integrating rainwater harvesting with supplemental irrigation into rain-fed spring wheat farming
TRANSCRIPT
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Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437
Integrating rainwater harvesting with supplemental irrigation
into rain-fed spring wheat farming
Guoju Xiao a,b,c, Qiang Zhang b,*, Youcai Xiong d, Miaozi Lin e, Jing Wang d
a Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, Chinab Gansu Key Laboratory of Arid Climate Changes and Disaster Reduction, Institute of Arid Meteorology,
China Meteorological Administration, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730020, Chinac Bioengineering Institute of Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750021, Chinad State Key Laboratory of Arid Agroecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, China
e Biological and Chemistrical Engineering Department, Fujian Normal University, Fuqing, Fujian Province 350300, China
Received 7 October 2005; received in revised form 19 May 2006; accepted 15 June 2006
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted at the Haiyuan Experimental Station (368340N, 1058390E), in a semiarid region of China, from
2000 to 2003 for rain-fed spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) production to maximize the utilization of low rainfall. This paper reports
the two field cultivations of rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the furrow between film-covered ridges (SFFCR), and with a
sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges (SHFCR). At the same time, the periods and indices of supplemental irrigation during the
whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat were also studied. The periods of supplemental irrigation included the three-leaf stage
(irrigated once), the elongation stage to flowering stage (irrigated twice), and the flowering stage to filling stage (irrigated once). The
indices of supplemental irrigation during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat must reach over 59 and 40 mm in order to
realize the 2250 and 2000 kg ha�1 yield, respectively. This research also presented such a concept of efficient water saving
supplemental irrigation, which was considered as a new index of water saving irrigation. The experimental result showed that the
efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation of field cultivation with SFFCR was 5.5–5.8%, and with SHFCR was 9.4–9.6%.
The efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation of field cultivation with SHFCR was improved by 40.4% in comparison with
SFFCR. Consequently, in this region, the integration of rainwater harvesting and supplemental irrigation can play a crucial role in
the improvement of rain-fed spring wheat yields and water use.
# 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation; Rain-fed spring wheat; Rainwater harvesting; Supplemental irrigation; Semiarid
region of China
1. Introduction
Water resources are limited in semiarid areas of
China, especially in mountainous areas where the
prevailing farming system is rain-fed. Annual pre-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 931 4670216x2464;
fax: +86 931 4657630.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Q. Zhang).
0167-1987/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.06.001
cipitation ranges from 250 to 550 mm, and the scarcity
of rainfall and droughts are the main constrains to rain-
fed spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) production in this
area (Cook et al., 2000). Therefore, it would be urgent
and necessary for us to find a practical and effective
pathway for further crop production.
Rainwater harvesting based on the collection and
concentration of surface runoff for cultivation has been
practiced in different parts of the world (Pacey and
Cullis, 1986; Ramalan and Nwokeocha, 2000; Herman,
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437430
2000; Li et al., 2003; Mintesinot et al., 2004). For
example, a plastic-covered ridge and furrow rainfall
harvesting system combined with mulches is used to
increase the water availability of crops for improving
and stabilizing agricultural production in semiarid
regions of China (Li et al., 2001; Li and Gong, 2002).
Many experimental studies suggest that water shortage
during the whole growth stage of crops can be reduced
by means of rainwater harvesting technologies in rain-
fed agricultural areas (Jo and Garry, 2003; Singandhape
et al., 2003; Xu and Mermoud, 2003; Ali and Theib,
2004; Patrick et al., 2004). But, during some stages of
crop growth, water deficits will still be unavoidable
(Kang et al., 2002; Pan et al., 2003). Supplemental
irrigation with water collected into small ponds could
prove to be a viable solution (Xiao et al., 2005).
