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HiSTOriCal aNd urBaN PlaNNiNg dEVElOPMENT OF KEraMEiKOS

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HISTORICAL AND URBAN PLANNING DEVELOPMENT OF KERAMEIKOS

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CONTENTS

Early aNTiquiTy ......................................................................................................................... p.2-3

ClaSSiCal Era (478-338 BC) .................................................................................................. p.4-5

The municipality of Kerameis

POST aNTiquiTy ........................................................................................................................... p.6-7

MiddlE agES ................................................................................................................................ p.8-9

rECENT yEarS ........................................................................................................................ p.10-22

A. From the establishment of Athens as capital city of the neo-Greek state until the end of 19th

century.

I. The first maps of Athens and the urban planning development

II. The district of Metaxourgeion

• Inclusion of the area in the plan of Kleanthis-Schaubert

• The effect of the proposition of Klenze regarding the construction of the palace in Kerameikos

• Consequences of the transfer of the palace to Syntagma square

• The silk mill factory and the industrialization of the area

• The crystallization of the mixed suburban character of the district

B. 20th century

I. The reformation projects of Athens and the urban planning development


• District character and land uses

• Gradual degradation of the area

C. Metaxourgeion as a modern day district

• Demographic aspects

• Structured environment

• Ownership regime

• Land uses

• Problems of the district

• New prospects



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Early aNTiquiTy

During the Latter Neolithic Age (4500-3200 BC), Athens was inhabited by a permanently settled population occupying homes and caves around Acropolis while, in case of danger, they used the peak of the sheer rock as a refuge. The reign of indigenous Kekrops, who united the first twelve municipali-ties of Attica, resulting in the division of the inhabitants into four tribes, is dated around the time of transition from Early (3200-2000 BC) to Middle Bronze Age (2000-1600 BC). The most significant, powerful and entrenched of the above towns was that of Kekropia, located at the future area of Athens. Traces of inhabitation have been discovered at the hill of Acropolis, at the area around the hill up to Ilissos, where the Agora would lie thereafter, and also at the area of the Academy and the hill of Strefi. The discovery of individual tombs and other artifacts in Kerameikos signifies that the area was used as burial ground.

The arrival of the Ionians has been dated around the Mycenaean age (1600-1150 BC), who were responsible for the restructuring of the racial segregation of Attica, based on professional occupa-tion. The plural in the name of the city, i.e. Athinai, is attributed to the structuring of the population into towns, komai. During the reign of king Thesseus, the power of local rulers governing the twelve municipalities of Attica was disrupted and their residents were united, forming a common city, with the establishment of the Prytaneion in Athens. The peak of the rock and at least the Southern slope were occupied by the sovereign and the ruling class. As of the 14th century BC the town was greatly developed, which is assumed due to the discovery of cemeteries located at great distances from each other. The area surrounded by the hills of Agoraeos Kolonos, Areopagus, Nymphs and Muses to the West, by the hill of Sicily to the South, the Agora to the North, Ilissos to the East and Acropolis, was not occupied by a uniform town, but by individual settlements having their central core on the rock and its southern slope. At the 13th century BC, Athens entered its most significant period of development in the pre-historic period. The area remained the same, however at the peak of the rock the Mycenaean palace was erected, and the rock was later entrenched with the construction of a powerful cyclopean wall, the Pelargic or Pelasgic wall. Thucydides (II, 15, 6) reports that, during that period, Acropolis was called polis (city), while the lower town was called asty (town). The progress was interrupted in early 12th century BC, when there was a demographic shrinkage, reflected in the abandonment of residential areas and burial grounds.

The fall of the Mycenaean culture did affect Athens, although, according to tradition, the Athenians were indigenous as they were never conquered by the Dorian tribes, and the Athenians of the historic ages were Ionians. However, the end of Mycenaean Athens coincided with the fall of the other centers and it is during that era that the roots of the future constitution of the independent city-state should be sought. Residential remnants from the Sub-Mycenaean and Protogeometric period (1150-900 BC) have been found in the north and north-western foothills of Areopagus, which infers an expansion of the district towards the Agora, which began to be constantly inhabited and used as burial ground. During that period, two cemeteries were developed in the area of Kerameikos at a distance of approxi-mately 200 meters away from each other. The first cemetery reaches from the western side of Dipylon until the Hiera gate and the second is located to the west along Piraeus street, from Salaminas street until Kolokynthous street.

During the Geometric period (900-700 BC) there was a movement towards the coast, resulting in the countryside being more heavily populated than Athens, despite the overall increase of the population of Attica. At the end of the 8th century BC the progress was interrupted, a fact possibly attributed to a dry spell accompanied by plague, which resulted in high fatality levels. During the 8th century BC the city-state was established, as a result of a long process of social-political changes which essentially be-gan after the fall of the Mycenaean palace. The areas at the south of Acropolis until the Olympeion and at the north until Piraeus street were inhabited, while the areas between Areopagus and Ancient Agora were more densely populated. At the area of Plato’s Academy several remnants of houses have been



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found, together with a sacred residence. Burials were traced at the north-western foothills of Acropolis and Areopagus, at the Agora and Agoraeus Kolonos. A large number of tombs were disclosed in the area of Kerameikos, while at the northern and southern sides of Eridanos, at External Kerameikos, a large cemetery was revealed.

The Archaic period (700-478 BC) is characterized by the intense social-political upheavals due to the discontent towards aristocracy. The political reformations instituted by Dracon and Solon were not enough to balance the conflicts, resulting in the rise of Peisistratos to power through a coup d’ etat in 561 BC. Tyranny endured almost throughout the 6th century BC until 508/7 BC, when Kleisthenes at-tempted to disrupt the local interests and the bonds between the families of landholders. Kleisthenes divided Attica into three geographic districts: the City (Asty), the Shore (Paralia) and the Midland (Me-sogaia); and into thirty tritteis, consisting of ten municipalities from each district. One tritty of municipali-ties from each district, i.e. three tritteis in total, comprised a tribe, which were ten in total. The period ends with the repellence of Persian invasions in 480/79 BC, which began on occasion of the support of the Athenians to the rebellious cities of Ionia and the firing of Sardes. The Persian invasions ruined the buildings of Athens, however the success of the Athenians offered them authority and recognition, an inheritance which gave a boost to the development of their city in the Classical era.

During the Early Archaic period (7th century BC), the Agora of Thesseus is continuously developed and occupies an area to the East and Northeast of Acropolis, while the most heavily populated area must have been to the South, Southeast and East of Acropolis. During the 6th century BC Acropolis which, during the previous century, had a very small number of buildings, was converted into a sanctu-ary and was dedicated to the worship of Athena Polias, protector of the city. Around 600 BC, during the reign of Solon, the great square at the northwest side of the rock began to be formed with the prospect of having the Agora transferred there, an obvious location due to the existence of pre-existing major roads. Around the middle of 6th century BC, Peisistratos and his sons supplemented the Agora with new buildings and the public area was gradually expanded towards the east and south, while at the end of the century even more political and administrative activities were concentrated there. The most heavily populated area of the city was now located at the north of Areopagus, while the area between Agora and Plato’s Academy was more scarcely populated. Since the 6th century BC the burial grounds were placed on either side of big arterial roads, as all burials within the city walls had been banned for the avoidance of contamination and loss of useful space. The exact location of the archaic walls is unknown, however they were cyclical in shape surrounding the Acropolis and included a larger area towards the west and northwest, since the city had expanded towards these two directions, leaving the area of Kerameikos outside its limits. Since the second half of 6th century BC, the cemetery located near the Dipylon at External Kerameikos began to be formed. A cluster of tombs appeared around that time, at the corner of Kerameikos and Mylleros streets, at the east of the road leading to Hippios Kolonos. Two cemeteries were formed at a nearby distance, however completely independent to each other: the Dipylon, which, upon the establishment of Dimossion Sima, took on political significance, and the Eriai pylai (at Dipylou and Leokoriou streets), which became the cemetery of the citizens.



