intelligence, artificial intelligence and other forms of

8/3/2019 Intelligence, Artificial Intelligence and Other Forms Of

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/intelligence-artificial-intelligence-and-other-forms-of 1/75

INTELLIGENCE, ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE, ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE AND OTHER FORMSINTELLIGENCE AND OTHER FORMS

OF INTELLIGENCEOF INTELLIGENCE



1 Definition of intelligence

2 History of Intelligence

3 Theories of Intelligence4 Intelligence and IQ

5 Research

6 Emotional Intelligence

7 Definition

8 What is Emotion?

9 Origins of the Concept

10 Essential concept

11 Core Elements

12 Artificial Intelligence

13 Definition

14 History

15 AI Applications

16 Research

17 References



Definition of IntelligenceDefinition of Intelligence

y ´Viewed narrowly, there seem to be almost asmany definitions of intelligence as there wereexperts asked to define it.µ R. J. Sternberg

y Despite a long history of research and debate,there is still no standard definition of intelligence.

y

Although there is no single standard definition, if one surveys the many definitions that have beenproposed, strong similarities between manyof the definitions quickly become obvious.



Psychologist definitionsPsychologist definitions

This section contains definitions frompsychologists.

y Binet (1916) defined it as the capacity to judge

well, to reason well, and to comprehend well

y Thorndike (1921) defined it as the power of good responses from the point of view of truthor fact

y Spearman (1923) defined it as a general abilityinvolving mainly the ability to see relations andcorrelates



y Wechlser (1939) defined it as the globalcapacity of an individual to act purposefully,think rationally, and deal effectively with theenvironment

y Piaget (1972) defined it as referring to thesuperior forms of organization or equilibrium of cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the

to the physical and social environment

y Sternberg (1985) defined it as the mentalcapacity to automatize information processing

and to emit contextually appropriate behaviorin response to novelty



Collective definitionsCollective definitions

In this section I will present definitions that havebeen proposed by groups or organizations.

1. ́ The ability to use memory, knowledge,experience, understanding, reasoning, imaginationand judgment in order to solve problems andadapt to new situations.µ All Words Dictionary,2006

2. ́ The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.µThe American Heritage Dictionary, fourth edition,2000



4. ́ The ability to learn, understand and make judgments or have opinions that are based onreasonµ Cambridge Advance Learner·s Dictionary,2006

5. ́ «ability to adapt effectively to theenvironment, either by making a change in oneself or by changing the environment or finding a newone «intelligence is not a single mental process,but rather a combination of many mentalprocesses directed toward effective adaptation tothe environment.µ Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006



Is a single definition possible?Is a single definition possible?

y In matters of definition, it is difficult to argue thatthere is an objective sense in which one definitioncould be considered to be the correct one.

y Nevertheless, some definitions are clearly moreconcise, precise and general than others.

y Furthermore, it is clear that many of thedefinitions listed above are strongly related toeach other and share many common features.

y If we scan through the definitions pulling outcommonly occurring features we find thatintelligence is:



y A property that an individual agent has as it

interacts with its environment or environments.

y Is related to the agent·s ability to succeed orprofit with respect to some goal or objective.

y Depends on how able the agent is to adapt to

different objectives and environments.



y Putting these key attributes together produces

the informal definition of intelligence:

´Intelligence measures an agent·s ability to achievegoals in a wide range of environments.µ S. Legg

and M. Hutter



History of IntelligenceHistory of Intelligence

y Historically two scientists with entirely different

agendas played seminal roles in the study and

measurement of mental skills.

y The contributions of Sir Francis Galton and

Alfred Binet set the stage for later attempts to

measure intelligence and discover its causes.