Water scarcity demands the maximum use of every
drop of rainfall. Rainwater harvesting with storage
components to enable supplemental irrigation is one
strategy to further mitigate dry spell effects in crop
production (Fox and Rockstron, 2000). The integration
of rainwater harvesting and supplemental irrigation
with drip-irrigation has played an important role in the
improvement of crop yield in semiarid areas of China
(Xiao and Wang, 2003). So, in this study, to maximize
the utilization of low rainfall in semiarid regions, two
field cultivations of rainwater harvesting with the
sowing in the furrow between film-covered ridges, and
with the sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges was
conducted with rain-fed spring wheat to study the effect
of rainwater harvesting and supplemental irrigation on
crop yields and water use. The objectives of this study
were (1) to compare crop yields and water use efficiency
under different methods of field cultivation; (2) to
determine the timings and ranges of soil water deficit
Fig. 1. Field cultivation of rainwater harvesting with a s
for supplemental irrigation; (3) to examine the effects of
supplemental irrigation on crop yields.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. General situation of experiment base
A field experiment was conducted at the Haiyuan
Experimental Station in a semiarid region of China
(368340N, 1058390E) located at an altitude of 1854 m
above sea level. The annual average rainfall is about
400 mm, which mainly occurs from July to September.
The daily average temperature in June, July, and August
is 18.2, 19.8, and 18.3 8C, respectively. The annual ave-
rage temperature is 7.2 8C. Alternating hills and gullies
form the main geographic formation of this region, where
rain-fed farming is conducted with no irrigation. Crops
are planted once a year, and rain-fed spring wheat is main
food crop. In this experimental field, soil is a Loess loam
with a pH of 6.8. Available nitrogen (N) is 36.9 mg kg�1
and total N is 89.1 mg kg�1. Available phosphorus (P) is
5.21 mg kg�1 and total P is 28.4 mg kg�1. Organic
matter content is about 10 g kg�1.
2.2. Field experiment
‘‘79121-15’’, a typical rain-fed spring wheat (Triti-
cum aestivum) variety, was sown on each 15 March from
2000 to 2003. A sowing density of 230 kg seed ha�1 was
used. This field experiment consisted of two groups. One
was the field experiment of rainwater harvesting with a
sowing in the furrow between film-covered ridges
(SFFCR). Each plot of SFFCR consisted of four lines of
film-covered ridges and three lines of furrows (Fig. 1).
The plastic film on the ridge was white and its width was
owing in the furrow between film-covered ridges.
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437 431
Fig. 2. Field cultivation of rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges.
1.0 m. Wheat seeds were sown in the furrow with a
three-row-sowing machine. The sowing depth was 6 cm
and the rows were 15 cm apart. Another was the field
experiment of rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the
holes on film-covered ridges (SHFCR). Each plot of
SHFCR consisted of three lines of film-covered ridges
with holes and four lines of narrow furrows (Fig. 2). The
plastic film type on the ridge was also white and its width
is 1.2 m. Wheat seeds were planted in the holes on film-
covered ridges in rows 15 cm apart. Rain-fed spring
wheat was sown with the holes sowing machinery. Each
plot was 4.5 m width and 6.0 m length, and replicated in
three randomized complete blocks. Each group had five
treatments according to different levels of supplemental
irrigation during the whole growth stage of rain-fed
spring wheat (Table 1).
2.3. Experiment in rain shelter
An additional experiment in a rain shelter was
conducted at the Haiyuan Experimental Station for
Table 1
The different levels of supplemental irrigation during the whole growth sta
Treatments PR (mm) UR (mm) ISI (mm)
Three-leaf
Tr.1 223 196 0
Tr.2 223 196 13
Tr.3 223 196 13
Tr.4 223 196 13
Tr.5 223 196 13
PR is the practical rainfall during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring
rain-fed spring wheat; ISI the index of supplemental irrigation.