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ClaSSiCal Era (478-338 BC)

The repellence of Persian invasions established the Athenian ruling in the Helladic territory. Athens became the leader of an alliance of Greek cities for the purpose of continuing the war against the Per-sians. It was at that time that Kimon, offspring of the aristocratic family of Miltiades, was the main figure in the political environment of Athens. Following his ostracism in 460/1 BC, Pericles climbed to the ultimate political office and ruled almost throughout the third quarter of the 5th century BC. The execu-tion of the treaty of Kallias (449 BC) with Persians and the Thirty-Year Alliance with Spartans and their allies signified the beginning of the great construction project of Acropolis, which was interrupted by the commencement of Peloponnesian wars in 432/1 and the death of Pericles a year later, due to the plague that cost the lives of one quarter of the population of Athens. Following the debacle of the Athe-nian fleet during the countermarch to Sicily (415-413 BC), which had been instigated by Alkiviades, the Spartans violated the peace treaty which had been signed in 421 BC and continued the war.

The end of the war in 405/4 BC with the defeat of Athens resulted in the intervention of Spartans in the political affairs of Athens and the rising of the Thirty Tyrants to power; however, two year later, democracy was restored. In the attempt of regaining its leadership, Athens accepted the Persian aid and, in 378/7 BC, Athens and Thebes established the 2nd Athenian Alliance for the purpose of limiting the influence of Sparta. In 359 BC, Filippos B’ received the throne of Macedonia, with the ambition of converting Macedonia into a great power. At first he enhanced monarchy and secured the borders with Epirus and Thrace, and then he turned his attention to the South and East. Since 348 BC, he began to manifest his purposes through military actions, until, in 338 BC, the defeat of the Athenian and Thebaic fleet in Chaironeia brought the enemy at the gates.

Athens is one of those cities which were developed dynamically, and not on the basis of urban plan-ning. Acropolis, the main element of the city-state, stopped being a fortress and was converted into a sacred area since 6th century BC. As of that time, it became the religious center of the city-state of Athens. The first attempt to implement an urban plan around Acropolis was that of Solon in the begin-ning of the 6th century BC, when the new Agora was established on the area where sports and other religious events were traditionally being held. Its development into an administrative and religious center was gradual. The implementation of an urban plan on residential areas was impossible, due to the circumstances that had been formed until that time. The residences occupied almost the entire area which had been included within the Themistoclean walls (478 BC), however their density varied. Between the city walls and the residences closest to them there was a small uninhabited area, the bar-rens of the city. Except from the quadrangle of the city, the walls of Piraeus were constructed and the two cities were linked with the construction of the long walls.

In almost all cases, the cemeteries were placed outside the gates of the quadrangle, on either side of the arterial roads. The residential areas are principally concentrated within the Themistocleian walls, however the discovery of remnants of residences within the walls and near the arterial roads is not a rare phenomenon, such as the remnants on Marathonos street. The ceramic laboratories generally operate within the city walls, and since the end of the 6th century BC and throughout the 5th century BC they expand mainly to the northwest, i.e. towards the area of Kerameikos and frequently at a great distance from the city, towards Plato’s Academy and Hippios Kolonos. This area concentrated several preconditions which are necessary for the establishment of laboratories: it was not heavily populated, it was equipped with a dense road network which served the direct transportation of products between the city and the port through Piraeus road, and there was plenty of water, luxuriant vegetation, acces-sible carburant from the mountains of Parnitha and plenty of clay, due to the deposition of silt from Kifissos river. The laboratories were organized in small potters’ settlements near the big arterial roads. Potters’ laboratories of the Archaic and Classical era were located in the entire area to the northwest of the city and outside its walls, up to Plato’s Academy. One of the most significant findings in the area of Kerameikos is the excavation of three apothetes (casings), at 2, Marathonos & Agissilaou streets,



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which belong to the laboratory of Vrygos and are dated back to the first quarter of the 5th century BC. A potter’s laboratory of the 4th century BC was excavated at the corner of Myllerou and Kerameikou streets.

The municipality of Kerameis

The most significant municipality of the northwestern area of the city was Kerameikos, which extended at least from the northwestern side of the Agora up to the bocage of Academos, where Plato’s Acad-emy was later established. The kalliston suburb of ancient Athens (Thucydides, II, 34) was named after the ceramists’ laboratories located there, and also due to the fact that people used to offer sacrifice to a hero named Keramos, who was the renowned hero of the municipality. The municipality of Kerameis belonged to Akamantis tribe and inside the Dipylon there was an altar devoted to the renowned hero of the tribe, Akamantas. The reference of Thucydides to External Kerameikos (VI 57), where Armodios and Aristigeiton attempted to murder Hippias, infers that, in the beginning, the entire municipality was located outside the ancient city walls and that, following their construction, part of the municipality was inside the city and the other part was a suburb. The official cemetery of the city, Dimossion Sima, was developed in the area of External Kerameikos, while at the northeast of same there were industrial and commercial districts one after another, followed by rural areas even northerner, as in that direction there was the field of Athens, the fertile valley of Kifissos river. The municipality was crossed by Erida-nos river with a southeastern-northwestern direction, whose bed must have been swampy all along, constituting the area unfit for inhabitation. Moreover, due to the existence of two more rivers in that area, Kifissos and Cyclovoros, there was a large quantity of river fills, occasionally reaching 8 meters in depth. In Inner Kerameikos were constructed governmental buildings, archways and sanctuaries, while historical sources report that it was a place frequented by prostitutes, where loans were granted and wine was sold.

The municipality of Kerameis was crossed by three of the main road arteries of Athens. The Hiera Odos which, passing through the Sacred Gate, was extended to the west towards Eleusina and was sur-rounded by cemeteries almost all the way. The Kerameikos or External Road, which connected the city with the bocage of Academos, starting from the Dipylon, and to either side of that road a large cem-etery had been developed, the Dimossion Sima, which included the tombs of politicians of Athens, of Athenian warriors who were buried in common graves sorted by tribe, as well as their allies. The most eastern of the three main road arteries of External Kerameikos was the one leading from the “Eries” gates on the hill of Hippios Kolonos, also surrounded by tombs in small clusters. A second road also lead to the Academy, constituting a branch of Hiera Odos, and followed a course parallel to that of the road connecting the Dipylon with the Academy, being a small distance to its west. The road was surrounded by tombs and constituted a roadway. Another branch of Hiera Odos was the road leading from the area of Kerameikos to Piraeus. Finally, there were four transversal roads connecting the road leading to the Academy with the road leading to Hippios Kolonos, one of which has been revealed in the area of Kerameikos and two others in the area of Metaxourgeion.



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POST aNTiquiTy

The fruitless attempts of Filippos and later of Alexandros to make Athens their ally resulted in the riot of Greek cities, including Athens, against Macedonian ruling, known as Lamian war (322/1 BC). The failure of the riot signified the end of Athenian democracy and the beginning of a period during which Athens became the apple of discord between Macedonian kings. Following a period of aristocracy, during which Demetrios Falireas became tyrant, democracy was restored in 307/6 by Demetrios the Besieger. The fights for dominion between Hellenistic kingdoms continued and, in 200 BC, Filippos E’, having failed to conquer Athens, proceeded to the systematic destruction of its monuments. The Hellenistic era (338-86 BC) ends with the direct intervention of Rome, which defeated Filippos E’ and inaugurated a period of relevant independency for Athens.

In the beginning of that period, the financial growth of Athens, mainly attributed to the exploitation of the mines of Lavrion, is reflected in the construction activities at the southern slope, the area of Ilissos and Pnyka. The 3rd century BC is characterized by the interruption of the urban planning development of the city, as no new private and public buildings were found at any part of the city. During the 2nd century BC there was a temporary recovery, as indicated by the large public constructions erected with the financing of foreign benefactors from the regal houses of the East. The restoration of all walls of the city and Piraeus and the construction of a new wall on the hill of Pnyka are dated back to that same pe-riod. As regards the Agora, it was a significant period of renaissance, as it was more regularly formed, surrounded by archways according to the pattern of the Hellenistic agorai of the cities of Asia Minor. It is noted that, in the wider area of Kerameikos and Metaxourgeion, tombs of the Hellenistic period have been excavated.

In 146 BC, the Roman general Mommius overwhelmed the Achaean League and, as of that time, Greece was ruled as a Roman eparchy. However, the Roman era (86 BC – 267 AD) for Athens is deemed to have begun after its siege and destruction by Syllas in 86 BC, who respected the glory of Athens and conceded it its autonomy and a relevant independency. During the 1st century BC, all civil conflicts of the Romans took place on Greek territory, hence the advent of many Roman emperors to Athens. The emperor whose name was more closely associated with Athens was Adrian (117 AD). The next great destruction of Athens was by the Eruls in 267 AD, who were finally defeated by the Athe-nians under the leadership of Erennius Dexippus.