Sir Francis GaltonSir Francis Galton

y Hereditary Genius- eminence and genius seemedto occur within certain families.

y Eminent people had ́ inherited mental

constitutionsµ that made them more fit forthinking than their less successful counterparts.

y Biological basis for eminence - people who weremore socially and occupationally successful wouldalso perform better on a variety of laboratorytasks thought to measure the ́ efficiency of thenervous systemµ.



y He developed measures of reaction speed, handstrength, and sensory acuity.

y He even measured the size of people·s skull,believing that skull size reflected brain volume andhence intelligence.

y His measure of nervous-system efficiency provedunrelated to socially relevant measure of mentalability, such as academic and occupational success.

y Nonetheless, Galton·s work created an interest inthe measurement of mental abilities, setting thestage for the pioneering work of Alfred Binet.



Alfred Binet·s Mental TestsAlfred Binet·s Mental Tests

y During the early 1900s, the French government askedpsychologist Alfred Binet to help decide which studentswere mostly likely to experience difficulty in schools.

y Faced with this task, Binet and his colleague TheodoreSimon began developing a number of questions thatfocused on things that had not been taught in schoolsuch as attention, memory and problem-solving skills.

y He quickly realized that some children were able to

answer more advanced questions that older childrenwere generally able to answer, while other children of the same age were only able to answer questions thatyounger children could typically answer.



Based on this observation, Binet suggestedthe concept of a mental age, or a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of children of a certain age group.

This first intelligence test, referred to today asthe Binet-Simon Scale, became the basis forthe intelligence tests still in use today.

However, Binet himself did not believe that hispsychometric instruments could be used tomeasure a single, permanent and inborn levelof intelligence.



y Binet stressed the limitations of the test,suggesting that intelligence is far too broad aconcept to quantify with a single number.

y Instead, he insisted that intelligence is influenced

by a number of factors, changes over time and

can only be compared among children with

similar backgrounds.



The StanfordThe Stanford--Binet Intelligence TestBinet Intelligence Test

y Stanford University psychologist Lewis Termantook Binet's original test and standardized it usinga sample of American participants.

y This adapted test, first published in 1916, wascalled the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale andsoon became the standard intelligence test usedin the U.S.

y The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a singlenumber, known as the intelligence quotient (orIQ), to represent an individual's score on the test.



y This score was calculated by dividing the testtaker's mental age by their chronological age,and then multiplying this number by 100.

y The Stanford-Binet remains a popularassessment tool today, despite going through anumber of revisions over the years since itsinception.

y Currently, the test is in its fifth edition, which iscalled the Stanford²Binet 5.



Tohelp protectyour privacy, PowerPointprevented thisexternalpicturefrom being automatically downloaded.To download and display thispicture,click Optionsin the MessageBar, and then click Enableexternalcontent.

Binet Scale of Human Intelligence

IQ Score Original Name Modern Term

Over 140 Genius or Near-Genius

120 - 139 Very Superior

110 - 119 Superior

90 - 109 Average or Normal

80 - 89 Dull Dull Normal

70 - 79 Borderline Deficiency Mild

50 - 69 Moron Moderate

20 - 49 Imbecile Severe

Below 20 Idiot Profound



Intelligence Testing During WorldIntelligence Testing During World

War IWar Iy At the outset of World War I, U.S. Army officials

were faced with the monumental task of screening an enormous number of armyrecruits.

y In 1917 Robert Yerkes developed two testsknown as the Army Alpha and Beta tests.

y The Army Alpha was designed as a written test,while the Army Beta was administered orally incases where recruits were unable to read.



y At the end of WWI, the tests remained in use in

a wide variety of situations outside of the

military with individuals of all ages, backgrounds

and nationalities.



