is a member of three international school associations. As a member of the
Association of American Schools of South America (AASSA), EAB interacts with other
English language international schools throughout the continent at professional
development conferences and sharing purchasing, recruiting and other services
(Association of American Schools of South America, 2017). The association also
coordinates the South American chapter of the Global Issues Network (GIN) meetings
which brings together students to encourage sustainable, effective projects that lead to
better care of the world. This year's conference was held at Academia Cotopaxi in Quito,
Ecuador. Through the Association of American Schools of Brazil (AASB), EAB
interacts with other international schools in student activities such as athletic
tournaments, Model United Nations (MUN), MathCounts, and other activities.
Membership in the Association for the Advancement of International Education (AAIE)
implies a commitment to developing international education and leadership capacity, a
commitment to diversity within three areas: the student body, educational practice and
organizational leadership. The organization provides access to training, mentoring,
professional learning communities, curated materials and more for leaders of member
schools around the world (Association for the Advancement of International Education,
2017).
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The school’s original mission was to provide students with a U.S. educational
program based on the principles of American democracy, though the student body
included Americans, Brazilians and British. (American School of Brasilia, 2016c). The
upper school principal refers to the school as American in saying “It’s interesting, being
an American school, but our core academic program is not from the United States.” He
goes on to say “But, I don’t think it’s about the curriculum… it’s about the clientele,
where they come from and what you take from that and how different groups engage with
the curriculum.” He also notes that some EAB students do receive a straight American
education, implying that they only complete the requirements for the American diploma,
not the Brazilian or IB requirements.
All other interviewees referred to EAB as an international school rather than an
American school, revealing a disconnect between the name and the current identity of the
school. The IB coordinator noted that “although we don’t call ourselves international, we
are very international.” In her experience, a name like “The American School of …”
implies that the school upholds American ideals and is based on an American style
curriculum. The head of school disclosed that there has been consideration of changing
the name. After some informal research of other international schools, he concluded that
there was no correlation between schools' use of “American School” or “International
School” and their mission statements. He has come to use the terms interchangeably.
Ultimately, the name was preserved because of its value in marketing the school to
Brazilians. It is interesting that the sign is written in English, though the school is widely
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known as "EAB", the acronym of Escola Americana de Brasília, the school's name in
Portuguese.
Despite being called an American school, EAB offers three diplomas: the United
States diploma, the Brazilian diploma, and the IB diploma. The U.S. diploma embodies
an American style, standards-based curriculum comparable to one found in an American
school system. This program is based on the AERO (American Education Reaches Out)
standards, a framework for curriculum consistency in overseas schools aligned with the
Common Core initiative in the U.S. and supported by the U.S. State Department's Office
of Overseas Schools. All students in grades 9-12 are required to complete the associated
coursework including four credits of English and Foreign Languages, three credits of
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and so on (American School of Brasilia, 2016d).
The Brazilian diploma follows the guidelines set forth by the Brazilian Ministry
of Education and includes an additional credit in mathematics, science, social studies, and
physical education along with requirements in Portuguese, philosophy, and sociology.
As EAB is primarily an English language school, only the core components of the
program are taught in Portuguese including Portuguese Language, History and
Geography of Brazil, and Philosophy and Sociology. By federal law, all Brazilian
students are required to complete this diploma in addition to the required U.S. diploma,
while international students may choose to earn this additional degree (American School
of Brasilia, 2016d). The Brazilian program prepares students for the entrance exams of
Brazilian universities, though at EAB it is not as narrowly focused on this goal as most
local schools (American School of Brasilia, 2017a).
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The director of the Brazilian program organizes courses, coordinates teachers and
is responsible to the Secretary of Education of the Federal District for the school's
adherence to Brazilian law. After 18 years working in local national schools, this is her
fifth year at EAB. One of her greatest challenges is reconciling the demands of the three
diplomas with the legal requirements placed on the school. For example, the requirement
that a Brazilian student take science and mathematics in every year of high school may
conflict with a student's desire to pursue an IB diploma with an emphasis in the arts. The
director believes that the aggregate of the three programs is a fantastic opportunity for
students and she emphasizes that despite offering three diplomas, there is no
segmentation within the school. School guidelines and procedures apply to the entire
school. "A student may be in physical education, he can be in Portuguese class…;
independent of where he is, the expectations for the student, and the procedures adopted
for students and parents are the same".
In addition to the American diploma required of all students, the Brazilian
diploma required of national students and optional for others, students may choose to
pursue the full IB diploma or choose specific IB courses of interest. IB Courses are
divided into Year 1 and Year 2 and are usually offered at Standard Level and High Level.
EAB offers 24 IB courses across 13 subject areas. In addition to the foundational courses
in mathematics, sciences, English, Portuguese, histories and Theory of Knowledge, EAB
offers IB Spanish, Economics, and Film.
In 2015, in a graduating class of 42 students, 26 of the students, or 62% of the
class, completed the Brazilian program. This number is just about the school's average
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for the last five years. Of the 17 students who sat for the IB Diploma exams, 15 passed
with an average score of 33, two points above the world average diploma score
(American School of Brasilia, 2015).
EAB follows a northern hemisphere calendar with classes running from early
August to mid-June unlike local schools which begin in January and run through
December. EAB uses an A/B block schedule with four 80 minute periods per day, 60
minutes for lunch and a 30-minute flex-block. Block scheduling allows for ample time to
develop complex ideas and engage in a wide variety of learning activities. The long lunch
break is mandated by a law designed for Brazilian schools where students only attend in
the morning or the afternoon. The law guarantees teachers in those schools a break
between cohorts. Though the law is inconvenience in a school where students attend
from 8:00 to 3:10, the time is used for club meetings, homework and other activities. The
flex block is designed to allow students "to gather in various forums to individualize and
expand the EAB education, work with teachers to improve performance, build school
community and celebrate individual and common achievements" (American School of
Brasilia, 2016d, p. 25). High school assemblies are held periodically during this period.
After school, over 20 additional activities are offered to students from kindergarten to
twelfth grade including yoga, French, chess, cooking, martial arts, and a variety of sports.
Revisiting Hayden and Thompson’s (2013) classification of international schools,
EAB started as a Type A traditional school, established to cater to globally mobile
expatriate families, but has grown to include elements of the other subgroups. By
adopting the IB curriculum, EAB has assumed goals including promoting global peace
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and understanding. EAB also provides a Brazilian diploma allowing it to cater to host
country nationals seeking a different form of education than that available in the national
education system. The history of EAB supports Bunnell’s (2008) critique of the
dichotomizing of international schools. EAB has changed its mission over time in such a
way that it fits all three categories.
Hall of Flags
Figure 4: Flags displayed in the foyer of the EAB auditorium. (Dewey, 2016)
The Hall of Flags is in the foyer of the school’s beautiful, modern auditorium.
Two years ago, the school decided to display one flag for each nationality represented in
the school. It serves as an area for small gatherings, art shows or a relaxing place for
students to study.2 It is also a clear demonstration of the diversity of the student body.
2 They also perform a fascinating activity for mathematics class in the Hall of Flags.
Middle school students experiment in the classroom with the slow-motion filming
capabilities of their cell phones to determine the stretch of rubber bands when Barbies
and action figures are dropped bungee style. They must use their mathematics and
graphing skills to extrapolate the correct number of bands to use to drop their figurine
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The 656 students enrolled in EAB in K3-12 come from 40 different countries. The high
school has 184 students representing 27 different countries, and 28 teachers, most of
whom are American (50%) or Brazilian (38%) (American School of Brasilia, 2015). The
school draws many students from embassy families.
One aspect of diversity that is not immediately apparent and does not appear in
published statistics is the diversity within the Brazilian students. A sensitive ear might
pick up the differences in the students’ accents, but their school uniforms and general
appearance give little away. Because Brasilia was built from scratch in the recent past, it
is populated with migrants from all over the country. In addition, as the seat of the
federal government, the city draws representatives from every state in the country, some
of whom send their children to EAB. Thus, even within the Brazilian students in the
school, there is little homogeneity. Two Brazilian teachers noted that as they study
geography or examine literature, poetry and music from around the country, there are
often students in their class who come from those regions.
As an elite, selective, private international school, the tuition and entrance fees
limit the economic diversity of the student body to the very wealthy. The school has
taken steps to address this issue. Both administrators and teachers were proud of the
school’s efforts to provide scholarships to the children of some of the auxiliary staff.
These students come from families of limited means who would normally not be able to
afford private schooling. By Brazilian law, all employees have the right to free tuition at
the school if they can meet the other entrance requirements. For many families, the
from the second story of the hall and have it come as close to the floor as possible
without hitting.
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English requirement and non-tuition fees prevent access to the school. EAB has been
working to overcome these barriers and currently offers full scholarships to 10% of the
student body. The school development team has launched a campaign to establish an
endowment that will provide funds to help cover other expenses for these students
including providing laptops, help with fees for sports tournaments and leadership
activities.
The theme of "rich experiences" arose initially through interviews with teachers.
The teachers were uniformly positive about the diversity of students in their classes. The
philosophy teacher stated, “diversity in international school is something really, not only
challenging, but beautiful.” A literature teacher compared his experience at the highly
diverse EAB to his previous experiences in less diverse schools and concluded, “I prefer
diversity and the internationalism, very much so.” The Brazilian learning specialist
described her pleasure in seeing foreign students who had been in Brazil long enough to
learn the language that they could be invited to the advanced Portuguese class. In
referring to the diversity of the students, the Brazilian teacher of geography said, “I
particularly think this is an extremely rich thing we have… especially in my classes.”
In addition to a diversity of national backgrounds, EAB students’ high
socioeconomic status and family ties with international politics and multinational
corporations provide them with extremely wide and unique experiences that teachers
draw into the classroom. The learning specialist described an instance in which a student
shared about his family’s emotional visit to the area where slaves were held in the
municipal market in Salvador, a colonial-era slave port in northeastern Brazil and how
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this added richness and depth to the class discussion. A Portuguese language teacher was
describing the historical influence of the church and how masses were held in Latin. One
of her students shared how she had studied in a school that was administered in Latin.
The teacher went on to joke that she often feels humbled when she shares pictures of
byzantine, medieval, romantic or gothic art from various countries and her students chime
in with their stories of how they have been to those places and seen those things. EAB
teachers make a habit of drawing out their students’ experiences to enrich classroom
teaching.
Teachers repeatedly brought up the students’ diversity in background and
experiences as essential in meeting the school mission of “learners inspiring learners.” It
was evident in the way in which many teachers described leveraging their students’ broad
experiences in teaching. The Brazilian teacher of geography described a class on
seismology where a Japanese student shared her grandparents’ experience after the
tsunami of 2011. They were trapped for many days, unable to communicate with family
abroad. Yet even after that experience, the student had suggested that due to their
culture, her grandparents were unwilling to relocate to Brazil. A Brazilian teacher
mentioned that she has students from almost every region of Brazil and how that brings a
richness to her class discussions on literature and music. I observed this in a Brazilian
history class. Several students shared their family’s story of coming to Brazil or
migrating within the country. Almost every teacher brought up the importance of the
students inspiring each other in their learning, though I saw no evidence of planning for
this in the curriculum documents.