Up until the invasion of Syllas, Athens had maintained all its splendor from the Classical and Hellenistic eras. However, the invasion of the city brought on the destruction of its monuments, walls and gardens. Since the time of Julius Caesar (mid 1st century BC), the beneficial role of the Hellenistic monarchies of the previous era was taken on by Roman emperors, who mostly erected establishments of a cultural and educational nature, as well as an Agora very close to the ancient one, which lost its significance and was occupied by large buildings. Throughout the 1st century AD the construction activities re-mained very limited, while from the 2nd century AD a new period of prosperity began for the city, which was continued and enhanced by Adrian. The city remained unfortified until the end of the 1st or the beginning of the 2nd century AD, when its expansion by Adrian to the East occasioned the repair of the Themistoclean quadrangle and the construction of the new city walls which surrounded the New Ath-ens. Around the middle of the 3rd century AD, the impending danger of the Goths and Eruls prompted the emperor Valerianus to attend to the fortification of the city and Acropolis. The invasion of the Eruls in 267 AD caused great damages to the city’s buildings, including the warehouses and laboratories of Kerameikos. The cemeteries of Kerameikos and Eriai Gates were still used, while residences were built even outside the city walls.

After the destruction of their city by the Eruls, the Athenians were unable to build their city and its walls and, in the beginning of the Post-Roman era (267-408 AD) they fortified a much smaller area to the North of Acropolis (post-Roman walls), which occupied merely one fourteenth of the area of the



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ancient city. The Acropolis, which evaded destruction, was again converted into a fortified fortress. The relevant ascent of Athens was due to the reputation of its philosophical schools. The favor of the emperors of Byzantium resulted in the expansion of the city outside the limits of the post-Roman walls, when, during the 2nd half of the 4th century AD the ancient external quadrangle was repaired and en-compassed the city. Furnaces and laboratories of ceramists and metallurgists were constructed on top of the remnants of the buildings to the North and South of Eridanos river, which remained there until the 6th century AD.

Despite the fact that, since the middle of the 1st century there had already been a Christian com-munity in Athens, the construction of the first Christian temples, which inaugurated the advent of the Paleochristianic period (408-565 AD) in Athens and the prevalence of Christianity, began around the middle of the 5th century AD when, by virtue of the decrees of Theodossios B’, the ancient temples were converted into Christian. These temples, as well as other buildings of the previous era, Gymnasi-ums, private schools, baths, residences were constructed on the area outside the post-Roman walls, which leads to the assumption that the external quadrangle still existed during that period, designat-ing the city limits. The repair of both the post-Roman and the ancient external walls, which were still in existence until the invasion of the city by the Franks, is attributed to Justinian (527-565 AD). With few exceptions, the dead were still buried outside the city walls and a Christian cemetery of the mid 4th century AD has been revealed in the area of Kerameikos, between Hiera Odos and Piraeus Road.



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MiddlE agES

Upon the abolition of philosophical schools by Justinian, the city fell into a period of decay throughout the Byzantine period (565-1204 AD). Traces of inhabitation from the 6th and 7th century were located, except from the area designated by the post-Roman quadrangle, also in the area occupied by the ancient agora. However, since the end of the 7th century and until the beginning of the 9th century AD, life had been secluded within the post-Roman walls and the entrenchment of Acropolis, named Kas-tro. From the 9th until the 12th century, the erection of many churches between the post-Roman and the external quadrangle, as well as the finding of Byzantine residences in the area designated by both these quadrangles, evidence the expansion of the city on that entire area. In the second half of the 12th century and prior to the invasion of Saracen pirates (between 1154 and 1182), the defense of the city was enhanced with the construction of a third wall, the Rizocastro, which surrounded the Kastro at the foot of the hill. In the 11th and 12th century, Kerameikos, which had maintained its ancient name until then, was occupied by soap-makers’ laboratories and the products were probably intended for the thriving silk textile industries of Thebes.

The destruction of Athens by Leon Sgouros, who did not manage to besiege Acropolis but merely the lower city, was followed by the capture of Athens by the Franks, at the end of 1204. The period of Frankish Occupation (1204-1456) was a long era of decay, as Frank sovereigns and mostly French Dukes of the houses of De la Roche and Brienne (1204-1311) and the Catalan overseers of Spanish Dukes (1311-1387) did not engage in any developmental activities and did not show any interest in the development of the city, as opposed to the Florentine Dukes of the house of Acciajuoli (1387-1456) who produced a lot. Athens was limited to the area surrounded by the post-Roman walls and Rizocas-tro, as the external quadrangle was completely abandoned following its destruction by Leon Sgouros.The first period of Turkish Occupation (1456-1687) commenced with the capture of Athens by the Turk general Omar. For the first and only time in the history of Athens, the capture was not followed by destruction, as it happened with the rapacious raid of the Venetians in 1464. Initially the city did not extend beyond the post-Roman walls, later however, with the settlement of new residents, both Greek and Arvanites, it began to expand towards the north, northeast and northwest of Acropolis. In the 17th century, the post-Roman walls and Rizocastro, with the exception of the part located at the south slope, were destroyed and the city was protected merely by a quadrangle formed by the fences and external sides of the residences located at the borders of the city. The Acropolis, which was inhabited by Turks, sustained great damages in the second half of the 17th century: in 1645 due to the explo-sion of gunpowder stored in the Propylaia prior to the attack of Morozinis, with the construction of an emplacement in front of the Propylaia made of materials extracted from the temple of Athena Nike, but mostly due to the continuous bombardment during the siege of Morozinis in 1687.

The Venetians remained in Athens for five months only and, at the time of their departure, they were followed by many Christian residents of Athens who feared the reprisal of the Turks. For three years Athens was a deserted city, but as of 1690 the Turks and the Greeks began to return, enhancing the walls of the Kastro and constructing a second wall before the entrance to Acropolis, the wall of Ypa-panti. During the second period of Turkish Occupation (1687-1833) there were many attacks of Turkish Albans and a new wall was constructed at that time, the wall of Hasekis, which surrounded the entire city. The gates were placed either on top of the gates of the previous quadrangles or in places crossed by ancient roads leading to one of the ancient gates. Thus, the Gate of Morias (on Sarri Street nowadays) to the west of the temple of Agioi Assomati, was crossed by a road which ended at Stak-tothiki where the ancient Dipylo was located, and further down met the ancient Hiera Odos.

The social segregation of Athens into two, not random, parts, had already taken place at that time. The northeastern part of the city was healthier because it was located on a higher part of the surface (on the fold of Lycabettus-Ymittos) and the old Byzantine families resided there (Benizelos, Kallifronas and other families), while the northwester part, which was closer to the bed of Kifissos river, was inhabited



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by financially lower classes. The industries were far from the agora, on the periphery of the city, and sometimes outside its quadrangle. The ceramists’ laboratories were located near Hiera Odos, in the area of Kifissos, while the area of Metaxourgeion, at the crossway of M. Alexandrou and Kolokynthou streets, was occupied by the Threshes of Sklepas family. The toponym Staktothiki (from the words stakti=ashes & thiki=holder) is medieval and derived from the hill which had been formed in the area due to the disposal of ashes from the soap-makers. At Hephaistos street, extended (through Astingos and Leokoriou streets) up to the Gate of Morias, the saddleries and the “Forges” (blacksmiths and coppersmiths) were concentrated, wherefrom the toponym Forgers’ (Gyftika) was derived for the entire area to the north of the temple of Aghioi Assomatoi around Sarri and Tournaviti streets, and also the name Forger’s Gate (Gate of Morias). Unlike the western part of the city, which was occupied by dis-turbing activities, the eastern part had concentrated noble productive activities.