The Wechsler Intelligence ScalesThe Wechsler Intelligence Scales

y The next development in the history of intelligence testing was the creation of a newmeasurement instrument by Americanpsychologist David Wechsler.

y Intelligence involved a number of differentmental abilities.

y

"the global capacity of a person to actpurposefully, to think rationally, and to dealeffectively with his environment".



y Dissatisfied with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet, he published his new intelligence testknown as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale(WAIS) in 1955.

y Wechsler also developed two different testsspecifically for use with children: the WechslerIntelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI).

y The current version of the test is the WAIS-IV,

which was released in 2008



Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

1. Howard Gardner - Theory of MultipleIntelligences

Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as "thecapacity to solve problems or to fashion

products that are valued in one or morecultural settingsµ

In his consideration of intelligence,psychologist Howard Gardner has taken avery different approach from traditional

thinking about the topic. Gardner argues that rather than askingµ

how smart are youµ we should be asking adifferent question: ́ how are you smart?µ



y In answering the latter question, Gardner hasdeveloped a theory of Multiple Intelligenceswhich comprises of eight types of intelligences:

oLinguistic Intelligenceo Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

o Spatial Intelligenceo Musical Intelligenceo Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

o Interpersonal Intelligenceo Intrapersonal Intelligenceo Naturalist Intelligence



2.2. Robert Sternberg·s Triarchic Theory of HumanRobert Sternberg·s Triarchic Theory of Human

IntelligenceIntelligence

y Sternberg holds that conventional measures of intelligence, such as IQ tests, fail to identify thehigh abilities many individuals possess.

y Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of HumanIntelligence includes three facets:

o Analytical Intelligence (componential)

o Creative Intelligence (experiential)

o Practical Intelligence (contextual)



33..Charles E. SpearmanCharles E. Spearman -- factor analytic approachfactor analytic approach

y Charles Spearman was one of the earliestpsychologists to propose a factor analytic approachto intelligence testing.

y His theory stated that there was one general factor

(g) and one or more specific factors (s) thataccounted for individuals' performance on intelligencetests.

y Spearman conceptualized the g factor as generalmental energy.

y This factor is involved in deductive reasoning and islinked to the "skill, speed, intensity, and extent of intellectual output."



y General mental ability represented the'inventive' aspect to mental ability rather thanthe 'reproductive' aspect.

y

The cognitive abilities associated with generalmental ability might include being able todescribe how two concepts are related or beingable to find a second idea that is related to onethat has already been proposed.

y Tests with high g loading are complex andinclude tasks that involve reasoning andhypothesis testing.



y Tests with low g loadings are less complex and

include tasks that involve recognition, recall, and

speed.



4.4.CrossCross--Battery Assessment (CattellBattery Assessment (Cattell--HornHorn--

Carroll) ModelCarroll) Modely Distinguished between two types of intelligence,

that is fluid intelligence and crystallizedintelligence.

y Fluid intelligence refers to the ability tounderstand and reason with nonverbal.

y Fluid intelligence is thought to gradually increaseduring childhood and it peaks in adolescence.

y After peaking, fluid intelligence is thought togradually decrease over the rest of an individual'slife due to the degeneration of physiological brainstructures.



y Crystallized intelligence refers to the acquiredskills and knowledge that an individual possess.

y This type of intelligence involves over learned andwell established cognitive functions and is relatedto mental products and achievements.

y Examples of tasks that tap into crystallizedintelligence might include vocabulary and generalinformation.

y

Crystallized intelligence is strongly influenced byformal and informal education and as a result, isthought to increase at least until middleadulthood.



y After this original two-factor conceptualization of intelligence,Cattell, Horn, and Carroll proposednine different broad classifications of intelligenceand they developed the Cattell-Horn-CarrollTheory of Cognitive Abilities.

y The nine different classifications of intelligenceinclude:

y Fluid Intelligencey Crystallized Intelligencey Visual Processingy Auditory Processingy Short-Term Memory



y Long-Term Storage and Retrieval

y Processing Speed

y Decision Speed

y Quantitative Knowledge



Intelligence and IQIntelligence and IQ

y IQ and Intelligence are often considered oneand the same when it comes to determining theskill of a person.

y Actually there is some difference between thetwo.

y

IQ stands for intelligence quotient and it is aspecific term.

y On the other hand intelligence is a broad term.



y When you determine intelligence it is notmeasured by ratio.

y On the other hand IQ is characterized by ratio.

y Intelligence involves various tests whereas IQinvolves the calculation of the score based on thesetests.

y It can thus be said that the calculation of IQ scorecertainly depends on the performance in theintelligence tests.



y You would use a formula to calculate the IQwhereas no such formula is needed to test one·sintelligence.

y On the other hand intelligence tests can beconducted in types such as numerical, musical,linguistic, interpersonal, verbal, reasoning, fluencyand the like.

y On the contrary intelligence quotient or IQ doesnot boast such types.

y However it is very important to note that IQ andintelligence are certainly interconnected in thesense that the IQ is conducted to determine theintelligence of an individual.