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Core Documents
Figure 5: EAB learner profile posted on a classroom wall. (Dewey, 2016)
In this examination of the school’s mission and vision I will include the beliefs
and school description as that is how they are presented both on the school’s website and
in the student handbook.
Our Mission: Learners inspiring learners to be inquisitive in life, principled in
character, and bold in vision.
Our Vision: To positively impact the world through excellence in academics,
activities, arts, leadership, and service.
Our Beliefs: All EAB Learners are:
• Engaged in their own learning,
• Principled in their learning and actions,
• Collaborative to enhance learning for all,
• Contributing positively to their learning community.
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Our School: We are a diverse community that provides an English-language
based pre-K through Grade 12 education. We are an International Baccalaureate
World School with U.S. and Brazilian accreditation. (American School of
Brasilia, 2016c)
The school demonstrates that the character of its community members is its
primary concern. ‘Learners inspiring learners’ not only states the school’s mission but it
describes all members of the community as learners. Any learner on campus should be
inspiring other learners. As I noted earlier, the phrase “learners inspiring learners” was
one that was brought up repeatedly in interviews with teachers as an essential element of
their instruction, even though it did not appear in the curriculum maps. After school
activities also provide opportunities for students to learn from other students in chess
lessons, cooking classes, guitar lessons, art projects and talent show preparations
(Dequanne, 2016). In my interactions with the school administrators and teachers, I
found the people I interviewed to be learners. Not only were they happy to accommodate
my requests for interviews, they invariably had questions for me about how I
conceptualize international mindedness and how it might be developed in students.
In the "Vision Statement", the school recognizes that it has an impact beyond the
campus walls. Given a student body of such diversity and mobility, it is appropriate that
the vision be to impact the world. The upper school principal notes that the mission
statement includes the phrase “to positively impact the world…” that implicitly requires
students to learn how to set aside differences and work together. He did not specify
whether he was referring to differences in identities, or disagreements on means or
objectives. He believes the school fosters the skills required to change the world both in
and out of the classroom. Students participate in IB required service learning and CAS
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activities that bear this out. The upper school principal described a strand of service
learning structured around the Paralympics. Students learned to "empathize and to
understand the challenges that other people face and to have respect for the difficulties
they have to overcome." Several teachers described student volunteer activities in
orphanages and teaching English to poorer children. Through participation in the GIN
conference, students led the effort to rid the campus of disposable plastic cups. Next to
the coffee pot in the conference room and next to the water fountains around campus, I
found reusable cups. EAB students are working together to make a difference in their
community.
The "Our Beliefs" section is the foundation for the EAB learner profile, the
school’s statement of according to the upper school principal “how we want our students
to be, no matter where they come from, how we want them to work as individuals, how
we want them to work as groups, how we want them to interact with each other and with
themselves.” I found the EAB learner profile posted in classrooms throughout the school
and included a photograph of one above. The profile consists of statements written in the
first person that further elaborate these characteristics, including statements that relate to
the conceptualizations of international mindedness: I think critically about what I hear,
see and read by asking questions to confirm my thinking; I contribute when working in a
group and ensure that everyone has an equal voice; I demonstrate care for others and
show respect for the needs and feelings of each person in my group; I communicate
through verbal language and body language that are respectful to others; I am respectful
to others through my words and actions; I make decisions considering the impact on
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others; I listen and consider the opinion of others; I demonstrate environmental
stewardship at school; I consider the impact of my actions on others at school and in the
world and make good choices based on this. While the statements do not include an
explicit international dimension, they are referring to students who are interacting with
classmates from around the world. The EAB learner profile is very similar to and was
clearly inspired by the IB learner profile.
This profile was introduced in the 2014-15 school year and the stated purpose is
as a tool to measure what the EAB Assessment Council calls non-cognitive skills central
to the student's success as a learner. Report cards inform parents of students’ progress in
the four domains.
The "Our School" statement does not delimit the community the school serves,
rather it describes it as diverse. While the school is known as an American school, this
statement says it provides an English-language based education, not an American style
education. The school also defines itself as an "International Baccalaureate World
School," which is interesting considering that the school only offers the program in the
last two years of education, and not all students participate. This statement does not
clarify if the international focus is limited to the IB program or if the IB is just one tool in
their international efforts. The U.S. and Brazilian accreditation seem subsidiary in this
statement.
The school’s mission statement is subject to continuous revision. This iteration
was finalized a year and a half ago, but the IB coordinator discussed how both the school
and the mission are constantly evolving: “Every year we review it and it changes to adapt
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to the current situation, the current thinking at the time.” During our discussion of
international mindedness at EAB, the head of school expressed dissatisfaction with the
lack of an explicit inclusion of international mindedness or something of that nature and
suggested that that may need to be improved in the next revision. Other than the last
sentence regarding the International Baccalaureate and the Brazilian accreditation, this
document could belong to any local school in the United States.
School identity. A theme that emerged from this analysis was "school identity."
The EAB community has clearly defined their identity and priorities in their core
documents. The upper school principal framed this idea; “We focus a lot here on our
core documents and living those core documents. Our mission, our vision, and our
handbook encapsulates everything that we want as a school”. In discussing the mission
statement evaluation process, the IB coordinator stated
we must make sure we all singing from the same theme, not just singing but
believing what we are saying because one thing I have to say (about our school
leaders), they're not going to have you put something down you don’t believe in.
The EAB Learner profile was posted in most of the classrooms I observed. In
other IB schools I have visited, I have seen the IB learner profile, the ten attributes the IB
program is designed to develop in students, posted prominently in classrooms. At EAB,
school administrators and teachers used that document as a model for developing their
own learner profile that clearly expresses the school’s desires for all their students. It is
the EAB learner profile that is posted on the classroom walls. While the IBO has defined
international mindedness using its student profile, in all my interviews, only the IB
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coordinator referred to the IB student profile in discussing her understanding of
international mindedness. EAB's identity is tied to its own core documents, not to
external documents.
Different Perspectives
The theme of "different perspectives" emerged from interviews, curriculum and
observations. EAB has access to a rich community from which to draw. A picture in the
principal's Twitter feed showed the U.K. ambassador speaking to a group of students.
Given EAB’s setting in a national capital and student body of children of diplomats,
having official representatives of many nations on campus is not unusual. The head of
school described a round-table discussion on World War Two where the social studies
teacher invited the ambassadors from the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany
and Italy to sit down and discuss their countries’ perspectives. EAB's teachers have also
invited representatives of environmental organizations to speak on campus. EAB
teachers have access to a diverse and interesting community that they frequently invite to
participate in campus activities to provide rich and diverse perspectives for their students.
The phrase "different perspectives" occurred repeatedly in the interviews, though
no participants defined what they meant by it. They seemed to use it as a shorthand for
the national or cultural differences that students should come to understand as part of
international mindedness. For example, the IB coordinator related bringing in different
perspectives by having students in her economics class make presentations incorporating
material from their home country. That ties directly in to her view of international
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mindedness as the ability to express one's views, accept other people's points of view and
being able to work together and move forward.
The history teacher expressed appreciating the diversity of perspectives available
in his ninth-grade world history class, both in the diversity of his students and the way in
which the course requires his students to understand the backgrounds of different places
in the world. He contrasted this to his experience in Canada where students at that level
are taught from a national perspective and "don´t get to experience such a global
perspective until the senior levels." On the wall of his classroom is a sign with the
following text:
What is History?
History is an account of the past
Accounts differ depending on one's perspective
We rely on evidence to construct these accounts
We must question the reliability of each piece of evidence
Any single piece of evidence is insufficient to build a plausible account
This importance of different perspectives was also incorporated into his curriculum
guides. For example, in IB 20th Century World History Higher Level Year 2, in the unit
Peacemaking and Peacekeeping, 1918-1929, students are expected to know what each
major country wanted out of the post-World War 1 peace process. They are expected to
be able to identify those messages in political cartoons and other primary sources.
In addition to helping students consider issues from different national
perspectives, EAB teachers also encourage their students to develop, and express their
own points of view. In one observation, the teacher preceded a class discussion with a
reminder of how students should express their viewpoints. She coached them on how to
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question one another in a way that clarifies a person’s stance without attacking them
personally.
While these different perspectives are valued, some students are still reluctant to
engage with "others". Despite being generally friendly and outgoing, the IB coordinator
reported that Brazilian students and teachers can be reserved in developing close
friendships with internationals. They have seen so many of them come and go. Many of
the Brazilian students have been at the school since kindergarten, and they've seen many
friends leave. So, they protect themselves by not getting attached to people that are likely
to leave. This adds to the challenge of encouraging students to develop an understanding
of others and their perspectives.
The theme of different perspectives was demonstrated clearly in the curriculum of
the IB Portuguese classes. The IBO sets the aim that the course will "develop in students
an understanding of how language, culture and context determine the ways in which
meaning is constructed in text" (IB Portuguese LL SL Y1). The course EAB has
developed includes units focusing on ideas like identifying stereotypes, how language
reveals cultural differences even within the same country, and the ability to perceive
ideological differences and positions in news and literature. The resources listed for the
unit on language and mass media include numerous YouTube links to commercials
demonstrating stereotypes, and links to articles and blogs about marketing written from a
variety of perspectives. In the third unit, Literature- critical study, is the enduring
understanding "A language reflects cultural differences within one country" (IB
Portuguese A LL SL Y1). Students are expected to understand the philosophic
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suppositions and basic beliefs perceptible in the work of a variety of historical and
contemporary authors of literary and non-literary works. Through this course students
come to understand some of the many perspectives within Brazilian literature.
Embodiment of International Mindedness
The theme of "embodiment" first emerged in my interview with the IB
coordinator. She suggested that both the head of school and the upper school principal
are exemplary in their embodiment of international mindedness. She did not discuss their
familiarity with a broad range of cultures, or ability to understand many points of view.
Instead she demonstrated her belief that healthy intercultural interactions are integral to
international mindedness by highlighting the quality of the leaders' relationships with
people on campus. Despite having many responsibilities, the principal stops and talks to
kids, laughs with them, high-fives kids walking down the hall. When someone looks
upset, he will invite them back to his office and talk with them as depicted in the image
above. The head of school and the secondary principal continue to demonstrate
international mindedness daily by using spare moments to walk around campus,
developing relationships with their diverse student body, using their interpersonal skills
in helping solve school related and personal problems, showing empathy, and modeling
international mindedness to their staff and students. Both men discussed the importance
of this emphasis on personal relationships as a cornerstone of Brazilian culture and an
essential element for maintaining a positive climate on campus. International mindedness
was enacted with a local sensitivity, demonstrating glocal thinking.
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The upper school principal credits the value he places on international education
to the fact that growing up, it was the furthest thing from his experience. He was raised
in a small city in the United States and attended schools that were largely white and
Christian. He spent some time in Costa Rica where he was exposed to a new culture, but
it wasn't until he moved to Kuwait that he was in a truly international school with people
from all over the world. He relates:
That's when I began to see the beauty of what I see as international education, in
that you couldn’t help but learn from other cultures, and have to engage in
different ways of thinking and different languages and different foods and
different smells and sounds.