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rECENT yEarS

A. From the establishment of Athens as capital city of the neo-Greek state until the end of 19th century.

I. The first maps of Athens and the urban planning development

The return of the Athenians to their city from the islands of Saronikos, where they had taken refuge after the capture of Athens by Kutachi in May 1827, began in February 1830, following the execution of the independency protocol, at which time the city had taken on the appearance of a great desert. On March 31st 1833, the Turk provost marshal Osman effendi delivered Acropolis to part of the Bavar-ian army since the prince of Bavaria Otto had recently been crowned king of the Greeks. On June 29th 1833 Athens was elected capital city of the newly established Greek state and the inflow of inhabitants to the city was now greater. The first projects concerning Athens were aimed at offering the capital of the newly established Greek state the glory of old times, in a period where the movement of neoclassi-cism flourished in Europe.

The drawing of the topographical diagram of Athens was assigned to the architects S. Kleanthis and E. Schaubert and was approved in 1833, following a series of amendments. The diagram included, apart from the entrenched city, a wide surrounding area. The residents of the old city, although they had earlier agreed to concede plots of land which belonged to them for the erection of public buildings and street planning, later reacted to the plan, an attitude that may also be attributed to the failure of first lieutenant W. von Weiler to make an exact drawing of the lines on the ground, claiming that they were not accurately determined. The topographical map of Weiler indicates the built-up plots of land, which did not exceed one thousand in number. Thus, in September 1834, another architect named L. von Klenze was called to assist who, with a view to appeasing the reactions and reducing the cost of expro-priations, included several amendments, a few of which concerned the width of the roads, the size of the squares and the area of the archaeological site.

However, the most significant change which was introduced by Klenze’s plan and had a direct effect on the future development of the city, especially on its western part, was that it transferred the pal-ace from today’s Omonoia square, as was provided in the plan of Kleanthis-Schaubert, to the area of Kerameikos and Agoraios Kolonos, where Thisseion was also included in their gardens. It is also worth noting here the proposition of K. Schinkel, regarding the construction of the palace on the hill of Acropolis, which was rejected by King Louis. The propositions of Kleanthis-Schaubert and Klenze were rejected for hygienic reasons, and also for reasons of social topography. The broader western area was infested by paludal fever due to Kifissos river and the stagnant waters, while at the same time it was close to the slums and the laboratories of the period prior to the revolution. Finally, the opinion of F. von Gartner prevailed, and the palace was constructed at the eastern part of the city, at today’s Syn-tagma square, an ideal spot from a topographic, climatic and social point of view. It was located on the fold of Lycabettus-Acropolis, where the currents of Ymittos cleansed the area, Ilissos was not stagnant as Kifissos and, moreover, the area was a continuation to the stately residential area of Plaka.

At the end of 1835, F. Stauffert drew a land map of Athens, from Acropolis until Stadiou and Piraeus streets, which was continuously updated until 1843, showing the rapid construction and development of the city. In the city plan drawn in 1837 by F. Altenhoven, and also in the map of Chenavard (1843), one may clearly notice the development of Athens on the traces of the old city and towards the direc-tion of the palace. As of 1840, the city was organized and took on a more specific form, especially on the area to the north of Adrianou Street, while the northwestern part was being built-up on a slower pace, hence the name Neapolis (new city). In 1847, the committee which had been constituted for the supplementation of the plan of Athens drew a general plan, since until that time all plans that had been



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drawn, together with their amendments, were in use. The area of Kerameikos and Metaxourgeion ap-pears to have been subjected to street planning according to Klenze’s plan, but in a simpler manner, adjusted to the topography of the area and to the requirements of archaeologists.

Following their thriving during the first decade of the establishment of the neo-Greek state, the con-struction activities took on a slower pace and were mainly focused on the district of the old city, des-ignated by Adrianou street and secondarily by the western part of the city, which had been re-named from Neapolis to Metaxourgeion, due to the establishment there of Wrampe’s silk mill factory since 1852. This tendency is reflected on a map of the French Army Headquarters of 1854. According to a plan drawn in 1860 by Emm. Kallergis, the street planning was expanded to the west, up to Salami-nas street. On the basis of the general directions of that plan, in 1864-65 the Engineering Direction of the Army re-structured and expanded the street planning up to Salaminas street, with the stream of Cyclovoros being the natural border (currently Achilleos street). The three approved sheets of the plan became the main street planning diagram of the central area of Athens, constituting the basis of con-struction activities for more than seven decades.

In the four decades that elapsed since the establishment of the neo-Greek capital, the physiognomy of Athens as it was in 1870 had drastically changed. The area outside the old city had now been built-up to a great extent, while the dichotomization of the city, maintained even to date, had been completed, involving segregation into the “wealthy” residential areas with the newly-built neoclassical residences and monumental establishments to the east, and the popular districts to the west, with the humble houses, the factories and the small industries. Towards the end of the 1870s a great demand for real estate and houses arose, as well as an issue of expansion of the street planning mainly towards the northern and eastern part of the city, according to the map of J.E. Masson of 1876 and the map of “Riunione Adriatica di Sicurta”, drawn in 1885. The topographical map of J. Kaupert of 1890 indicates the expansion of the city to the west and northwest, up to the limits of the approved street plan, while beyond that the construction activities were less dense. Consequently, by the end of the 19th century, the entire area of the old city had been built-up, while in Kolonaki, Amalias avenue, Neapolis and Metaxourgeion there were still unbuilt plots of land.


Following a long era during which the medieval district named Hezolitharo and later Chryssomeni Petra remained in oblivion, following the course of the city of Athens, after the establishment of Athens as capital city of the neo-Greek state it entered a new period of development. The successive street plans proposed a regular network of horizontal and vertical roads, considering that the construction of the area was sparse, as a result of which the area was completely distinguished from the neighboring district of Psyrri and the old city in its entirety, which was built-up on the basis of an irregular system dating back to the ancient time. The fact that the first plans of Athens had no provision for areas in-tended for productive activities had a decisive effect on the future development of Metaxourgeion. The solution to this was offered by the local community itself, which focused its attention on new areas for expansion of the city, where processing activities were established on areas where there were no pre-planned uses and the value of the land was lower.

Inclusion of the area in the plan of Kleanthis-Schaubert

In the plan of Kleanthis-Schaubert, the area of the current Metaxourgeion is a geometrically equivalent wing of the equilateral triangle designated by Piraeus-Stadiou-Ermou streets, its bisector being Athinas street and the palace at Omonoia square. According to that same plan, Metaxourgeion was defined to the northeast by the western boulevard, to the southeast by Piraeus street up to Kekropos square



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(where the former coal gas factory used to be), to the west by a street which ended on a square to the west of the current Metaxourgeion square, and to the northwest by a street which ended on the northwestern square of the royal gardens. The streets of the current Metaxourgeion which had been provided for in the street plan of Kleanthis-Schaubert were the following: Piraeus, Kerameikou (named Praxitelous), M. Alexandrou (Apellou), Salaminos (Polygnotou), Thermopylon (Iktinou), Myllerou (Feidiou) and a small part of Kolokynthous (Myronos).

The effect of the proposition of Klenze regarding the construction of the palace in Kerameikos

The proposition of Klenze to construct the palace in the area of Kerameikos was based on the incorpo-ration of Thisseion in the gardens of the palace. However, the only supporters of that proposition were those who had purchased properties in that area, including many wealthy Phanariotes, considering that it was located at a lower level in comparison to the other parts of the city and it was also unhy-gienic due to its proximity to the swamps created at the river mouth of Kifissos and other streams of the western part of Athens. Besides, the specific proposition was impossible to co-exist with the initial plan of Kleanthis and Schaubert, which placed the palace at Omonoia square. Its nodal placement in the dense road network of the area, in conjunction with Klenze’s proposal to construct the palace in Kerameikos, temporarily affected the development of the area, as the above elements portended the development of that district into a zone of central town operations.