A distributed brain network for A distributed brain network for

human intelligencehuman intelligencey Jung and Haier reviewed 37 structural and

functional neuroimaging studies publishedbetween 1988 and 2007.

y Based on the commonalities found in theiranalysis, they proposed the Parieto-FrontalIntegration Theory (PFIT), identifying severalbrain areas distributed across the brain.

y These P-FIT regions support distinguishableinformation processing stages



y Occipital and temporal areas process sensoryinformation in the first processing stage: theextrastriate cortex (Brodmann areas - BAs - 18 and 19) and the fusiform gyrus (BA 37), involvedwith recognition, imagery and elaboration of

visual inputs, as well as Wernicke's area (BA 22) for analysis and elaboration of syntax of auditory information.

y Integration and abstraction of the sensory

information by parietal BAs 39 (angular gyrus),40 (supramarginal gyrus), and 7 (superiorparietal lobule) correspond to the secondprocessing stage.



y The parietal areas interact with the frontallobes in the third processing stage and thisinteraction underlies problem solving,evaluation, and hypothesis testing. Frontal BAs 6,

9, 10, 45, 46, and 47 are underscored by themodel.

y The anterior cingulate (BA 32) is implicated for

response selection and inhibition of alternativeresponses, once the best solution is determinedin the previous stage.



y However, Jung and Haier suggest that not allthese areas are equally necessary in allindividuals for intelligence.

y Discrete brain regions of the dorsolateralprefrontal cortex (BAs 9, 45, 46, and 47) and theparietal cortex (BAs 7 and 40) could beconsidered most important for human

intelligence.



Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence



DefinitionDefinition

y Researchers have been defining EI differentlydepending on the field of their study and the depthof their research.

y EI is generally defined as ́ an individual¶s ability to

accurately perceive reality so that to understandand regulate their own emotional responses as wellas adapt and respond to othersµ (Mayer, Salovey,1997).

y Later, Mayer and Salovey defined EI morespecifically asthe ability to perceive emotions, toaccess and generate emotions to assist thought, tounderstand emotions and emotional knowledge,and to reflectively regulate emotions to promoteemotional and intellectual growth .



y The most recent definition that attempts tocover the whole construct of EI describes it ́ asthe ability, capacity, skill, or potential to feel, use,communicate, recognize, remember, describe,

identify, learn from, manage, understand andexplain emotionsµ (Hein,2007).

y Based on the definitions mentioned above, EIcan be understood as a person¶s ability to:

1. Be self-aware2. Detect emotions in others3. Manage emotional cues and information



What is Emotion? What is Emotion?

y The word emotion comes from the Latin word

emoveoµ , which means "to move from."

y According to Webster's 1828 Dictionary,emotion is "a moving of the mind or soul".

y Historically, the word emotion has been

associated with a strong sense of feelings or

drama.



y Today, however, with the thorough research inpsychology, sociology, and anthropology, therange of emotions that constitutes personalityis considered very broad and cannot be ignored

and written off the books as a matter of irrational expression.

y There are dozens of emotions, including anger ,

enthusiasm, envy, fear, frustration,embarrassment, disgust, happiness, hate, jealousy,

joy, love, surprise, and sadness.



y The basic premise of this emotions diagram isthat no matter what emotion one experiences,it can be classified and labeled.

y The essence of being emotionally intelligentfor an individual is to successfully recognizewhere s/he and others stand on this emotionscontinuum and manage emotions in a

constructive way to boost motivation, increaseproductivity, arrive at better decisions, andsatisfy emotional needs.