His next teaching post was at another very diverse, international school in Brazil before
moving to EAB four years ago.
Having spent time with the upper school principal during my visits, I can testify
to the love and respect the students, parents and staff show him. He starts each day
greeting students and parents entering the school. As he walks around the campus he
greets each maintenance worker by name in Portuguese. He describes his daily life with
a Brazilian wife and two bilingual children as “very international.”
The head of school recognizes that a very high level of intercultural competence
is key to the success of any leader in an international setting. He goes on to list a high
degree of empathy, patience, listening and understanding culture as skills necessary to
deal with the different ways of communicating and reacting that one encounters in
international school leadership. The IB coordinator explained how in the recent past, the
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school encountered a difficult phase in which Brazilian and American families had very
different views on the goals and future of the school. The head of school's leadership and
intercultural skill were instrumental in bringing the school out of that phase. He led a
process of redefining the mission statement and has been successful in uniting the
community behind the new mission.
The school leaders embody international mindedness before their teachers as well
as students. The administration is very intentional in the process of welcoming new
teachers to the school. A web page has been developed that foreign hire teachers can
access once they are contracted to begin to learn about the school, city and country.
From the moment teachers are hired, the school leaders begin to send them information
about the program and the student body to gradually integrate them into the community,
even putting them in touch with students. The director of the Brazilian program
described the process of bringing the local and foreign staff together before classes start,
to get to know one another. The welcoming process extends beyond the school day.
Administrators take teachers out on weekends to get to know the city. She even
described taking two teachers who had expressed an interested in Samba to Rio for
Carnival.
The school leadership demonstrates a sensitivity to the difficulty in joining a new
community, a concern for the incoming teachers' understanding of the local and school
culture and their process of acculturation. Throughout this process, helping teachers
understand the national culture and the many other cultures represented in the community
is an important emphasis.
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The embodiment of international mindedness is important for teachers as well as
school administrators. EAB has implemented a system to ensure diversity in their hiring
and emotional intelligence and intercultural disposition are qualities favored in the
process, even if a teacher does not have international experience. A literature teacher
from the United States, with experiences in Bulgaria and Turkey, described his family’s
intentionality in living in an internationally minded way, embedding themselves in the
culture and language and raising his children according to that model. He believes that
comes through in the way he teaches and explains why students have approached him to
help start a new Amnesty International club on campus. Many teachers described their
international travel and experiences along with their diverse interests as aspects of their
international mindedness that impact their teaching.
The IB coordinator highlights the teachers' responsibility in embodying
international mindedness. In discussing helping Muslim students integrate into the
school, she turned the discussion to the teachers.
We can’t call ourselves an economics teacher and IB teacher. We have to call
ourselves an international economics teacher, an international biology teacher
because we're looking at all spheres of life and that is the thinking I need all the
staff to embrace and need the students to embrace...
She views the teachers’ attitudes and embodiment of international mindedness as a key
component of determining the culture and climate of the school. Her definition of
international mindedness will be explored in greater depth in the next chapter, but it
focuses on individuals coming to a better understanding of one another so that they can
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come together to achieve common goals. School administrators and teachers are
essential in modelling this for the student body.
The IB coordinator stands out in her commitment to embodying international
mindedness. She told her students she was planning on learning Portuguese. They
responded, “Yeah Miss, every teacher who comes here says that, but he never really
does." So, she has found a tutor and given herself until the end of her first year in Brazil
to deliver a TOK class in Portuguese. Then her Spanish speaking students wanted to
know "What about Spanish, Español?" She believes understanding and developing
rapport with her students is essential for communicating with them and helping them be
successful. The IB coordinator has leveraged her process of adapting to Brazil and
Portuguese to bond with the students and create a space where they feel comfortable
bringing their own cultural identities into the classroom for the enrichment of all.
In contrast, the head of school described a teacher whom he described as very
good, but who struggled her entire tenure at EAB. Lower school parents want teachers to
hug their kids, kiss them and hold them. This young, North American teacher couldn't
overcome her training that told her never to touch kids. Parents never complained about
her instructional practice but they viewed her as cold and not building relationships with
their children.
Summary
EAB is a school with a rich school culture and a strong sense of identity. The
school has adopted the IB Diploma Program and made it its own. I saw no evidence of
the IB creating a "school within a school" to the extent that teachers did not recognize the
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boundedness I tried to impose on our conversations. They have taken the principles of
international mindedness from that program and applied them throughout the upper
school. Teachers are committed to encouraging students to consider multiple
perspectives whether from outside sources or viewpoints that exist within the class. The
community is rich in diverse experiences and backgrounds that teachers regularly draw
from in their classrooms. EAB has teachers and administrators who embody
international mindedness in their leadership and interpersonal interactions.
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Chapter 5: Conceptualizations and Curriculum for International Mindedness at
EAB
This chapter will answer the research questions that were posed in Chapter 1:
1. How do school administrators and teachers in an IB school in Brazil
conceptualize international mindedness?
2. How do theories or models of international mindedness inform these
conceptualizations?
3. How are the constructs of international mindedness expressed in the
curriculum of the school's IB program?
The first two questions will be addressed using data from the interviews and the survey of
the literature on international mindedness. The curriculum analysis and classroom
observations are the primary sources of information in answering the third question.
International Mindedness at EAB
During my interviews, I did not hear a common conceptualization of the term, and
only two interviewees made vague references to the IB framework of international
mindedness found in the IB Student Profile. Almost every teacher had a unique
interpretation with little overlap in vocabulary, possibly due to each individual's varied
professional and personal experiences. Haywood’s (2007) conclusion that international
mindedness is a term whose definition is still under construction was reinforced by
observations in this school and among its staff, thus suggesting the importance of this
study.
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There are three levels to this analysis of EAB administrators’ and teachers’
conceptualizations of international mindedness. Firstly, the characterizations will be
classified using the five categories Spitzberg and Changnon (2009) used in examining
models of intercultural competence described in Chapter 2: causal, adaptational,
developmental, compositional, and co-orientational. In the second level of analysis, the
common elements of the conceptualizations will be compared to definitions discussed
from the literature. Finally, the additional insights into the participants'
conceptualizations will be gleaned by examining the examples the participants offered of
individuals who exemplify international mindedness.
Causal model. The head of school envisions international mindedness as “this
never-ending pursuit and learning of other cultures and other languages, histories, in part
just to help us deepen our intercultural competencies in understanding the world.” He
identifies a causal process where the study of culture, language and history leads to
intercultural competence. His vision of international mindedness is very similar to the
definition Hill (2012) developed. Both causal models identify the kinds of issues that
might be studied to develop intercultural understanding, though Hill's phrasing is more
robust.
The benefit of such a model is that it suggests a process and may be testable.
However, in identifying an individual who models international mindedness, the head of
school did not discuss a student who had invested in such studies and had her outlook
transformed. Rather, the head of school described a person who exemplifies international
mindedness with a general depiction of many students in the school who might have
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a parent of one country, a second parent of another country, they were born in a
third country but they’ve lived in five countries, and they are in grade six. I think
that they don’t think that’s abnormal, and just at a young age they have a deep
level of open mindedness and understanding of other cultures and languages that I
think that I am envious of them.
This example of an internationally minded individual suggests that international
mindedness is not something students develop in school, but is a product of an extremely
international life. The head of school speaks enviously of students that arrive at the
school speaking three, four or five languages and the window to culture that gives them.
He does not refer to students learning multiple languages or learning about multiple
cultures at the school. This seems to suggest that international mindedness exists at the
school as a result of who attends, not as a product of the IB program.
At the same time, the head of school also that stated that international mindedness
is the overarching and guiding principal of an international curriculum, without it “the
program falls short”. He elaborated,
The international mindedness element should be embedded throughout the
program everywhere, it should be one of the touchstones of the entire program,
period. So, it doesn’t matter what course you’re teaching, whether it’s English
literature when you’re quick on the reflex side because you’re covering a lot of
different genres and authors around the world, it’s the school’s choice what
authors they choose but I think it’s the school’s responsibility to make sure that
that’s a diverse selection.
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The head of school seems to have two contradictory or possibly complementary ways of
conceptualizing international mindedness. On one hand, he described a process by which
the school can teach a student international mindedness. On the other he described it as
something students have, a product of their global lifestyle. It was not clear from the
head of school's description, but perhaps he sees those who have the lived experience
complementing it with schooling, and those with a primarily local experience gaining
international mindedness from their schooling. Nobody said so explicitly, but the implied
message was that local students can acquire international mindedness through their time
and experiences within EAB's diverse setting. This inconsistency suggests that there is
an opportunity for further consideration of international mindedness and how to work
with it at EAB within the IB program and beyond.
Compositional models. The upper school principal offered a compositional
model stating:
International mindedness is realizing that there is a world outside of your nation,
or your culture, or your religion, and that your actions, the actions of your culture,
so to speak, that you were born into, has an effect on everyone else. And to be
conscious of others, whether you ever meet them or see them, be conscious that
your choices and the way you interact with the world, the natural world, but also
how you vote, everything, has an impact on others.
This conceptualization identifies a series of components of international mindedness, but
does not specify their relationship. He does address one of the difficulties other
educators have faced in demonstrating that international mindedness is not just about
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issues that cross national borders, he includes nationality, religion, and culture as factors
that might limit one's view of the world.
The principal's description of international mindedness shares two of the three
components identified by the IBO (2013a) and explored by Sing and Qi (2013) in their
analysis of IB documentation: intercultural understanding and global engagement. The
missing element, multilingualism, appeared in his description of an individual that
exemplifies international mindedness. The upper school principal described a young man
who had recently arrived as a senior whose diverse experiences have allowed him to
integrate himself into the school unusually well. As the son of an ambassador, he is well
travelled,
His intercultural competence is, in my eyes, off the charts. He speaks with the
Italian kid in Italian and then he speaks in Arabic with other kids, and he’s perfect
in English. He’s got a Latino girlfriend now and he just moves between groups
flawlessly. He’s a futsal player, so he’s got that group of Brazilians guys and then
he moves into the IB group because he’s an academic. He just flows.
What distinguishes this young man is his ability to integrate himself into the community,
speaking several languages and being able to engage well with peers of a variety of
backgrounds. This young man can cross boundaries with his knowledge of languages,
his gregariousness and other skills. What is concerning about this example, is that again
these are not skills or abilities that were developed or refined in school. When asked how
he developed this level of international mindedness, the principal responded:
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I think, part of it, is that he was raised as an ambassador’s kid, so he had to learn
to play the game. Two, I think that part of it is his personality. Three is that he’s
had a lot of success in life, he’s very confident, not arrogant, he’s very
comfortable with who he is.
This kind of example could imply that international mindedness is something students
show up with, not something that can be taught.
The history teacher stated that international mindedness should be about "global
perspectives and trying to bring in many backgrounds and experiences and cultures to the
table." In his IB History class, students watched Dr. Strangelove and worked in groups
to identify and analyze the themes from the movie regarding different perspectives on the
cold war and nuclear warfare. As another example, the history teacher described recent
discussions about how societies are dealing with some "unpleasant history." An instance
that arose during one of my observations of his classroom was the naming of buildings on
college campuses in the U.S., the U.K and South Africa after slave owners or other
controversial figures. He guided discussion on the importance of different perspectives.