Among the first Greeks from abroad who hastened to benefit from the foreseen development of the area was the princes Katakouzinos from Vlachia, offspring of the Byzantine Phanariotes family of Katakouzinos, who had been the rulers of Vlachia until the eruption of the Greek revolution. In 1834, Georgios Katakouzinos, trader and entrepreneur, purchased a wide area defined by current Kolokynt-hous, M. Alexandrou, Thermopylon and Leonidou streets and assigned Ch. Hansen the construction of a commercial centre, with shops on the ground floor and traders’ residences on the first floor, and his private residence at the east wing of the complex. The house was located on Gymnasiums square and was called ‘the Castle’ (die Burg), obviously due to its size and location on the square. It is not known if G. Katakouzinos ever lived in that residence and for how long because, upon its completion in 1835 and before 1842, it was being leased per floor. This building was demolished between 1873 and 1883. The big corner building complex which was erected for the purpose of accommodating a commercial centre is the first attempt of creating an indoor commercial centre in the capital city, according to the respective standards of other big European cities. During the construction works there was a dispute between the owner and the architect, resulting in the resignation of the latter. Meanwhile, the transfer of the palace to the eastern part of the city cancelled the plans of the entrepreneur and the building was left incomplete. The ‘Panorama von Athen’ of Fr. Stademann depicts the entire building complex and the residence of the prince at Hezolitharo, which still maintained its rural character.

At the same time, more wealthy Greeks from abroad, as well as many foreigners, invested in the area by building their houses there or purchasing real estate near the ancient Kerameikos and Piraeus streets, i.e. near the new power center. One of them was the Bavarian sculptor and architect Ch. E. Siegel, who owned real estate bordering with the property of Katakouzinos, who lived there himself and sub-leased it to third parties. Prince I. Karatzas built his residence near the temple of Agioi As-somatoi. The Postelnic of Vlachia, K. Vlachoutsis, built two residences at the northern side of Piraeus street, at the corner with Kolokynthou street, which accommodated the offices of the president of the regency, count Armansberg. G. Vlachoutsis built a residence at the exact opposite side, which was initially leased in order to accommodate the offices of the Regency, later it accommodated the Poly-technic school until 1871 and finally the central premises of the Conservatoire of Athens. At the corner of Myllerou and Piraeus streets, where the Chatzikostas Orphanage was later established, the Duchess of Placentia had erected her temporary residence in 1834-35, a wooden manor which was destroyed in a fire in 1847. At the corner of Giatrakos and Leonidou streets is the residence of Negreponte and later



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the general Ath. Botsaris. After it was abandoned by its owners, it accommodated the direction of Artil-lery and later became the premises of the Fire Company. Other manors of that time are the residence of Chatzipetros and the residence of Alexandros Koumoundouros.

Consequences of the transfer of the palace to Syntagma square

Finally, the decision (1836) regarding the construction of the palace at the diametrically opposite side of the city interrupted the foreseen development of Metaxourgeion and left many of the aforesaid buildings incomplete, like the commercial center of Katakouzinos, while some of the big residences which had been erected were abandoned by their initial owners within a period of four years, who were transferred to the area of the new palace, at the northern and northeastern districts. To the contrary, Piraeus street and Kerameikos were outside the center. One of the few surviving remnants of that pe-riod is the residence of Botsaris (former residence of Negreponte and later Provelengios) at the corner of Kerameikou and Myllerou streets. However, the residences which had been constructed and were leased, in conjunction with the absence of premises for productive activities, held open the prospect of converting the area into a residential district for a period of approximately twenty years. This stagnancy is confirmed through a comparison of Altenhoven’s map (1837) with a French map of 1854, where it is ascertained that the number of occupied plots of land is the same (4), with the garden of the silk mill being the only addition. These plots of land were located at either side of Myllerou street (named Ker-ameikou street at that time), which was a continuation of an older rural road leading to Sepolia. It is not accidental, therefore, that Myllerou street constituted the first settlement spot in the district, because the new street planning was based on an older road network.

The silk mill factory and the industrialization of the area

In 1852, the company ‘A. Wrampe & Co’ of the English trader A. Wrampe purchased from G. Katak-ouzinos his residence and the incomplete corner building, as well as two big neighboring plots of land from Siegel, in order to establish a silk mill. The specific spot was selected because that area had not been formed at that time, therefore the new use would not conflict with an already formed pattern. However, despite the initially auspicious prospects the silk mill never operated, as the company was declared bankrupt a few months after the purchase of the plot of land. After that, the property and the plot of land were transferred to the ownership of the French industrialist L. Roeck. Later, the build-ing was used as a Cholerics Hospital for a few months in 1854, in a period when Athens was being plagued by an epidemic of cholera.

In July of that same year, Roeck sold the major part of the ‘Premises and Vineyard’ to six Greek en-trepreneurs, among which Athanassios Douroutis, descending from a family of traders and industrial-ists from Epirus. The seven entrepreneurs established the ‘Silk Company of Greece’ under the name ‘Athanassios G. Douroutis & Co.’, for the purpose of creating a factory for the production and process-ing of silk. Since that time, the district, whose official name had been “Nea Sfera” since 1834, was named after the factory. The district of Metaxourgeion began at Eleftherias or Koumoundourou square and reached to the garden of Chassekis, in today’s School of Geoponics. The factory’s employees were mostly young girls, a fact which attracted many people of felonry in the area, who harassed the workers at Kerameikou street (current Myllerou street), resulting in its temporary closure until 1858. In the period from 1855-1856, the Silk Company purchased many neighbouring plots of land included in the city plan and established there an oil press, a flour mill and a carpentry shop. However, in that same period serious problems in the function of the factory and financial difficulties began to appear, associated with difficulty in disposing new shares.



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The establishment of Chatzikostas Orphanage in 1856, initially at the residence of N. Cyclos on Ker-ameikou street and later at Vranis residence on the corner of Myllerou and Piraeus streets, constitutes the second significant action that contributed in the formation of the complex character of Metaxour-geion. Based on the standards of Victorian poor houses, the Orphanage established dress and shoe making laboratories for the education of its inmates, and later a forge which was then converted into a factory. A further boost towards the industrialization of the district was provided by the establishment of the coal gas factory in 1859-1861, at the western side of Piraeus street, which constituted the first step towards the conversion of Piraeus street into the current axis of disturbing activities.

The establishment of Metaxourgeion, together with its appendices and the two plots of land was transferred to the ownership of the brothers Constantinos and Athanassios Douroutis in 1865. A bake-house, stables and a coach-house were constructed, however once again the business was unable to respond to the demands of that time, resulting in the permanent winding-up of the activities of the first steam factory of the capital city, which had by that time contributed significantly to the sector of silk processing. The son of Athanassios Douroutis, Georgios, became the new owner of the former Estab-lishment of Metaxourgeion who, around the end of 1880s, gave up all attempts of industrial exploitation of the property and contemplated its conversion into residences.

The crystallization of the mixed suburban character of the district

The silk mill-coal gas-orphanage laboratories complex became the centre of attraction of productive activities at the western side of the city, since their placement at more central parts of the historic city, directed from North to South during the 2nd period of Turkish Occupation, was now insufficient. With the opening of Ermou, Aeolou and Athenas streets, the production zone was re-arranged on these roads following a direction from East to West and occupying the entire area of the old city, Monastiraki, Psyrris district and the Ermou-Athenas-Evripidou triangle, where today’s downtown commercial centre currently lies. The expansion of the productive activities to the North and East, i.e. to the direction where the new city had been initially developed, was prevented by the “wealthy” districts of Omonoia and Syntagma. Consequently, the only beneficial outlet was towards the western side of the city which, apart from the above complex, possessed a continuously expanded commuting junction, being the destination point of all means of transportation and coaches coming from Piraeus while, as of 1869 the train station of Athens-Piraeus was established at Agioi Assomatoi square and in 1882 the railway line of Peloponnese was constructed to the west which, together with Constantinoupoleos avenue, divided the district in two. The wider area to the southeast of Piraeus street had concentrated shops serving transportation needs such as saddler’s shops, hay shops, coachsmith’s shops, carpenter’s shops and metal processing workshops. The gradual transfer of these shops to the west of Piraeus street, and mainly on Myllerou street, was inaugurated with the establishment of the “Greek Coach Repair Shop of Mr. Galliani” next to the silk mill, at least since 1862. This intense tendency of establishing commercial and productive activities in the area, in conjunction with the enhancement of transportation, had for the first time a preventive effect on the expansion of residential districts to the west.

This climate was reversed in the decade from 1875 until 1885, when there was an immense increase of population, as masses of immigrants flooded in Athens from the countryside, seeking a place of resi-dence in the wider area designated by Gazi to the south and by the stream of Cyclovoros to the west, which was underdeveloped in relation to the central and eastern districts of the city. Thus, at the turn of the century, a popular district had been formed in Metaxourgeion, inhabited by people with humble homes, involved in servile work. Since that time, the productive activities having Myllerou street as their main axis and the coachsmith’s shops as their basic function, co-existed with the residential areas. An-other important function of the area were the machine shops, the most significant being that of Konte-kas bros (“Hephaistos”) at Kolokynthou street and “Vlachanis, Petropoulos & Co” at Lenorman street.