Origins of the ConceptOrigins of the Concept

y The earliest research on emotional intelligenceis attributed to Charles Darwin¶s work calledT he Ex pression of Emotions in Man and Animal s.

y Darwin argued that emotional expression isessential for proper adaptation of species.

y Darwin believed that emotions developed overtime to help people survive.

y According to him, emotions are useful becausethey motivate people to engage in actions thatare important for survival.



y Evolutionary psychologists also suggest thatevery emotion serves some useful purpose thateventually comes down to the matter of survival.

y In 1983, Howard Gardner's -Frames of Mind:The Theory of Multiple Intelligences -introduced the idea of multiple intelligenceswhich included Interpersonal intelligence and

Intrapersonal intelligence.



y The first use of the term "Emotional Intelligence"is attributed to Wayne Payne's doctoral thesis, A Study of Emotion: Devel oping Emotional Intell igence published in 1985.

y The publication of Daniel Goleman's best seller Emotional Intell igence: Wh y It C an Matter MoreT han IQ made the term widely popularized.

y In his bestseller, Goleman argued that in today'srapidly evolving world a person's EI or EQ is themost important predicator of success.



y Later, Goleman published a follow-up book calledWorking with Emotional Intelligence,that focuses on how EI factors affect success inthe workplace.

y More and more researchers in the EI relatedareas of study confirm that EI helps predictpersonal and professional success.



Major reasons that explain why EIMajor reasons that explain why EI

is an essential conceptis an essential concept

y Motivation and Creativity

y Job Performance

y Decision Making

y Leadershipy Personal Growth



Core ElementsCore Elements

y Daniel Goleman suggested five elements that areat the core of emotional intelligence.

y These elements constitute the abilities thatcharacterize and distinguish emotionallyintelligent person.

1. Self-Awareness

2. Self-Regulation

3. Motivation

4. Empathy

5. Social Skills



Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence



DefinitionDefinition

y Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computerscience that aims to create it.

y AI textbooks define the field as "the study anddesign of intelligent agents" where an intelligentagent is a system that perceives its environmentand takes actions that maximize its chances of

success.

y John McCarthy, who coined the term in1956, defines it as "the science and engineering

of making intelligent machines."



y The field was founded on the claim that a centralproperty of humans, intelligence can be soprecisely described that it can be simulated by amachine.

y This raises philosophical issues about the natureof the mind and the ethics of creating artificialbeings, issues which have been addressedby myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity.

y

Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism , but has also suffered setbacks and,today, has become an essential part of thetechnology industry.



HistoryHistoryy Thinking machines and artificial beings appear

in Greek myths.

y Human likenesses believed to have intelligencewere built in every major civilization.

y By the 19th and 20th centuries, artificial beings

had become a common feature in fiction.



y Mechanical or formal" reasoning has been developedby philosophers and mathematicians since antiquity.

y The study of logic led directly to the invention of the programmable digital electronic computer, based

on the work of mathematician Alan Turing and others.

y Turing's theory of computation suggested that amachine, by shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1",could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical

deduction.

y This, along with concurrent discoveries in neurology,information theory and cybernetics, inspired a smallgroup of researchers to begin to seriously consider

the possibility of building an electronic brain



y The field of AI research was founded at aconference on the campus of Dartmouth College inthe summer of 1956.

y The attendees, including John McCarthy, Marvin

Minsky,Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, becamethe leaders of AI research for many decades.

y They and their students wrote programs that were,to most people, simply astonishing.

y By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. washeavily funded by the Department of Defense andlaboratories had been established around the world.



y AI's founders were profoundly optimistic aboutthe future of the new field:HerbertSimon predicted that "machines will be capable,within twenty years, of doing any work a mancan do"

y Marvin Minsky agreed, writing that "within ageneration ... the problem of creating 'artificialintelligence' will substantially be solved".