Not only did students come to appreciate the complexities of history, they got to consider
the roles that university students not much older than they are playing in the debates.
I found additional evidence of his compositional model in the curriculum
documents for his class. In multiple instances, students consider the perspectives of
various countries on an issue, including a simulation of the Yalta conference where
students enact representatives with different points of view. One thing I did not hear
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from the history teacher or see in his course documentation was a consideration of the
multiple viewpoints that might exist within a single country.
The philosophy and sociology teacher offered a compositional model of
international mindedness that was markedly different. He identified critical thinking as
the core of international mindedness along with a need to understand and respect
different cultures as the essential components of international mindedness. This teacher
described building international mindedness by bringing multiple scholarly sources to his
students so they could compare, contrast, discuss and assess multiple perspectives. I
observed this happening in his classroom. His students were presenting blogs or videos
representing how three pre-Socratic philosophers with different perspectives might
interpret a volcanic eruption and an eclipse that occurred concurrently. Though not
explicitly international, this activity required students to understand three different
perspectives and use them to interpret an unusual event. When asked for an example of
someone exemplifying this model of international mindedness, he described a student
who could discuss very complex ideas, and was known for helping to organize a MUN
conference. He was one of the few teachers whose example clearly matched his
definition.
While this teacher was the only one to explicitly connect international mindedness
to critical thinking, in several of my observations I saw teachers challenging students to
think critically about how cultural changes occur rather than simply providing
information. For example, in one Brazilian social studies class students were challenged
to discuss migration to and within Brazil using two period pictures. One of the images
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showed a ship of Italian immigrants arriving at a Brazilian in the late 19th century. The
students recognized that the picture came from an era when England was pushing for an
end to slavery. Brazil was still and agrarian and immigrants were needed to replace the
slave labor. The class identified the strong impact of migration on Brazil's culture,
particularly in areas of coffee plantations. When asked about the phrase so pro Ingles ver
[just for the English to see], students discussed promises that were made and laws that
were passed to end slavery and help the former slaves but were never enforced. They
were only in place to satisfy the English. The second picture showed field laborers in the
back of a truck. This prompted a discussion on the Brazilian government's efforts to
encourage migration from the coastal areas toward the interior. The students connected
the two pictures by identifying that they both represented the government's efforts to fill
empty regions and protect the borders from encroachment of neighboring countries.
They also discussed the cultural and environmental impacts of these policies.
Adaptational model. Having worked at four international schools on three
continents, the IB coordinator contrasted international mindedness at EAB to her broad
experience at previous schools. In her previous schools, international mindedness meant
being "able to understand and tolerate different people's point of views without losing
your own." Despite having 37 years of experience with the IB program and international
mindedness, she said her past school maintained an imperialistic perspective. At EAB,
…it's about not only being able to accept and understand other people's point of
views, but also to be able to show compromise in terms of sharing what your
views are and others being able to share their points of views and coming to some
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sort of midway agreement about what we think we should all be doing together to
move forward on one common theme.
She is clear that in this process students do not compromise their values, rather, after
exploring different points of view students come up with a new way to move forward that
encompasses what they understand to be the positive elements of each view. This
definition has elements of an adaptational model. It envisions multiple interactants and
emphasizes their interdependence.
Her construction of international mindedness matched her identification of the
head of school as one of the people who exemplified international mindedness as I
described in Chapter 4. Though she has only been at EAB for two years, her
understanding of the recent history of the school is that the head of school arrived at a
time of friction between the American and Brazilian constituents. She credits his
leadership and international mindedness as essential in developing a new mission and
bringing all members of the community together in moving forward. Unlike
administrators in other schools she has experienced, these two men know each worker
and staff member by name, great them warmly every day, celebrate birthdays and include
all staff and workers in the board party.
Co-orientational model. The director of the Brazilian program and the Brazilian
social studies teacher had similar co-orientational conceptualizations. One of the
characteristics of co-orientational models is the focus on the importance of being able to
adapt. Co-orientational models differ from adaptational models in that they focus on the
individual's ability to co-orient (i.e. adapt to another's behaviors and meanings), rather
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than the interdependence of multiple interactants (Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009). The
director believes that international mindedness "allows for a holistic, integrated academic
formation" where the student is prepared for any challenge in university and from then
on. The Brazilian social studies teacher with more than 30 years of experience, including
at least 20 of them at EAB, suggested that given the processes of globalization, a school
cannot employ a merely local program, the whole educational program should be turned
toward the international. She views international mindedness as developing a global
mentality, preparing students for a competitive and globalized world, without making
them individualistic or egotistical. As a result, no matter where a student moves to, she
will feel comfortable.
Both views of international mindedness focus on the general outcome of the
student being prepared for the next phases in life. Neither interviewee provided any
details on what skills or competencies are needed for success in the future, though the
social studies teacher described a former student of hers who recently moved to Holland
but reported back that she was already feeling at home.
Developmental model. None of the interviewees offered a developmental model
of international mindedness with a focus on the time dimension or stages of progression.
The only reference to this type of model were allusions to the DMIS by the head of
school and the principal. Perhaps this is a result of the way in which the questions were
phrased, emphasizing a product rather than a process. Nevertheless, a developmental
model like Skelton's (2007, 2013) would help school administrators and teachers view
international mindedness in developmentally appropriate stages that could be addressed
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and perhaps assessed throughout the school years. The use of a developmental model
might also bring a focus on helping each student progress in their international
mindedness, no matter their starting point.
Other conceptualizations. Some elements appeared in participants’
conceptualizations that did not readily fit the Spitzberg and Changnon model. The
literature teacher equated international mindedness to being a citizen of the world.
"We're in a global world, in an international environment so we can't retreat behind our
cultural wall, our cultural determinism. We need to connect; we need to get along with
one another." He elaborated using the phrases ‘citizen of the world’ and ‘renaissance
man’. He mused that perhaps international mindedness is the modern equivalent of a
man like Leonardo da Vinci with broad interests. His definition is reminiscent of
Gunesch's (2007) suggestion that cosmopolitanism would be a suitable outcome for
international education.
The literature teacher sees international mindedness as a "natural fit" with
literature. In seeing international mindedness as a call to explore cultural differences, he
believes reading diverse literature is an ideal tool for exploring how "language is related
to culture and different viewpoints and different lenses." The IB requires a unit of
literature and translation in which students read works translated into English. The
curriculum map for year one high level IB English shows they read works by Latin
American authors Pablo Neruda, Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Isabelle Allende providing
a window into a different culture. Essential understandings explored in these units
include: the media has a significant role in constructing cultural values, especially
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regarding concepts of masculinity (machismo) and femininity (marianismo); the legacy
of colonialism has a major impact on a country’s future and cultural identity; and the
interpretation of poetry relies on the reader's individual and cultural experience. Though
there was no explicit mention of international mindedness in the curriculum guide,
culture was a significant part of the way in which topics were taught.
One IB teacher admitted that he had never heard the phrase international
mindedness before our interview. While our interview was held in September of his first
year at the school, it suggests that international mindedness was not a point of emphasis
in his induction to EAB or in his preparation for teaching IB courses. Each interview
began with a discussion of the diversity of the student body and the impact that has on
learning and teaching. Not one teacher introduced the phrase international mindedness.
Though most could articulate their understanding of the idea, it appears that it is not in
the front of their minds. This does not mean that international mindedness was not
present in the school, I saw aspects of it clearly demonstrated throughout the school. I
believe that international mindedness is such a fundamental part of the school culture,
that they do not often stop to identify it.
Missing elements. There are two elements of international mindedness that I
found in the literature, but did not find at EAB. First, as mentioned earlier, none of the
interviewees suggested a developmental model of international mindedness. An element
of Skelton's developmental model was the idea that the process of developing
international mindedness might be messy. Students challenged to grow might take a step
or two back in their development. This idea may be important for teachers as they design
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and implement curriculum, and shepherd students through their development of
international mindedness.
A second element I did not hear from educators at EAB was Haywood's (2007)
suggestion that students might exhibit international mindedness in different forms. His
tentative typology of categories in which students might demonstrate international
mindedness included political, commercial, spiritual, pacifist and environmental
international mindedness. The idea that each students' embodiment of international
mindedness is unique is important and a lack of this understanding may limit the variety
of opportunities EAB might provide for students to develop and demonstrate
international mindedness. His assertion that every school might have a unique way of
implementing education for international mindedness shaped by local cultural forces is
relevant to every international school with a unique cultural context and student body
composition.
Having explored the participants views of international mindedness and compared
them to the literature, I summarize my analysis by returning to the first two research
questions:
Research Question 1: How do school administrators and teachers in an IB school in
Brazil conceptualize international mindedness?
Research Question 2: How do theories or models of international mindedness inform
these conceptualizations?
The administrators and teachers I interviewed at EAB described a wide variety of
conceptualizations. The interviewees' conceptualizations fell into four of the five
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categories suggested by Spitzberg and Changnon (2009). Several of the interviewees
gave descriptions of individuals embodying international mindedness that were not
coherent with their stated conceptualization implying a lack of depth of understanding of
the topic. For many, I believe this was the first time they were asked to describe a person
who embodied international mindedness. The lack of coherence or common vocabulary
among the participants suggests that international mindedness is not a topic that is
regularly discussed. Each interviewee has arrived at their unique construction of
international mindedness independently.
The conceptualizations of international mindedness among the interviewees
mirrored the diversity found in the literature. There are valuable elements of the concept
of international mindedness embedded in the conceptualizations of the IB staff at EAB.
As Drake (2004) suggested, if school administrators could bring together these various
elements into a cohesive conceptualization, it could lead to valuable approaches in
teaching and learning. The notable exception was the lack of a developmental model. In
both their conceptualizations and the examples of people that demonstrate international
mindedness, EAB teachers and administrators did not present a view that international
mindedness is something a person can develop over time in observable phases.
Analysis of the Curriculum for International Mindedness
In Chapter 2, I described five continua to be used in the analysis of the curriculum
for international mindedness. The intent of the continua is not to provide a tool for
measuring international mindedness, nor would this qualitative study provide the quantity
or type of data necessary for such an endeavor. Rather, I am proposing the continua to
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provide a framework to help identify opportunities for deeper development of
international mindedness in the curriculum.
Weak – strong internationalization. Weak internationalization is demonstrated
through a dependence on knowledge developed through the rigid rules of academia. This
would be the status quo in schools that depend on textbooks and teachers as the source of
information. Strong internationalization is evidenced by an openness to scholarship from
other societies, their research conventions, and judgements regarding knowledge
(Appadurai, 2000). As discussed in Chapter 4, EAB demonstrates a strong commitment
to presenting a variety of points of view. Strong internationalization demands more than
bringing in various dominant points of view on a topic. The history teacher and MUN
coach described having a variety of ambassadors and representatives of environmental
NGOs come speak to his classes and MUN team. Those are two steps towards strong
internationalization. A further step would be to visit or bring in members of minority,
under-represented or marginalized populations and hear directly from them, rather than
just hearing about them.