the periods and indices of supplemental irrigation
during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring
wheat, which can control artificially soil water supply
and water consumption in different growth stage of
crop. At the same time, this experiment could imitate
natural rainfall with a micro-sprayer. In this condi-
tion, the practical rainfall and the utilization of
rainfall during the whole growth stage of rain-
fed spring wheat can be controlled in time. Wheat
seeds were sown in plastic barrels, which are 1 m high
and 20 cm diameter on each 15 March from 2000 to
2002. Barrels were filled with soil in top layer. And
along the barrel wall, two small holes (diameter
0.5 cm) were drilled along the depth at 10 cm
interval. In so doing, two syringe needles connected
by a syringe bottle from a higher position were
inserted into these holes and then water can be
applied sufficiently by soil, that is a water supply
through a syringe plastic pipe. Before wheat seed was
sown, soil moisture had been measured using oven
dry weight method.
ge of rain-fed spring wheat
Elongation Flowering Filling Total
0 0 0 0
21 6 0 40
21 16 0 50
21 16 9 59
21 20 16 70
wheat; UR the utilization of rainfall during the whole growth stage of
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437432
Fig. 4. Relationship between rainfall and water consumption during
the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat. S1 means from the
sowing to elongation stage of rain-fed spring wheat; S2 means from the
elongation to flowering stage; S3 means from the flowering to filling
stage; S4 means from the filling to mature stage.
2.4. Record of experiment
Natural rainfall during the whole growth stage of
rain-fed spring wheat was recorded. Soil moisture in the
furrow and ridge was measured weekly in 10 cm
increments to 50 cm depth from the sowing to harvest
stage. Supplemental irrigation was given in the three-
leaf stage (irrigated once), from the elongation to
flowering stage (irrigated twice), and from the flowering
to filling stage (irrigated once) (Li et al., 2003).
Statistical analyses was carried out using the GLM
analysis of variance (ANOVA) from the SAS Institute
(1989) to determine the effects of the field cultivation
and supplemental irrigation on WUE, the efficiency of
water saving supplemental irrigation, and wheat yield.
Mean separations were accomplished by applying the
Fisher protected LSD test at P < 0.05.
3. Results
3.1. Periods of supplemental irrigation
Based on meteorological data from 1958 to 2003
supplied by the Meteorological Station of Haiyuan
County (Fig. 3), the relationship of rainfall and water
consumption of rain-fed spring wheat (Triticum aesti-
vum) during the whole growth stage (from March to July)
was shown in Fig. 4. The results showed that the total
water deficits during the whole growth stage mainly
existed in S1, S2 and S3 periods. All values were achieved
in the average of 4 years’ data, and this trend of each year
was very similar. From the sowing to elongation stage
(S1), the natural rainfall could not keep up with the water
consumption of rain-fed spring wheat. However, soil
rainwater harvesting, as supplemental water, could
satisfy water consumption. But, during July to Septem-
Fig. 3. Changes of the annual rainfall and rainfall during the whole
growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat at the Haiyuan Experimental
Station during 1958–2003. A—rainfall is the annual rainfall and W—
rainfall is the rainfall during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring
wheat (from March to July).
ber, the natural rainfall reduced over 50 mm in the 1990s,
compared with that in the 1950s, while the loss of soil
moisture through evaporation increased 35–45 mm. The
experimental results showed that the water consumption
deficit maintained from 12 to 15 mm (the decrease of soil
water supply) from the emergence to elongation stage.
From the elongation to flowering stage (S2), the water
consumption increased rapidly and natural rainfall could
not meet the demand. At the same time, the soil rainwater
harvesting has been used up. During this critical stage, the
deficit of water consumption reached to the maximum.
Experimental results assumed that the deficit of water
consumption should be kept between 35.8 and 45.2 mm,
but the yield of rain-fed spring wheat would be
dramatically improved if micro-supplemental irrigation
were used in this period. From the flowering to filling
stage (S3), although rainfall gradually increased, it could
not completely meet the demand of water consumption of
crop. Obviously, the deficit of micro-water consumption
affected the grain weight per spike. From the filling to
mature stage (S4), the natural rainfall could completely
satisfy the need of water consumption. So, we can
conclude that supplemental irrigation in S2 (from the
elongation to flowering stage) and S3 (from the flowering
to filling stage) periods became vital important for water
consumption of rain-fed spring wheat.