y In 1974, in response to the criticism both theU.S. and British governments cut off allundirected exploratory research in AI.



y The next few years, when funding for projectswas hard to find, would later be called the "AIwinter".

y In the early 1980s, AI research was revived bythe commercial success of expert systems, aform of AI program that simulated theknowledge and analytical skills of one or morehuman experts.

y By 1985 the market for AI had reached over abillion dollars



y In the 1990s and early 21st century, AIachieved its greatest successes, althoughsomewhat behind the scenes.

y Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, datamining,medical diagnosis and many otherareas throughout the technology industry

y The success was due to several factors:

o The increasing computational power of computers



o A greater emphasis on solving specific sub

problems.

o The creation of new ties between AI and otherfields working on similar problems.

o And a new commitment by researchers to solid

mathematical methods and rigorous scientificstandards.



o On 11 May 1997, Deep Blue became the firstcomputer chess-playing system to beat areigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.

o In 2005, a Stanford robot won the DARPAGrand Challenge by driving autonomously for131 miles along an unrehearsed desert trail.

o In February 2011, in a quiz show exhibition

match, IBM's question answeringsystem,Watson, defeated the two greatestchampions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by asignificant margin.



AI ApplicationsAI Applications

y AI Technology can be applied to provide

solutions for a wide range of commercial and

scientific needs.

y These needs or applications can be categorized

as follows:

a. Simple

b.Complex

c .Very Complex



ResearchResearch1. On the Hunt for Universal Intelligence - Science

Daily ( Jan. 27, 2011)

y How do you use a scientific method to measure

the intelligence of a human being, an animal, amachine or an extra-terrestrial?

y Spanish and Australian researchers have taken afirst step towards this by presenting the

foundations to be used as a basis for thismethod in the journal Artificial Intelligence, andhave also put forward a new intelligence test.



y ´It can be applied to any subject -- whetherbiological or not -- at any point in itsdevelopment (child or adult, for example), for anysystem now or in the future, and with any level of intelligence or speed," points out Hernández-Orallo.

y Until now there has not been any way of checkingwhether current systems are more intelligentthan the ones in use 20 years ago, "but theexistence of tests with these characteristics may

make it possible to systematically evaluate theprogress of this discipline," says Hernández-Orallo.



y And what is even "more important" is thatthere were no theories or tools to evaluate andcompare future intelligent systems that coulddemonstrate intelligence greater than humanintelligence.

y "The universal and unified evaluation of intelligence, be it human, non-human animal,artificial or extraterrestrial, has not been

approached from a scientific viewpoint before,and this is a first step," the researcherconcludes.



ReferencesReferences

Internet sources

y http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=4&n=4

y http://whatisartificialintelligence.com/10/a-definition-of-

artificial-intelligence/

y http://www.apa.org/divisions/div10/articles/sternberg.ht

ml

y http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment

/a/emotionalintell_ 2.htm

y http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181994/

y http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologicaltesting/a/in

t-history.htm



y http://wilderdom.com/personality/L1-5KeyPlayers.html

y http://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/IQBasics.aspx

y http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/intelligence.htm

y http://wilderdom.com/intelligence/IQWhatScoresMean.html

y http://factoidz.com/gender-difference-and-intelligence-is-there-any-correlation/



Books, journals, articles

y Applicability Analysis of the Emotional Intelligence

Theory - Maiya Assanova Michael McGuire

y Intelligence: a brief history By Anna T.Cianciolo, Robert

J. Sternberg

y Understanding Psychology ² Robert S. Feldman

y Human intelligence and brain networks- Roberto

Colom, Sherif Karama, Rex E. Jung, Richard J. Haier



y Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach

Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig

y A Collection of DeÀnitions of IntelligenceShane Legg

y Understanding Intelligence By Rolf Pfeifer,Christian Scheier



THANK YOUTHANK YOU

intelligence, artificial intelligence and other forms of

Documents