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In the 1890s, the opening of Germanikou street divided the building of the former silk mill and the opening of Giatrakos street resulted in the demolition of the northern side of the building facing M. Alexandrou street. The above street planning activities divided the complex into two building blocks, and facades for ancillary buildings were constructed across the two streets, while the buildings of the eastern side of Metaxourgeion were demolished. The building was then converted into independent two-storey residences with a balcony on each floor, a form maintained to date in order to cover the housing requirements of Athens. In fact, at the north-eastern part of the wing on M. Alexandrou street, upon radical refitting works, the large uniform residence of A. Douroutis was constructed, with shops accommodated on the ground floor. In general, the ground floor areas were exploited by Douroutis to serve as storage areas and shops without any special building demands, several of which are still maintained on Leonidou and Giatrakou streets (Marika Kotopouli used one of these storage areas as a warehouse for her theatre). On the northern wing, on M. Alexandrou street (former Panepistimiou street), the lower part maintains the older form of the initial building, while the corner building of Han-sen generally maintains its original form.

B. 20th century

I. The reformation projects of Athens and the urban planning development

In the dawn of the 20th century, the street-planned areas of the capital city had been expanded to the suburbs to a great extent. However, the expansion projects were not always prepared by the Public Works division, but were more often than not submitted by the interested owners, entrepreneurs or landholders, resulting in the city’s urban planning being prey to the interests of petty politics. In the first two decades of the 20th century, two projects (Mawson, Hoffman) were prepared for the urban plan-ning reformation of the city, none of which was ever implemented.

During the Balkan wars, the problem of arbitrary buildings outside the limits of the approved city plan had been intensified, resulting in entire residential districts mostly in the western areas near the indus-trial establishments, where refugees and internal immigrants lived and worked. At the same time, new residential districts were being formed in the northern suburbs based on projects for mid-to-lower class people (e.g. Heliopolis) and under a careful building plan for upper class residents (e.g. Filothei, Ekali). The remaining part of the population occupied the already inhabited areas of the existing city plan, as well as the central area which became denser due to inflow of ‘petit’ and ‘big’ bourgeois from abroad or from the countryside. The demolition of neoclassical buildings in order to erect multi-floor buildings at these areas had already begun at that time.

The circumstances so formed at the time demanded the intervention of the state in matters regarding construction projects and city planning. In specific, the Urban Planning Law was issued in 1923 and in 1924 the plan of P. Kalligas was drawn, providing inter alia for the structuring of downtown Athens into six zones and the categorization of the residential areas in accordance with the density of their popula-tion. That plan included several districts formed by the great inflow of refugees after the destruction in Asia Minor (1922), as expansions of the existing urban planning. However, the reluctance on the part of the citizens to accept a new urban planning that would negatively affect their ownership, as well as the absence of political intent, were the reasons for missing the opportunity for an at least moderate reformation of Athens, in a critical period when a new era of re-construction of the city was beginning.

After the abandonment of Kalligas’ plan, the plan which had been in effect before 1922 was re-entered into force, comprised by 79 separate parts and 502 extracts of amendment, approvals and local expan-sions which, more often than not, were conflicting with each other. Thus, upon the initiative of the Municipality of Athens, the re-arrangement of urban planning in a uniform topographical map began



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in 1927. In 1929, law 3741 was voted, regulating horizontal properties, as well as the General Building Regulation which increased the permitted height of buildings, opening the way for the construction of multi-floor buildings. After that, more plans concerning Athens were drawn (Wagner, Karantinos), which also remained only on paper and were never implemented.

The period of Italian and German occupation (1941-1944) left Athens in a regrettable condition, both as regards human and building resources. However, the complete destruction of hundreds of build-ings gave rise to the opportunity for a radical urban planning re-formation, and at that time a number of plans were brought to the attention of the Ministry of Re-Construction. The proposition of K. Biris (1945) to establish an Administrative Centre in Megarida, independent from the capital city, which was aimed at relieving the centre from the overpopulation and traffic, although positively accepted, was never implemented. After that, the plan proposed by K. Doxiades in 1947 was an attempt to rationalize the traffic network into a system of rings and radiate axes. The plan of P. Vassiliades (1954) was not considerably differentiated from the previous one and finally, in 1956, A. Sokos proposed the estab-lishment of an Administrative Centre in Kifissos. All the above attempts finally collided with the indiffer-ence and the absence of political intent of the state.

As of the 1950s, strong motives for re-construction were provided, in fact without the use of public funding. Initially, this tendency manifested through the implementation of the new General Building Regulation of 1955, which increased the exploitation co-efficients of land, offering complete freedom of movement to constructors, mainly through the system of equalization charge. As a result, a vast part of the richness of buildings was replaced by multi-floor constructions inhabited by new residents from mid-to-lower class and higher financial levels, who had contributed to the acceleration of the urbaniza-tion pace of Athens. To the contrary, the internal financial and political immigrants settled in arbitrary residences at the western side of Attica, creating densely populated districts which were gradually included in the City Plan.

Since the beginning of the 60s, a series of large industrial units began to be established in Thriassio Pedio together with other, smaller units on the national road of Athens-Lamia, in the city, as well as in Messogeia. The division of Attica into eastern and western districts, which had already taken place since the 18th and 19th century, was now intensified. The former category included downtown Athens (Syntagma square, Kolonaki) and northern suburbs (e.g. Psychico, Ekali) and the latter included the traditional working class districts of the 19th century (e.g. Gazi, Metaxourgeio), the refugee districts and the areas created during the Balkan Wars (e.g. Tavros, Nea Ionia), and finally the new areas created through arbitrary constructing as expansions of the above districts (e.g. Petroupoli, Aegaleo). More-over, the areas included in the city plan were expanded towards the southern suburbs (e.g. Argyroupo-li, Heliopoli).

The zoning studies and programs created during the 60s were moving to the opposite direction from those of the previous period, since they now provided for the establishment of industrial zones. Thus, regulatory plans and zoning studies were assigned to private firms or were drawn by the Ministry of Public Works, the Peripheral Development Service and the Polytechnic School without however being implemented, almost without exception. In 1960, Doxiades suggested, inter alia, the establishment of an administrative centre in Tatoi, the creation of a new port in Elefsina etc., while in 1963-65 the American study firm of W. Smith submitted a study regarding traffic and public transportation in Attica, constituting the basis for all modern day regulatory plans and road works in the capital city. During the 5th Pan-Hellenic Conference of the Architects Association in Athens, both Vassiliades and Doxiades presented their revised propositions, while Gr. Diamantopoulos suggested, among other things, a new residential form for Athens, that of the European blocks of the post-war period. In the beginning of the 70s, the financial policy of the Colonels’ dictatorship, which financed construction activities and increased the construction co-efficients almost by 30% (compulsory law 395/68) was disastrous for the urban planning and natural environment of Athens. The unacceptable standards of living in the central districts lead a large part of the population to seek residence in the suburbs, a fact that con-



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tributed to the transfer of the commercialization of the residence from the centre to the suburbs. The erection of multi-floor buildings on the coast (from P. Faliro until Glyfada) and in the northern suburbs (Ag. Paraskevi, Cholargos, Neo Psychico) began with a rapid pace, while the changes in the districts of western Attica, where the former arbitrary buildings were located (e.g. Peristeri, Petroupoli), were effected on a slower pace.During the two-year period from 1970-1972, a series of studies under the general title “15-year Plan of Long Term Prospect” were issued, most of which were characterized by the dictatorship as “confiden-tial” due to the environmental and urban planning matters they contemplated. In 1972, the private firm of Doxiades was assigned the drawing of a Zoning Plan and, in that same year, the Regulatory Plan-ning Department of Athens, under the direction of Vassiliades, drew a series of departmental studies. Among the multitude of studies, the only one that was implemented was the “Study of the old city of Athens”, drawn by D. Zivas. The results of the above researches were expressed in the Street Plan of Athens of 1978, which is the last plan of the old era of urban planning and suggested an “organization of space” and a “regulation” of land uses which were never implemented. The law which constituted the cornerstone of urban planning practice, although it was never activated, was Law 947/79, which was the first to introduce the sense of the financial management of space with a view to public interest, instead of a mere “inclusion in the plan”.