3.2. Index of supplemental irrigation
The experiment in rain shelter showed that the total
water consumption of rain-fed spring wheat during the
whole growth stage was about 364 mm, and the yield
was improved to 2250 kg ha�1 from 2000 to 2002. The
relationship among rainfall, soil water supply, and total
water supply during the whole growth stage of rain-fed
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437 433
Fig. 5. Relationship among rainfall, soil water supply, and total water supply during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat. PR is the
practical rainfall during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat; TSWS the theoretical soil water supply; TWS the total water supply; UR the
utilization of rainfall during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat; PSWS the practical soil water supply; PWS the practical water supply
of rain-fed spring wheat; PSRH the practical soil rainwater harvesting; TSWS the theoretical soil water supply; LR the loss of rainfall; LSWS the loss
of soil water supply; ISI the index of supplemental irrigation.
spring wheat was shown in Fig. 5. In simulated artificial
experiment of the field cultivation of rainwater
harvesting, the results suggested that the practical
rainfall (PR) during the whole growth stage of rain-fed
spring wheat was nearly 223 mm, the utilization of
rainfall (UR) was 196 mm, and the theoretical soil water
supply (TSWS) was about 85 mm. The total water
supply (TWS) of rain-fed spring wheat was 307 mm,
and then the yield would reach to 1250 kg ha�1. The
practical soil rainwater harvesting (PSRH) was about
59 mm and the practical soil water supply (PSWS) was
52 mm. The practical water supply (PWS) of rain-fed
spring wheat was 248 mm. The total loss of water
supply during the whole growth stage was about 34 mm.
The total water deficit was 59 mm, which should be
determined as a reference index of supplemental
irrigation (ISI) for rain-fed spring wheat production
to realize 2250 kg ha�1 in a semiarid region of China.
3.3. Rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the
furrow between film-covered ridges
Rain-fed spring wheat field cultivation of rainwater
harvesting with a sowing in the furrow between film-
covered ridges has been practiced widely in semiarid
areas of China. This cultivation technology reached not
only the distribution of field rainwater harvesting in
time and space, but also the transformation from the
non-effective rainwater to effective rainwater use.
Simultaneously, it could reduce the soil-dry-humidity
ratio and the loss of soil moisture through evaporation.
As a planting plot, the furrow combined with the
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437434
film-covered ridge was used as a rainwater-harvesting
plot. This formed the typical cultivation technology of
rainwater harvesting with the sowing in the furrow
between film-covered ridges. The amount of rainwater
harvesting in the planting plot was calculated by
Dun ¼ S1Rnvþ S2Rn � ðAEþ DÞn (1)
where Dun is the amount of rainwater harvesting (mm),
S1 the rainwater harvesting plot area of film-covered
ridges (m2), S2 the rainwater harvesting plot area of
furrows (m2), Rn the amount of rainfall and supple-
mental irrigation (mm), v the rainwater harvesting
quotient, AE the actual evaporation (mm), and D is
the loss of soil moisture through drainage (mm):
v ¼ Ra
Rn
(2)
with v is the rainwater harvesting quotient, which is an
experimental value and is measured in different rain-
water harvesting plot, Ra the amount of rainwater
harvesting in a rainwater harvesting plot or planting
plot (mm), and Rn is the actual rainfall (mm).
The efficiency of soil-dry-humidity of rain-fed
spring wheat field cultivation was determined by the
function of the saving water sowing machinery. The
efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation of
rain-fed spring wheat field cultivation was calculated by
W ¼ EnSn; . . . ;Pn (3)
where W is the efficiency of water saving supplemental
irrigation (%), En the efficiency of rainwater harvesting
(%), Sn the efficiency of water saving of supplemental
irrigation (%), and Pn is the efficiency of soil-dry-
humidity (%).