In a stronger example of internationalization, the sociology and philosophy
teacher described the assignment his students were working on at the time of our
interview. Students were required to do a case study on Brazilian “minorias
majoritarias”, literally translated minority majorities, or marginalized populations. In
researching what the state has been doing to help these communities the students develop
an understanding of participative democracy. Strong internationalization might involve
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students including evidence directly from marginalized groups and their knowledge in
question in their research.
The history teacher made a concerted effort to encourage students to broaden their
sources of news on current events. He gave them time to look up news stories and
encouraged them to compare coverage from CNN to Aljazeera, or from Brazilian news
sources like Globo and Isto É. As he pointed out at another point in our interview,
technology bolsters students’ access to information and development of international
mindedness. This teacher might strengthen the internationalization of his class by
having students look for blogs, twitter accounts or other resources about current events
written by participants and first hand observers.
The sources listed in the curriculum offer another opportunity for the assessment
of weak or strong internationalization, though the assessment of all sources reported in
the curriculum guides for every IB class at EAB was beyond the scope of this study. In
Year 1 IB History of the Americas there are nine resources listed for the unit on
independence movements. They are mostly U.S. textbooks covering Latin American
history. Not one was written by a Latin American author. Sources demonstrating
stronger internationalization might include autobiographies, journals or news stories from
the countries and people being studied.
Weak internationalization was seen in a dependence on texts and textbooks that
reflect a reliance on traditional sources of information and authorities on what counts as
knowledge. Though there were elements of this within the curriculum, EAB teachers
demonstrated a tendency towards strong internationalization in their efforts to bring in
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multiple perspectives in the content of their projects, the voices they invite into their
classrooms and the resources to which they direct their students.
Banking model - critical consciousness. The second continuum extends from a
banking approach to a critical consciousness of society. A banking model involves a
narrating teacher, and patient listening students. "The teacher talks about reality as if it
were motionless, static compartmentalized and predictable" (Freire, 2005, p. 71). I saw
very little evidence of this in my time at EAB. Only once during the twelve observations
did a teacher engage in a prolonged time of teacher centered lecture giving information to
students.
On the critical consciousness end of the continuum, students developed an in-
depth understanding of the world through the exposure to social and political
contradictions. Freire's consientização also emphasizes an awareness of one's own
experiences of privilege and power (Freire, 2005). As discussed in Chapter 4, a theme
that was present in all the interviews was the importance of different perspectives. EAB
teachers purposefully bring differing viewpoints for students to evaluate. The focus on
different perspectives was pervasive in the written curriculum as well. For example, in
Year 1 IB Portuguese, students analyze journalistic texts to identify the author's context,
intended audience, and ideology, noting how facts are used in the writing. In Year 2 IB
Brazilian Social Studies, the students compare colonization under British, Spanish and
Portuguese rule. These are examples of students being taught to think critically through
exposure to complex ideas, they are not being spoon fed predigested facts for
memorization. EAB teachers demonstrate a commitment to exposing their students to
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multiple perspectives. Further development of critical consciousness might involve
helping students to consider the power differences in society by reflecting on what
perspectives are given more recognition and validity.
Critical consciousness ought to lead to taking action. In most of my observations,
I saw students being challenged to think, develop arguments and defend them with
evidence. In a lesson on industrialization, I saw students bring up diverse points of views
on its benefits and detriments. In a history class, they brought up luddites, financial
development, jobs, children, parents, women, unequal pay, and changes in traditional
home life. These students were actively exploring the contradictions inherent in
industrialization. In an international relations class, the same teacher led a discussion on
the island nation of Kirabati, located in the central Pacific. Rising ocean levels have
submerged two uninhabited islets and threaten the nation's arable land with soil
salinization and eventual submersion. The conversation revolved around how could a
nation with a small population convince large polluters to change their actions. I later
observed an opening ceremony for a high school basketball tournament that EAB hosted
where a group of students made a presentation on the importance of our individual
actions on limiting climate change. While I could not verify that these events were
connected, the presentation demonstrated the students' concern for the issue of climate
change and their efforts to take action at a local level.
The school’s vision is that students will have an impact on the world. It is also an
essential component of the IB curriculum in the CAS program. EAB students have a
variety of options for getting involved in activities that deal with global issues. These
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activities include participation in the GIN program, EAB Going Green, the student
leadership in after school clubs for younger students and their outreach to the community.
It is not clear to what extent these are tied to a critical consciousness. But there are
examples where this appears to be so. In 2012, the funding for the arts was cut for public
schools in Brasilia. A group of ten students in the CAS program responded by organizing
a program they called EduArtes. They travelled regularly to a school on the city's
periphery, delivered materials, and taught classes to elementary students in English, art,
music and drama. These students recognized the social inequities that existed, took stock
of their resources and found a way in which they could act in solving this problem.
In 2013, the EAB GIN team created a video (Carlson, 2013) to be presented at the
annual conference that depicts the obstacles students face in developing and
implementing initiatives to make the school more environmentally friendly. While the
video does not tell the viewer much about the outcome of the project, it does demonstrate
that the students have developed a more informed perspective on the challenges involved
in designing an initiative to impact their community.
In a remarkable example of students taking action, EAB hosted the first ever
TEDxYouth@EAB event in 2017. TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) is a
nonprofit organization devoted to spreading ideas through a series of conferences
featuring short, powerful talks on a variety of issues from science to business to global
issues that are then shared online (TED, n.d.). TEDx conferences are hosted
independently, but follow all the TED guidelines. The idea for the event came from a
senior who approached the upper school principal with a dream of bringing TED to EAB.
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This senior contacted the TED organization, assembled his own team and
organized every aspect of the conference with only minor input from adults on campus.
The conference featured seven speakers, four of whom were students, and topics ranged
from surviving the tsunami in Thailand, to the beauty of adoption, to the challenges of
living with mental illness (American School of Brasilia, 2017b).
Having noted that the IBO provided suggestions for the inclusion of international
mindedness in the recent course outlines and that EAB teachers did not include those
topics in their planning, I want to consider them in light of this continuum. In first year
high level Biology, the IB syllabus included ten suggestions for internationally minded
topics, most highlighting international cooperation in scientific endeavors. The following
topic was found in the unit on genetics "Sequencing of the rice genome involved
cooperation between biologists in 10 countries" (IB Biology HL Y1). As a Biology
teacher, I find this to be a superficial expression of international mindedness that
wouldn't be worth more than a few minutes of my class time. I could not justify taking
the time to examine this in a manner that would demonstrate strong internationalization.
A more interesting approach to strong internationalization of genetics would be to
examine people whose lives have been impacted by a genetically modified form of rice
that includes Vitamin A, or considering how scientists from multinational corporations
have exploited local knowledge of medicinal plants to extract samples for genetic
analysis for the development of new drugs, the profits of which are not shared with the
Brazilian communities.
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In Unit 1 titled Chemical Elements and Water of the same course, the suggestion
for international mindedness is "There are challenges for the increasing human
population in sharing water resources equitably for drinking and irrigation, electricity
generation and a range of industrial and domestic processes" (IB Biology HL Y1). This
topic provides opportunity for strong internationalization in a classroom in Brazil.
Disputes over water usage are a major controversy between indigenous people groups,
developers and farmers. These clashes figure prominently in the regional and national
political discourse and have even led to murder. Indigenous groups have spoken out on
their concerns over the flooding of large swaths of land for the construction of
hydroelectric dams. Despite the relevance to current events, I would find it hard to
justify the time to develop that idea in a unit focused on the chemistry and the chemical
nature of water. The scientific content is essential for understanding macromolecules,
cells and chemical reactions in later units, however the inclusion of the social issue, while
relevant and interesting, does not add to the scientific themes being developed. I include
these examples because I am sensitive to the difficulty of trying to demonstrate strong
internationalization and develop international mindedness in mathematics and science
classes, and to the difficulty of adding more content into full and demanding courses.
The suggestions in the IB syllabi were generally weak and may be difficult to include in
practice.
In a banking approach to knowledge, students are treated as passive receptacles to
be filled with knowledge deposited by teachers. I saw very little evidence of this in my
observations and review of the curriculum. What I observed more of were efforts to
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encourage critical thinking through exposing students to complex and controversial ideas.
EAB students provide evidence of this consientização in their efforts at taking action
within their sphere of influence.
Local/global – glocal. The third continuum is the discrete local/global to glocal
perspective in the framing of issues regarding international mindedness. A discrete
perspective does not draw out the connections between local and global concerns, while a
glocal perspective couples a study of global issues with local implications and actions.
In a few instances, EAB teachers demonstrate a glocal pedagogy. The history
teacher reported his experience living and travelling around the world as an international
school teacher changed his view on colonialism. He suggested colonialism is often a
focus in the study of Africa, but it has impacted life in South America and Brazil to this
day. He connects what students know about Brazil and its history to colonialism
worldwide. He helps them consider how colonialism still influences current political
events in Brazil and how those insights can be applied to understanding events
worldwide. He described drawing comparisons between the impact of the Portuguese
colonization of Brazil and some of the clashes of civilizations today including recent
violence associated with immigrants in France and Belgium. This style of glocal
pedagogy can encourage individuals to reflect critically on the legacies of their cultures,
to imagine different futures and to take responsibility for their decisions and actions.
Applying glocal pedagogy is complex in a classroom with students from such a wide
variety of backgrounds.
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In the Year 1 IB Brazilian social studies, the theme of globalization and Brazil’s
place in the globalized world runs throughout the first two units of the course. The
enduring understandings put forth in the first unit on Geopolitics of the 20th and 21st
centuries- Globalization are: "the students will understand that globalization is the result
of advances in technology that reduce our notions of space and time on the planet" and
"the results of the technological, scientific and informational revolutions of the 21st
century are demonstrated unequally across the planet" (IB Brazilian Social Studies SL
Y1). By studying the economic basis for globalization and its implications for national
economies, along with an examination of the World Trade Organization and the and the
ways in which economic blocks function, students should come to understand some of
the ways in which Brazil has been impacted by globalization. EAB students come to see
the asymmetrical globalization and unequal power relations that exist in the world and
within Brazil. A deeper glocalization could be achieved by examining how different
populations within Brazil have been affected by globalization within this period.
Though she does not use the term "glocal", the Brazilian social studies teacher
mentioned that they work with the term "globalization" which she sees as having a global
consciousness but adapted to the local. As an example, she described showing students
advertisements for familiar brands like AT&T and how they varied between places like
Holland, Norway, and Australia; or how McDonalds has adapted to markets like China or
the Middle East. Many of her students had visited those places and could relate. It is
interesting to note that both examples relate to consumerism or global markets, not
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necessarily to culture, global migration, the environment of other glocal issues. She has
the impression that this global consciousness comes naturally to them.
Not all EAB’s classes demonstrate a glocal perspective. Environmental issues are
an example where glocal thinking could be applied. In the IB curriculum for Biology, the
IBO suggests topics for international mindedness that include “Release of greenhouse
gases occurs locally but has a global impact, so international cooperation to reduce
emissions is essential” (IB Biology HL Y1). This statement connects local activity to a
global phenomenon. If applicable, a teacher might go further and examine the local
impact of greenhouse gases. The stated goal for EAB students is “Students will be able
to explain what greenhouse effect is, and how humans can affect the ecosystem" (IB
Biology HL Y1). They will be able to list ways to decrease the negative impact on our
ecosystem.” This sample demonstrates a global orientation, simply raising awareness of
a global environmental issue without connecting it to local causes and effects or actions
individuals might take.