During the 80s, the intention of exploitation of the land is intensified, not only for mere use (residence, trade, production), but also for investment and creation of goodwill. The intensive exploitation of cer-tain areas of great demand leads to their conversion into an intermixture of cement and asphalt. The tertiary sector of production is now expanded outside the centre and mainly on central road axes (e.g. Kifissias and Vouliagmenis avenues). At the same time, there was a tendency which had appeared since the 70s (Plaka), to “reform” and “upgrade” districts of the historical centre.

Law 1337/1983 improved on a more people-friendly basis law 947/79 and at the same time aimed at providing the Ministry authorities with correct and up-to-date urban planning studies. By virtue of law 1515/1985, enacted on the Regulatory Plan of Athens, Attica was divided into many small local centers, a provision abolished by Law 2052/92, which enacted four “supra-local zoning centers” to the benefit of constructors.


District character and land uses

At the end of the 19th century, the area, which continued in the same direction also in the 20th century, had begun to crystallize into a popular, petit bourgeois district with mixed uses (residence, trade, production). It is characteristic that, in the 1930s, one out of three houses in the area either was or accommodated a laboratory or a shop. Very few of the commercial shops belonged in the sector of clothing-footwear, while most of them were tailors’, shoe-makers’ and repair shops. Moreover, there was only one restaurant among a multitude of taverns and coffee houses. The existence of one cinema and two theatres in the area of Metaxourgeion, while all the others were concentrated on the axis of Syntagma-Omonoia-Lavrion squares, evidences that the specific form of entertainment constituted a significant parameter of the district’s social life. In fact, the great protagonist of Greek theatre, Marika Kotopouli, lived at 22 Leonidou street throughout the first 22 years of her life, while later she estab-lished the central storage area of her theatre opposite her former residence, at the corner of Giatrakos and Germanakos streets.

Except from the wide variety of uses, the concentration of various uses in specific parts within the dis-trict is also notable. The central axes of the district concentrate commercial and productive activities, with Myllerou street being the principal axis with metal, wood, construction material laboratories and



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printing houses being the main uses. The western part is mainly a residential area with food shops, while the northeastern part was mostly occupied by a variety of service providers and freelancers. However, the entire district maintains its specialization in the field of coach-building, a fact associated with the key location of the district, since until the 1950s the only axis of interurban transportation of the city was Hiera odos and all interurban buses had their starting points at the roads surrounding the temple of St. Constantine. These first laboratories gave way to the car repair shops of the post-war era.It derives from the above that, within a period of approximately fifty years since its mass inhabitation, the area had acquired a complete urban character associated with the existence of a wide variety of uses, such as areas of entertainment, education, health, shops, while productive activities were not only a part of everyday life, but also constituted an integral part of the neighborhood, enhancing at the same time the other activities.

Gradual degradation of the area

During the German occupation, the area of Metaxourgeion suffered many bombardments, as there were conflicts between the occupation forces and the resistance groups which had been formed in the area, as in most popular and working class districts of Athens. The building of the silk mill accommo-dated fugitives from Piraeus after the bombardment of the city by the Germans in 1944, and was later used as the headquarters of the Resistance Army (ELAS), while after the end of the civil war in the area and the western district of Athens in general, the defeated parties who were driven off their villages took refuge there and constituted the new working resource of the area.

After the 2nd World War, the degradation of the area was intensified. During the violent urbanization of the 50s and 60s, the area attracted the less favored groups of immigrants, since it offered cheap houses and the ability to work in the industries and repair shops. The intensity of productive activities, the fragmentation of the plots of land, the “ab indiviso” ownership, the small width of the streets and also the underground archaeological richness constituted preventive factors for the construction of the multi-floor buildings of the period from ’50-’70, when the counter-value phenomenon was very com-mon. The degradation of the area continued, as the activities which were incompatible with residences (industries, repair shops, warehouses, brothels) multiplied, while at the same time the disturbance and pollution factor was intense due to the aggravation of traffic, considering that there were significant traffic axes at the limits of the are (Piraeus, Lenorman, Constantinoupoleos streets), and also that it bordered with the tumultuous Omonoia square. However, the area maintained the nature of a popular-petit bourgeois district, where the residences co-existed with productive activities, which remained in the area and were adjusted to the new circumstances. Despite its distinctiveness, until the 1960s the area maintained the cohesive nature of the old Athenian neighborhood.

The above factors, in combination with the absence of greenery and public areas, gradually lead to the further degradation of the area, and in the 1970s-1980s a significant number of residents who had settled in the area by the end of the 1960s moved in search of a better quality of life. They were later replaced by the inflow of immigrants, especially Muslims from Thrace who, since mid 1970s and throughout the following decade, occupied abandoned buildings in Metaxourgeio, Gazi and Votan-ikos. The proximity to Omonoia square, where they hand around in search of work, the low rents, the existence of productive activities and also their familiarity with the area due to the settlement of their kindred there, are some of the reasons that attracted them in the area.

An important landmark in the history of Metaxourgeion is the inclusion of the area in the histori-cal centre of Athens, by virtue of presidential decree of 21.9.1979 (Government Gazette bulletin nr. 567D/13.10.79). In an attempt to purify the environment of the area, a decree was issued which pro-hibited the increase of horsepower and the establishment of new industries, which directly affected the productive basis of the area since the 1980s. Most traditional industries fell under the provisions of the decree and were forced to close. At the same time, many owners of old buildings decided to demol-



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ish them due to lack of the money required for their maintenance, fearing that they might be listed for compulsory maintenance. Therefore, around the end of 1980s, Metaxourgeion had the appearance of a ‘decommissioned’ district with many abandoned buildings, alternated by vacant lots and multi-floor buildings.The Regulation of ’85 included Metaxourgeion in the districts for purification. The first institutional acts of intervention took place in the 1990s, when the State expressed its interest through the Ministry of Environment, Zoning and Public Works, the Ministry of Culture and the Municipality of Athens, to up-grade the area in the following directions: exploitation of the historical and morphological aspects of its structured environment, inclusion of the area in a broader scheme of cultural upgrading of the capital city and promotion of a people-friendly environment. The undertaken actions were mainly focused on study initiatives, on location-specific interventions for the improvement of natural environment and on urban planning schemes-intervention mechanisms in the area. Among these, it is worth noting the study for the upgrading of the area, undertaken between 1990 and 1995 by the Environmental Study Corporation which, upon considering the district as an area fit for inhabitation, contemplated the return of the residents thereto. For that purpose, afforestations, construction of pedestrian precincts and res-torations of listed buildings were conducted, which however did not change nor affect the life circum-stances of the residents. The suggestions of the study were enacted by a presidential decree pub-lished in the Government Gazette, bulletin nr. 616/D/98, establishing the use of the ‘general residence’ for the most part of the district and excluding certain activities in several parts. In the internal network of the district, the construction co-efficient was fixed at 2,2. The ascertainment that the above suggestions did not provide the conditions required for the development of the area lead to the drawing of a new study, undertaken by the firm of A. Karydi in 2001, which set the following targets: inclusion of Metax-ourgeion in the structure of the city center together with residence modules, inclusion of the area in the Historical Centre of Athens, implicating private funds for the success of the reformation apart from public authorities, etc.

C. Metaxourgeion as a modern day district

Pursuant to the General Urban Plan of the Municipality of Athens (decision nr. 255/45, Government Gazette bulletin 80D/4.2.1988), as Neighborhood of Metaxourgeion is considered the area between Thermopylon-Deligianni-Deligiorgi streets, while the southern part of the area up to the southern part of Hiera odos at Voutadon street, between Piraeus and Constantinoupoleos streets, constitutes the Neighborhood of Kerameikos. The two neighborhoods comprise the district of Rouf.

Demographic aspects

The area of Metaxourgeion forms a unique combination as to the demographic and social-financial characteristics of its residents. Its population could be characterized as aged, following the general tendency of the demographic ageing of downtown Athens, which is due to the departure of a sig-nificant part of the population, especially of young couples with children, a fact also reflected in the relatively low percentage of the inhabitants who are in their productive age. The contribution of the chil-dren of immigrants, especially Muslims, in the total percentage of young population is significant, while the contribution of expatriated Greeks and Asia Minor refugees, who are old inhabitants of the area, in the aged population, is also significant. The two prevalent types of families are those of couples with or without children, while the percentage of expanded families is also significant, mostly due to the existence of the Muslims, as well as the cohabitation of groups without blood relation.The vast majority of residents, including the Muslims of Thrace, were born in Greece, while the second category includes elderly refugees of Asia Minor who settled there mainly during the 60s-80s, as well as younger foreign immigrants who settled in that area between 1975 and 1980: Polish, Bulgarians,



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Russians, Albans, Egyptians etc., while in recent years many immigrants from the east, mostly Chi-nese, settled in the district. The prevalent language is the Greek and secondly the Turkish language, while the prevalent religion is the orthodox Christianity, with the Muslim religion following second.

Today’s residents of Metaxourgeion are occupied in a wide variety of professional activities: freelanc-ers, small traders, employees of the private and public sector, and work people of all specializations. The presence of small and medium sized businesses, a few of which have a long-time tradition in the area (e.g. repair shops), as well as public services and authorities (Power Supply Company, Social Security Foundation etc.), is also significant.

As regards the educational level of productive ages for the most part, there is a very small percentage of illiterate people consisting mainly of Muslims, while the other inhabitants are mostly first and second level graduates, with a few college graduates as well.

Structured environment

The structured environment of Metaxourgeion is distinguished by a wide variety of buildings, as a result of the co-existence of a multiform gamut of constructions. Thus, the old humble ground-floor houses which prevailed until the Balkan Wars co-exist with mansions consisting of two or three floors, many of which are dated back to 1875-1925. The ugly multi-floor buildings of the 60s and 70s, which replaced the former buildings during the re-construction of Athens, can be found in a less dense concentration in the inner part of the district. One fourth of the volume of the buildings constructed until 1950 has been maintained to date, and its largest part is located in the central part of the district. However, in many occasions these otherwise considerable buildings have been completely or partially abandoned, while many others are occupied by groups of immigrants and marginal groups (such as drug addicts). In some cases they accommodate households of low income groups of Greeks or foreigners, who live under adverse circumstances. However, in view of the Olympic Games several buildings in central parts were restored, among which a few buildings on Avdi square.

Ownership regime

The area is characterized by three types of ownership regimes: properties owned by many co-owners, abandoned properties or plots of land owned by public authorities and banks (e.g. listed buildings of the Ministry of Culture) or by bankrupt enterprises, and many large plots of land committed by public authorities for some project which was never implemented.

Most residents of Metaxourgeio live in rented houses rather than in owned properties, which is due to the relocation of former residents to other areas in the last thirty years, who either sold or leased their homes. The lessees are mostly Muslims and foreign immigrants in general, who were unable to purchase their home for financial reasons, while certain others, especially people from Poland, North Epirus etc., are part of unstable and rogue populations. There are many cases of renting of old, for the most part, ground-floor residences (of the 50s) at a very low rent and of respective quality, while most of the people who live in their own property occupy multi-floor buildings erected in the 60s and 70s. It derives from the above that most owners acquired their properties by purchasing an apartment in the multi-floor buildings which were constructed during the 60s and 70s, replacing the old ground-floor residences.



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Land uses

In direct proportion to the diversity characterizing the buildings of the area, the observation of many different uses of the land is worth noting. Multi-floor buildings (especially consisting of five or six floors) facing the main road axes of the district, such as Piraeus and St. Constantine streets, usually ac-commodate services, banks, offices, hotels, shops. It is not infrequent, however, having a residence accommodated on the higher level floors, with professional activities (commercial or small trade) accommodated on the ground floor of such buildings. The part of the district which is closer to Achil-leos street concentrates repair shops, machine shops, vehicle bodywork shops and disturbing uses in general, as well as brothels.

The central part of the district, which is mainly designated by Kerameikou and Agissilaou streets and expands to the north up to M. Alexandrou street, is characterized as the most traditional residential area with respective uses such as small shops of a local nature. It is the area which maintains the majority of its old residents, while at the same time accepting many new residents from the 1980s to date. The ground floors and many of the higher level floors accommodate wholesale and small trade businesses, activities which to a great degree are associated with the mass inflow of immigrants from the east, especially China.

At the same time, Greek businesses were facing a crisis as they were unable to react to intense com-petition. It is worth noting that the printing houses, the repair shops and other similar activities have begun to be restricted, a fact that can be partly attributed to the targets set by the Presidential Decree of 1998 regarding the protection of residence and the development of recreational activities, as well as the restriction of disturbing productive activities.

Therefore, at the end of the 1990s there appeared a general tendency to introduce new activities in the district, mostly concerning recreation and entertainment facilities such as restaurants, night clubs, the-atres and art galleries. This highly upcoming tendency was also favored by the proximity of the district to two other districts which had already been converted into areas of recreation and entertainment and currently present signs of saturation. These areas are Gazi and Psyrri, whose one-sided development of recreational activities however (especially in Psyrri) was fatal to the residential aspect, as the resi-dents were directly or indirectly sent away from their homes, either completely (in the case of Psyrri) or to a large degree (in the case of Gazi). Other comparative advantages of the area of Metaxourgeion are the following: proximity to cultural areas currently developed at Sarri, Piraeus and other streets, central location of the area offering easy access, many abandoned buildings and warehouses fit for re-use for alternative activities, as well as cheap rents. Today, the new recreational activities have been concentrated mainly around the axis of Giatrakou street and on Avdi square, while the establishment of recreational areas in close proximity to cultural areas is indicative of their dependency on the latter, as the establishment of experimental theatres preceded, followed by coffee shops, restaurants and bars which surrounded them. It is concluded that the above areas attract new groups of people in the district and possess the modern day dynamics for the formation of new circumstances.

It is worth noting that the immigrants have formed their own network to serve their needs, such as commercial shops and restaurants with products of their own, coffee shops, telephone centers etc. This recent tendency concerns commercial and productive activities addressed to the broader market, such as the ethnic restaurants and commercial shops of the Chinese. Finally, the multitude of brothels and disreputable hostels acts in a preventive fashion for those interested in residing in the area.



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Problems of the district

The phenomena of the area’s degradation from a social point of view, as well as from the aspect of architectural reserves and public space, are obvious. The main problems of the district are the lack of greenery, of free common utility spaces, since the only common utility area inside the district is the recently formed square of Leon Avdis. The pollution and traffic are attributed on the one hand to the close proximity of the area to one of the two central squares of Athens, Omonoia square, while on the other hand to the function of the streets of Metaxourgeion as linking axes between big avenues and smaller streets. A large part of the buildings of Metaxourgeion are abandoned, as ugly multi-floor build-ings of the 60s co-exist side by side with insufficiently maintained and derelict neoclassical buildings, which often become refuge to drug addicts, and which, in turn, give way to humble little homes and empty lots, while the – sometimes abandoned – repair shops, warehouses and small trade shops are a frequent vista. The increased presence of foreigners living together in groups, in combination with the conduct of undesirable activities, the most important of which being the brothels (which are mainly concentrated at Iassonos street), and the co-existence of families with children in the same area, cre-ates a significant problem of quality of life and a sense of insecurity to the residents.

New prospects

The statement of the above problems does in no case infer that Metaxourgeion is a degraded district without prospects of re-formation. To the contrary, in a more advanced interpretation of the situation it could be said that the very phenomena of degradation form part of the special nature of Metaxour-geion which, with the necessary interventions, could be limited to a great extent and contribute to the creation of an original, modern and multi-faceted culture. The rich historical background of the area and its special dynamics in the social and financial formation of modern Athens has passed down to Metaxourgeion, as it is today, a composite urban environment reflecting both the structures of the past and current day dynamics. The new prospects tend to reverse the existing conditions and create a new framework of activities. This may include a wide variety of activities, which also conforms to the history of the district, since it has traditionally been considered an area of multiple uses, where culture and recreation were side by side to the residences and productive activities.

Written by Panagiota Taxiarchi. Translated by Athina Papazoglou.

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