Though none of the interviewees used the word "glocal", I did find evidence in a
variety of courses of an approach to global issues that demonstrated a global
interconnectedness through the examination of the complex relationships between global
and local phenomena. This is an approach that could be developed in other settings
replacing methods that separate local and global concerns.
Didactic – Experiential. The application of this continuum reveals whether
students learn about culture by being taught by their teachers, or through experiencing
differences in culture for themselves. While EAB teaching seemed to include the idea of
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culture in general, by virtue of the diversity of the student body, students are constantly in
contact with classmates from other cultures. Though students interact primarily in
English or Portuguese, they are regularly required to work with partners or small groups
of people from many cultures. The head of school expressed that EAB is a school that
values different voices, and the mission of "learners inspiring learners" leads students to
want to learn about the diverse cultures of their classmates.
Occasionally there are more purposefully planned experiential cultural activities.
A Brazilian teacher took her students to the Cultural Center of the Bank of Brazil to see a
collection of artwork from nationally and internationally known artists, alongside work
from students. Part of the dynamic of the visit was that the students discussed what they
saw, how they felt and what they understood about the art and its cultural implications.
Though this is outside of the bounds of the IB Diploma Program, when asked
about opportunities for students to be exposed to various cultures within Brazil, the head
of school pointed to the class trips for students in fourth through eighth grades. He stated
there’s an opportunity, more than an opportunity, I think it’s an obligation to learn
about the local culture, the language. So, the middle school trips, actually starting
in grade four and onwards, are specifically designed to see different parts of the
country and different types of culture.
Students can choose between trips to a variety of destinations including the Amazon
rainforest, the Pantanal- an area in western Brazil containing the world's largest tropical
wetland and home to a stunning diversity of plants and animals, or the south of Brazil, an
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area influenced by German immigrants. A recent addition has been the opportunity to
stay in Brasilia and get to know the local culture and participate in community service.
Another arena where students experienced differences in culture was in MUN.
Participants were assigned a country to represent, they researched topics for debate,
investigated their country’s positions, and then assumed roles as diplomats representing
their delegation’s contemporary views and policies. They also learned to negotiate and
compromise to reach consensus while representing a country in a manner representative
of its history and current politics (Brazil Model United Nations, 2017). While this was an
extremely rich activity, only a small segment of the student body participates in MUN.
There was little evidence of didactic examination of culture, and what I found was
often shallow. I will examine this more closely in the next section, but there seemed to
be an assumption that everyone knew what they meant by "culture" and the nature of the
culture of different societies. For example, a history teacher described a class in which
they discussed the issue of wearing a veil for women in different Middle Eastern or South
Asian countries. He talked to students about how that is perceived in the West in
comparison to how women in popular western culture might be perceived in the Middle
East or South Asia. The discussion he described focused on one element of culture and
drew on the assumed perspectives of two groups. There was no inclusion of the historical
and cultural foundations that led to the different perspectives, nor the idea that there
might exist different perspectives within the two groups.
Ideally a student would have the opportunity to learn about culture didactically
and experientially. Students at EAB have plenty of opportunities to interact with people
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of different cultures, but there seems to be little teaching about culture and how it varies
over time and across different people groups.
Culture-general – culture-specific. This continuum balances the study of the
importance of understanding culture as a universal force in determining human behavior
versus learning information about a specific culture. As mentioned earlier, I found little
evidence regarding teaching about culture. While everyone I interviewed spoke of the
diversity of cultures among the staff and students of the school, nothing I heard suggested
that they had considered the difference between a culture-general and a culture-specific
approach.
While I have examined numerous examples of the study of specific cultures or the
inclusion of different cultural perspectives, I only found one explicit reference in the
curriculum guides to teaching about culture as an idea. In the first year IB Portuguese
Language and Literature class, the second unit is titled Literature- texts and contexts. It
includes the following enduring understandings: "Culture is the way of living of a group
of people that share beliefs, customs and similarities" and "A language reflects cultural
differences" (IB Portuguese A LL SL Y1). Lazarillo de Tormes, a fifteenth century
Spanish novella, and Auto da Compadecida, a 1955 play from the Brazilian northeast, are
read in part then discussed collectively to bring out each text's context. Through this,
students come to understand the influence of context on the production and
comprehension of a literary work then go on to produce their own creative writing spun
off from the characters in the texts using forms studied in class and reflecting the culture
of the original work.
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There are two possible explanations for the scarcity of this approach to culture in
the curriculum documents. One is that the idea is developed in the classroom but not
reflected in the curriculum guides. Teachers may be teaching about the elements of
culture without labeling it or recording it. The other is that teachers do not teach about
culture or cultural processes. It seems to be assumed that culture is something lived and
experiences, but cannot be discussed conceptually as a historic process. Perhaps this is a
topic addressed in assemblies or elsewhere not recorded in the curriculum maps, but I
found no evidence of this.
The upper school principal could not identify a curricular element that required
students to learn about the idea of culture. The Brazilian program director suggested that
ideas of culture are integrated into projects in history and geography, and philosophy and
sociology classes in ways that help students understand why conflicts happen among
countries and elements of society and how to solve them. Culture was often equated with
nations. Students learn that culture can be a source of conflict, but I found no evidence
that they are given tools to understand the foundations of cultural differences, or how to
avoid or diffuse conflict that might arise in their lives due to differences in culture.
Teachers frequently used the term culture when discussing differences among
students or viewpoints, but not once did a teacher mention teaching students about the
definition or elements of culture or helping them understand their own cultural
adaptations. When asked about culture, teachers pointed to events like World Fest, where
embassies sponsor booths that offer food and display their cultures. They also mentioned
the “Festa Junina”, a Brazilian fall festival. This suggests that the teachers may have a
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shallow understanding of culture, limited to being a noun, reflecting only a group of
people rather than reflecting something that can evolve in an adaptive process and exist in
varied forms in different groups.
The pedagogical approach to teaching about culture at EAB was almost entirely
culture-specific. Though teachers frequently studied different cultures and brought
different perspectives into their classes, they gave little evidence of understanding or
teaching students about the meaning of culture and its importance in influencing human
behavior. This limitation was not unknown to the school leaders. The head of school
identified the gap in the curriculum regarding culture as a weakness in a school that aims
to value other languages and cultures.
In summary, having analyzed the curriculum of EAB's IB Diploma Program, I
return to my third research question:
Research Question 3: How are the constructs of international mindedness expressed in
the curriculum of the school's IB program?
The analysis of the curriculum using the five continua reveal that EAB teachers
demonstrate a strong commitment to exposing students to multiple perspectives- those of
their classmates, members of the community and perspectives found in the literature and
other resources. However, the perspectives presented are limited, including few
examples minority or underrepresented voices, and rarely are the views of large groups
analyzed in consideration of dissenting views of sub-groups. A critical approach is
almost universal and developed through class discussions and projects. The effectiveness
of this approach is demonstrated by the students' engagement in social causes and
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community service. Finally, despite numerous opportunities to experience cultural
diversity within the school community and activities, the construct of international
mindedness demonstrated within the curriculum at EAB is built on a shallow
understanding of culture. Little consideration is given to the meaning of culture and its
implication for interpreting society and human behavior.
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Chapter 6: Implications, Limitations, and Recommendations
The purpose of this case study was to explore how administrators and teachers at
an international school in Brazil conceptualize international mindedness and how this
shapes the curriculum within the IB Diploma Program. International mindedness is a
contested, multiply conceptualized concept. The IBO has framed international
mindedness as an overarching theme that ought to be drawn on throughout the
curriculum. The scope of this construct is daunting. The IBO has identified three
components. Global engagement includes ideas of global and local significance and
draws reflects a large body of literature on civic engagement. Multilingualism requires
that students learn to communicate at an academic level in more than one language. The
intercultural understanding component develops the open-minded attribute of the IB
learner. This component is tied to the literature on intercultural competence, though it is
up to each school to develop this as they see fit. Because each of these terms is broad,
the way in which they are interpreted and enacted in schools is varied, making the
construct of international mindedness quite imprecise.
Few studies have examined educational leaders' conceptualizations of
international mindedness, particularly in South America. In this chapter, I will discuss
the implications of this study for theory, EAB, and international education. I will
describe the limitations of this study and offer recommendations for further research.
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Implications of this Study
This study has several implications for theory, including confirming that there are
multiple conceptualizations of international mindedness, not only in the literature, but
also in the minds of teachers and school administrators.
The themes I have identified through this study may constitute a new school-level
compositional model. The themes are not components of international mindedness, but
rather essential characteristics for a school that promotes it. EAB demonstrated four key
elements: (1) a strong identity, based on the community's vision, not outside influences;
(2) a commitment to exposing students to a variety of perspectives; (3) a community with
rich experiences which are intentionally leveraged in the development of international
mindedness; (4) the embodiment of international mindedness by all members of the
community.
While this study did not help narrow down the definitions of international
mindedness, it did apply Spitzberg and Changon's (2009) framework for models of
intercultural competence to categorizing models of international mindedness. This model
proved helpful in the analysis of the literature and in analyzing interviewees'
conceptualizations of international mindedness and comparing them to a person they
believed exhibited it. The models of international mindedness examined in Chapter 2 fit
four out of the five categories. No co-orientational models were found in the literature,
but one participant's conceptualization of international mindedness did fall into this
category. The application of the framework is also useful in thinking about the processes
and outcomes of international mindedness in schools. Recognizing the category into
151
which a model falls is helpful in determining how to go about developing and accessing
that version of international mindedness.
In addition to its use in this study, the framework would also be helpful for
someone working with school administrators and teachers, either in helping them
understand current models of international mindedness or in the process of developing
consensus on a common operational conceptualization.
The final implication of this study for theory is that the word international limits
the scope of the construct, perhaps it is time to develop a new phrase to identify this
construct. Many of the issues that fall under the component of global engagement are not
simply international. Rarely do scientific, environmental, financial and social issues fit
within national borders, they often have causes and implications locally, regionally and
globally. Limiting the construct with the word international may obstruct glocal thinking.
In addition, students must learn to develop intercultural understanding in all their
relationships, whether with someone from another country or with a person within their
own community. Even in considering multilingualism, students quickly learn that the
correlation between nations and languages is weakening. Perhaps it is time to replace the
phrase international mindedness with one that encourages thinking, communicating and
relating across all levels of society.
Implications for EAB. The results of this study have profound implications for
the American School of Brasilia. EAB is clearly an international school. It serves a
diverse community and has chosen a vision statement "to positively impact the world…"
(American School of Brasilia, 2016a). Despite its name, the administrators and teachers
152
of the American School of Brasilia see the school as being international. As an IB World
School, they have made a commitment to fulfill and implement an international
curriculum with the stated goal of developing internationally minded students.
While reviewing my results with the head of school, he informed me that they
have begun the process of seeking accreditation with the CIS. The head of school
recognizes that this will require a focus on the development of international mindedness
to meet the accreditation standards.
Given the multiple constructions of international mindedness found among the
administrators and teachers, the EAB leaders will need to work to find commonalities in
their understanding to serve as a foundation for moving forward. Arriving at this
agreement might start with dedicating time to conversations about the meaning of
international mindedness. This does not mean that every staff member must subscribe to
the same conceptualization of international mindedness. In fact, Haywood (2007)
suggests that in a community with cultures that differ in their beliefs and practices,
individuals will inevitably express international mindedness differently. Nor does it
mean that EAB must subscribe to some definition of international mindedness from the
IBO or any other external source. Beek (2016) asserted that the concept of international
mindedness warrants reconceptualization in local situations and suggested that the IBO
ought to require school-based policies to ensure the development of international
mindedness. The EAB community needs to figure out what international mindedness
means in their context, then they can move on to determining how best to implement it in
their curriculum and pedagogy.
153
The way in which they conceptualize international mindedness matters. Despite
having implemented the IB program for six years and having a strong school culture, the
administration and teachers have not developed a consensus on what international
mindedness means at EAB. The upcoming CIS accreditation will provide the
opportunity and motivation to explore this issue. I hope results of this study will serve as
a starting point and a valuable source of data in their conversations. The model they
adopt will have an impact on how they plan to develop and assess international
mindedness in their community.
The analysis of the curriculum suggests that there is a lack of depth in the study
of the definition and the variations of culture, along with little appreciation for the fact
that nations are not homogenous in their cultures. These are critical issues to be
addressed in developing international mindedness as the school moves to improve in
fulfilling its mission and seeks a new level of international accreditation.
Implications for international education. I used five continua in examining the
curriculum of international mindedness within the IB Diploma Program at EAB. These
continua are useful tools in generating questions that could be used in any school
interested in considering how they might include components of international mindedness
in their curriculum or evaluating their curriculum and pedagogy for international
mindedness. The first continuum, weak to strong internationalization, directs attention
toward the need for the inclusion of marginalized voices in the classroom. As teachers
study various topics, they ought to attempt to include the views of people whose lives are
154
impacted, whether through field trips, guest speakers, selecting authentic texts and other
resources or other ways of bringing minority views into the classroom.
The second continuum of a banking model to critical consciousness calls teachers
to encourage a critical perspective on society through exposing students to complex and
controversial ideas in a way that leads them to take action rather than treating them as
passive receptacles to be filled with knowledge. A school interested in assessing their
efforts in this area ought to examine both teachers' pedagogy and the impact of students'
actions outside the classroom. A lesson brought forth by this study is that the
embodiment of international mindedness will not always be international. If we expect
students to act based on a critical approach to society, they will have to act within their
sphere of influence. For most, that will begin within the walls of the school such as
initiatives to green the campus or stop bullying. Occasionally students will get involved
beyond the school walls, as in the case of the EAB students who helped run an arts
program for a public school in Brasilia. But rarely will high school students be able to
act at an international level.
A discrete versus glocal approach to framing issues was the third continuum. A
glocal perspective can help international schools avoid the temptation to focus on issues
exclusively on the global level at the expense of local considerations. Amidst concerns
of covering content and meeting standards, it might be easy to lose focus on helping
students to understand how global issues impact their lives and those of people around
them.
155
The final two continua differed from the first three in that there was no "good"
end. Rather, they require a balance of both aspects. The fourth continuum was a didactic
versus experiential approach to culture. This tool emphasizes the students' need for the
opportunity to experience differences in culture and the teaching to support their
understanding of why the differences have come about and how to think and act
accordingly. A school, like EAB, that does not take the opportunity to teach students
about culture misses the opportunity to develop a deeper international mindedness in their
students. The fifth continuum was the culture-general versus culture-specific
pedagogical approach. The approach to culture in the curriculum of the IB Diploma
program at EAB was almost entirely culture-specific. The culture-specific instruction
that permeated the school in this study was not counterbalanced by culture-general
training that would prepare students for an encounter with the range of cultural
perspectives that exist. A nuanced understanding of culture is an important element of
international mindedness. Schools seeking to develop truly internationally minded
students may need to be intentional in finding a balance between a general and a specific
approach to culture.
A final implication, unrelated to the continua, is that the adoption of the IB
Diploma Program can lead to an internationalization of the entire school. In my work
with teachers and administrators at EAB, I saw no evidence of boundaries separating
what happened within the program from the rest of the school. On the contrary, the
lessons learned within the IB program permeated the school, impacting the development
of core documents, teacher thinking and student actions. The IB program can serve as a
156
tool to internationalize the whole school, even if not all the teachers and students are
directly involved.
Limitations of this Study
As with any case study, this one included several limitations. This study did not
include students’ conceptualizations of international mindedness. Several times, teachers
and administrators suggested I "talk to the kids." I am curious how they conceptualize
international mindedness, if they notice differences among their teachers’ perspectives
and how they perceive the school's efforts at developing it.
This study focused on the IB Diploma Program within the high school. I found
that many of the ideas regarding international mindedness had seeped out of that program
and influenced thinking and practice in the rest of the upper school. I did not have the
opportunity to work with administrators and teachers in the lower school to learn how the
adoption of the IB program in the upper school had impacted them.
The assessment of international mindedness was not considered as part of this
study. Examining assessments might have added insights to what the teachers value.
Any applications of the findings of this study are limited by the nature of a single
setting being the focus of the study. This study provides a snapshot of a moment of time
in one school.
As discussed earlier, I was disappointed to not be able to schedule focus groups. I
found the interviewees to be eager to participate, but scheduling time for small groups to
meet proved to be impossible. Despite these limitations, I was pleased to have my results
157
affirmed by the head of school and his leadership team. I hope this study is a helpful tool
to them in their next steps.
Recommendations for Further Study
In this case study, I confirmed that the multiple conceptualizations of international
mindedness that exist in the literature are reflected in the views of the administrators and
teachers of one school in Brazil. This school has been implementing the IB program for
six years. Replicating this study in schools with differing years of experience with the
program, or returning to this school in several years would provide an opportunity to
investigate the factors that affect if and how a staff's conceptualizations of international
mindedness coalesce over time.
Ultimately, as many international schools have included international mindedness
or similar constructs in their mission and vision statements, there is a need for the
assessment of international mindedness. Given the diverse conceptualizations of
international mindedness and the complexity of its embodiment in a school community, a
specific assessment tool would be difficult to develop. Perhaps, instead of a specific tool,
what is needed is a guided process that assists the members of a school community in
clarifying its conceptualization of international mindedness, identifying the means by
which they propose to develop it, and assessing both the extent to which the community
is implementing their program and its impact on students. This would alleviate the need
for agreement between schools on a conceptualization of international mindedness on
which to base a test. Such a process would also respect the category of model the school
has adopted, whether it is causal, developmental, compositional, co-orientational or
158
adaptational. The evidence for international mindedness would be determined by the
school's model. This kind of process would be useful to school leaders interested in
assessing the impact of their program on their students, however it would be less useful
for researchers wishing to compare schools, programs or other factors.
I would be interested in seeing further study to refine and validate the five
continua suggested for this study. I believe such a tool would be useful in improving
curriculum and catalyzing the development of effective pedagogy for international
mindedness in schools around the world.
Summary
This case study of one international school in Brazil revealed a unique approach
to international mindedness. The framework and continua applied in the analysis were
helpful and may be useful in other settings. EAB is a school with a rich culture and a
strong sense of identity. Despite not having come to a consensus on the meaning of the
term, and demonstrating some shortcomings in their approach to culture, EAB has
provided students with a diverse school environment where they are exposed to many
perspectives, and can benefit from their community's rich experiences and their leaders'
high levels of intercultural competence. This case allowed for the exploration of the
meaning and implementation of international mindedness providing insights of value to
EAB, other international school, and the further development of theory. I count myself
fortunate to have had the experience of getting to know the American School of Brasilia
and a few of the members of its community.
159
160
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Appendices
Appendix A: Some Interpretations of ‘International Education’
(James, 2005, p. 331–332)
▪ “Schooling in more than one nation (Rizvi, 2000)
▪ What happens in ‘international schools’ (Thomas, 1996; Bartlett, 1997; Wilkinson,
1998; Gunesch, 2004)
▪ Studying an ‘international curriculum’ such as the IPC, IGCSE courses, or the IB
Diploma Programme
▪ Schooling that results in certification allowing the holder to cross national borders
(McKenzie, 1998). This is usually linked with ‘international’ curricula, but is not
exclusive to them. Many countries recognize ‘national’ qualifications from other
nations, yet would not regard them as the result of an ‘international education’.
▪ The offering of a single country’s curriculum outside its national borders (ECIS in
Hayden and Thompson, 1996)
▪ Schooling at an organization with a multinational student body (ECIS in Hayden and
Thompson, 1996)
▪ Internationally comparative educational studies, carried out by academics and
particularly involving developing countries (Lowe, 1998; Cambridge and Thompson,
2004)
▪ Education that is not subject to national requirements, curricula, or standards
(McKenzie, 1998). However, ‘home-schooling’ or ‘un-schooling’ can fit this
definition yet would be classified as ‘international’.
▪ An educative system catering for a community of internationally mobile expatriates
(McKenzie, 1998)
▪ Education involving multi-national collaboration e.g. through exchanges or curricular
development (McKenzie, 1998)
▪ ‘All educative efforts that aim at fostering an international orientation in knowledge
and attitudes’ (Huse´n & Postlethwaite, 1985: 260, in Hayden and Thompson, 1995b:
328) and seek ‘to build bridges between countries’ (McKenzie, 1998: 243). These can
happen in any school.
175
Appendix B: IB Learner Profile
(International Baccalaureate Organization, 2013b)
The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who,
recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create
a better and more peaceful world.
As IB learners we strive to be:
Inquirers- We nurture our curiosity, developing skills for inquiry and research. We know
how to learn independently and with others. We learn with enthusiasm and sustain our
love of learning throughout life.
Knowledgeable- We develop and use conceptual understanding, exploring knowledge
across a range of disciplines. We engage with issues and ideas that have local and global
significance.
Thinkers- We use critical and creative thinking skills to analyze and take responsible
action on complex problems. We exercise initiative in making reasoned, ethical
decisions. We express ourselves confidently and creatively in more than one language
and in many ways. We collaborate effectively, listening carefully to the perspectives of
other individuals and groups.
Principled- We act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness and justice,
and with respect for the dignity and rights of people everywhere. We take responsibility
for our actions and their consequences.
Open-Minded- We critically appreciate our own cultures and personal histories, as well
as the values and traditions of others. We seek and evaluate a range of points of view, and
we are willing to grow from the experience.
Caring- We show empathy, compassion and respect. We have a commitment to service,
and we act to make a positive difference in the lives of others and in the world around us.
Risk-Takers- We approach uncertainty with forethought and determination; we work
independently and cooperatively to explore new ideas and innovative strategies. We are
resourceful and resilient in the face of challenges and change.
Balanced- We understand the importance of balancing different aspects of our lives-
intellectual, physical, and emotional- to achieve well-being for ourselves and others. We
recognize our interdependence with other people and with the world in which we live.
Reflective- We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and experience. We
work to understand our strengths and weaknesses in order to support our learning and
personal development.
The IB learner prole represents 10 attributes valued by IB World Schools. We believe
these attributes, and others like them, can help individuals and groups become
responsible members of local, national and global communities.
176
Appendix C: School Consent for Participation
American School of Brasilia Celebrating Diversity & Cultivating Citizenship
!
SGAS 605, Conjunto E, Lotes 34/37 CEP 70200-650 - Brasilia, DF, Brazil Tel: +55 (61) 3442-9700 Fax: +55 (61)
3442-9729
www.eabdf.br
!
Dear!University!of!Minnesota!IRB,!!
!!
I!have!reviewed!the!proposed!study,!“International!Mindedness:!Constructs!and!Pedagogy!in!an!
International!School”,!presented!by!Nelson!Dewey,!a!doctoral!student!at!the!University!of!
Minnesota.!I!understand!that!the!purpose!of!the!study!is!to!examine!and!how!school!leaders!and!
teachers!understand!international!mindedness!and!implement!it!in!their!classrooms.!Targeted!
participants!will!include!school!leaders!and!teachers!in!the!IB!diploma!program.!!
I!have!granted!permission!for!the!following!research!activities!to!be!conducted!at!the!American!
School!of!Brasilia:!!
• Conduct!interviews!with!school!leaders!
• Recruit!potential!participants!via!email!or!personal!invitations!
• Lead!focus!groups!with!teachers!
• Examine!curriculum!and!other!relevant!documents!
I!confirm!that!I!have!authority!to!grant!such!permission!on!behalf!of!______.!!
I!understand!that!this!project!will!only!begin!once!the!student!has!obtained!the!University!of!
Minnesota’s!Institutional!Review!Board!(IRB)!approval.!Nelson!Dewey!has!agreed!to!provide!to!my!
office!a!copy!of!the!IRB!approval!or!exemption!letter!before!beginning!any!research!activities.!!
I!am!aware!that!all!data!collected!will!be!kept!confidential.!Nelson!Dewey!has!agreed!to!provide!my!
office!a!copy!of!the!aggregate!results!from!the!study.!!
!If!the!IRB!has!any!concerns!about!the!permission!being!granted!by!this!letter,!please!contact!me!at!
the!phone!number!or!email!address!listed!below.!!
!
Name:!David!Bair!
Position:!Upper!School!Principal!at!The!American!School!of!Brasília!
Signature!
Date:!January!12,!2016!
Contact!Information:!!
Email:[email protected]!
!
!
177
Appendix D: Interview Questions for School Administrators
School Leader Interview Protocol
This protocol was borrowed from the work of Gigliotti-Labay (2010) and slightly
modified for the purposes of this study.
TOPIC DOMAIN 1: Individual’s understanding of international mindedness and
commitment to infusing it within the school or program
Leadoff Question: What makes SPIS distinct with regard to developing intercultural
competence in its students?
Covert Categories
• Perception of international mindedness
• Development of understanding of international mindedness
• Attitudes toward the importance of international mindedness
• Leader’s effectiveness in promoting international mindedness
• Leader’s depth of knowledge and level of understanding of the international
mindedness mission
• Leader’s attitude toward promoting international mindedness
Possible Follow-up Questions
1. Think back to when you first started working in international education, how was
the term “international mindedness” introduced to you?
2. When somebody in your school uses the term “international mindedness,” what
do you think it means?
3. How has your school fleshed out the idea of international mindedness beyond the
IB student profile?
4. How do you explain international mindedness to a new IB teacher at your school?
5. How important is international mindedness in the IB curriculum, in your opinion?
Do you have any thoughts on that?
6. Are there any ways that your school helps teachers incorporate more international
themes/issues in their classrooms?
178
TOPIC DOMAIN 2: The importance of culture within the classroom and curriculum
Leadoff Question: How is the cultural diversity of the school community considered in
the school’s mission?
Covert Categories
• Importance of cultural diversity within the classroom
• Consideration of culture as part of the curriculum
• Depth and nature of engagement with culture
Possible follow-up questions:
1. What training is available for teachers in learning how to teach in a culturally
diverse classroom?
2. Your school mission includes “fostering intercultural competence”. How does
that compare to international mindedness?
3. How is culture a key theme in the learning and teaching at the school? Please
give examples.
4. What kinds of projects or activities demonstrate a student’s international
mindedness?
5. In what ways does your school integrate a variety of cultural perspectives in
learning and teaching?
TOPIC DOMAIN 3: Institutionalization of international mindedness within the IB
school culture
Leadoff Question: Tell me a little bit about your school, and if there is anything about
your school that particularly emphasizes international mindedness.
Covert Categories
• Perception of school’s institutionalization of international mindedness
• Role of school community in promoting international mindedness
• Role of school administration in promotion of international mindedness
Possible Follow-up Questions
1. Can you describe an exemplary lesson incorporating international mindedness?
2. As you know, the development of international mindedness is part of the mission
of the IBO. Can you describe examples of how your school fulfills that mission
within the IBDP?
179
3. In your school, are there any ways in which the administration assesses a
teacher’s ability to incorporate international content or issues in their instruction?
If so, tell me about them. If not, what are your thoughts on that? Should this be
part of a teacher’s appraisal?
4. Are there any kinds of professional development or other forms of help available
at the campus level that can assist teachers in incorporating more international
content in their curriculum?
5. Are there opportunities that encourage the faculty at your school to undertake
projects of an international or cultural nature?
6. Can you tell me about CAS (Community, Action, Service) activities at your
school that may be intercultural or international in nature?
7. Does your school have any opportunities for students to study abroad, have
language exchange visits, or other related experiences?
180
Appendix E: Focus Group Questions for Teachers
Teacher Focus Group Protocol
This protocol was borrowed from the work of Gigliotti-Labay (2010) and slightly
modified for the purposes of this study.
TOPIC DOMAIN 1: Individual’s understanding of international mindedness and
commitment to infusing it within his/her own classroom
Lead-off Question: What makes SPIS distinct with regard to developing intercultural
competence in its students? Can you give me examples from your classes?
Covert Categories
• Perception of international mindedness
• Development of understanding of international mindedness
• Attitudes toward the importance of international mindedness
• Teacher’s effectiveness in promoting international mindedness
• Teacher’s depth of knowledge and level of understanding of the international
mindedness mission
• Teacher’s attitude toward promoting international mindedness
Possible Follow-up Questions
1. Think back to when you first started working in international education, how was
the term “international mindedness” introduced to you?
2. When somebody in your school uses the term “international mindedness,” what
do you think it means?
3. How do you explain international mindedness to a new IB teacher at your school?
4. What resources have been helpful to you in developing your understanding of
international mindedness?
5. Can you give me examples of the broader international themes that are used in
your course?
6. How important is international mindedness in the IB curriculum, in your opinion?
Do you have any thoughts on that?
7. Are there ways that your school helps you incorporate more international
themes/issues in your classroom?
181
TOPIC DOMAIN 2: The importance of culture within the classroom and curriculum
Leadoff Question: How is “culture” present in your classroom (however you define
culture). How do you work with that?
Covert Categories
• How “culture” is constructed and what it means in the classroom context
• Importance of cultural diversity within the classroom
• Consideration of culture as part of the curriculum
• Depth and nature of engagement with culture
Possible follow-up questions:
1. Give me examples of training you have received in learning how to teach in a
culturally diverse classroom.
2. Your school mission includes “fostering intercultural competence”. How does
that compare to international mindedness?
3. How is culture a key theme in the learning and teaching in your classroom?
4. What kinds of projects or activities demonstrate a student’s international
mindedness?
5. In what ways do you integrate a variety of cultural perspectives in your
classroom?
TOPIC DOMAIN 3: Institutionalization of international mindedness within the IB
school culture
Leadoff Question: Tell me a little bit about your school, and if there is anything about
your school that particularly emphasizes international mindedness.
Covert Categories
• Perception of school’s institutionalization of international mindedness
• Role of school community in promoting international mindedness
• Role of school administration in promotion of international mindedness
Possible Follow-up Questions
1. Can you describe an exemplary lesson incorporating international mindedness?
2. As you know, the development of international mindedness is part of the mission
of the IBO. Can you describe examples of how your school fulfills that mission
within the IBDP?
182
3. Tell me about how you use (select an item observed in classrooms) to develop
international mindedness.
4. In your school, are there any ways in which the administration assesses a
teacher’s ability to incorporate international content or issues in their instruction?
If so, tell me about them. If not, what are your thoughts on that? Should this be
part of a teacher’s appraisal?
5. Are there any kinds of professional development or other forms of help available
at the campus level that can assist teachers in incorporating more international
content in their curriculum?
6. Are there opportunities that encourage the faculty at your school to undertake
projects of an international or cultural nature?
7. Can you tell me about CAS (Community, Action, Service) activities at your
school that may be intercultural or international in nature?
8. Does your school have any opportunities for students to study abroad, have
language exchange visits, or other related experiences?
183
Appendix F: Atlas Curriculum Template
184
Appendix G: Quirks/Coding List
Core Documents- all references to Mission, Vision, Core Values, student handbook,
honor code etc…
Culture- references to culture, pertaining to students or class content
• Challenges- difficulties encountered in dealing with culture
• Dispositions- head of school used this word to describe teachers
• Diversity- comments on the nature of the diversity of culture within the
school
• Skills- skills that were thought necessary for dealing with culture
• Strategies- descriptions of ways of approaching culture and cultural
differences
• Training- any preparation offered to teachers
Discrimination- comments on either the presence of discrimination or efforts to fight it
within the school
IB Program- IB program details
• General- nature of the IB program in general and specifically within EAB
• TOK- Comments on the Theory of Knowledge class
• CAS- Comments on the Creativity, Action, Service component of the IB
International Education- nature or definition of IE
International Mindedness-
• Activities- any class or extracurricular activities that develop or display IM
• Definitions- definitions offered either explicitly or implicitly
• Personal Exemplars- people or personal characteristics exhibiting IM
• Strategies- strategies to develop IM
• Technology- importance of technology in IM
• Language Issues- how language impacts the classroom
• Leadership by Example- ways in which teachers and administrators
demonstrate IM or IS
Setting- all information describing the unique setting of the school
• Brasilia
• Brazil
• School
Student Experiences- importance or examples of student background and experiences in
the classroom
Teacher Experiences- importance or examples of student background and experiences in
the classroom
185
Below is a screen shot of the visualization of my coding. Each circle represents a code,
or in this program a "quirk". Some quirks are broken down into more specific quirks.
186
Appendix H: Permission to Use School Name
SGAS605,ConjuntoE,Lotes34/37CEP70200-650-Brasilia,DF,BrazilTel:+55(61)3442-9700Fax:+55(61)3442-9729www.eabdf.br
To the University of Minnesota IRB,
As a representative of the American School of Brasilia, I confirm that the school grants
permission for Nelson Dewey to use the school’s name in his dissertation titled International Mindedness: Conceptualizations and Pedagogy in an International School in Brazil. Any use
of the school name in further publications would require additional permission.
Barry Dequanne Head of School
____________________________________ ________________________________
Printed Name of School District Official Title of School District Official
March 31, 2017
____________________________________ _________________
Signature of School District Official Date