3.4. Rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the
holes on film-covered ridges
The sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges, as a
part of the field cultivation of rainwater harvesting, could
be carried out by the holes sowing machinery on film-
covered ridges. In adjacency of film-covered ridge and
furrow, the film-covered ridges were not only the
rainwater harvesting plots, but also the planting plots.
To improve rainwater harvesting from the film-covered
ridges, the line sowing on film-covered ridges was turned
into the sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges. The
efficiency of rainwater harvesting of the sowing in the
holes on film-covered ridges was calculated by
En ¼S0
S1v(4)
where En is the efficiency of rainwater harvesting (%),
S1 the rainwater harvesting plot area of film-covered
ridges (m2), S0 the holes area on film-covered ridges
(m2), and v is the rainwater harvesting quotient.
The efficiency of soil-dry-humidity of the sowing in
holes on film-covered ridges could be calculated
according to Eq. (5). The efficiency of water saving
supplemental irrigation of rain-fed spring wheat field
cultivation could be calculated according to Eq. (3):
Pn ¼2S3 þ S4
2L1L2
(5)
where Pn is the efficiency of soil-dry-humidity (%), L1
the space length of adjacent holes (m), L2 is the space
length of adjacent line-hole (m), and S3 and S4 is the soil
humidity area of the holes (m2).
3.5. Efficiency of water saving supplemental
irrigation
Experimental results showed that the efficiency of
water saving supplemental irrigation of the field
cultivation with a sowing in the holes on film-covered
ridges was higher than that with a sowing in the furrow
between film-covered ridges. Similarly, rain-fed spring
wheat yield was also higher. The efficiency of water
saving supplemental irrigation of the field cultivation
with a sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges was
improved by 40.4% in comparison with a sowing in the
furrow between film-covered ridges (Tables 2 and 3). If
supplemental irrigation was about 40 mm, or practical
water supply was 400 mm during the whole growth
stage of rain-fed spring wheat, the yield would reach
over 2000 kg ha�1. Moreover, to realize the
2250 kg ha�1 yield, supplement irrigation would be
about 59 mm or practical water supply was 430 mm.
The study was supported by the outcome of
regression analysis on the relationship between rain-
fed spring wheat yield and the efficiency of water saving
supplemental irrigation. A close positive linear relation-
ship was found between rain-fed spring wheat yield (Y
(kg ha�1)) and the efficiency of water saving supple-
mental irrigation (X (%)) for a rainwater harvesting
system with the sowing in the furrow between film-
covered ridges (Y = 358.14X + 214.09, r = 0.72)
(Fig. 6). A non-linear positive relationship existed
between the yield (Y (kg ha�1)) and the efficiency of
water saving supplemental irrigation (X (%)) for a
rainwater harvesting system with the sowing in the
holes on film-covered ridges (Y = 2.93X2.96, r = 0.71)
(Fig. 7), suggesting that the efficiency of water saving
supplemental irrigation was associated not only with the
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437 435
Table 2
The efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation and water use efficiency for the field cultivation of rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the
furrow between film-covered ridges and in the holes on film-covered ridges
PR
(mm)
UR
(mm)
ISI
(mm)
ARH
(mm)
PSWS
(mm)
PWS
(mm)
En
(%)
Pn
(%)
Sn
(%)
W
(%)
WUE
(kg ha�1 mm�1)
Yield
(kg ha�1)
(A) Sowing in the furrow between film-covered ridges
223 196 0 293 52 345 50.0 – – – 4.7 a 1050 a
223 196 40 351 50 401 49.1 25.0 45.0 5.5 8.0 b 2104 b
223 196 50 365 50 416 49.0 25.3 45.6 5.7 7.8 b 2140 b
223 196 59 382 52 434 50.0 25.0 45.1 5.6 8.0 b 2254 b
223 196 70 400 54 454 50.8 25.3 45.4 5.8 8.0 b 2358 b
PR
(mm)
UR
(mm)
ISI
(mm)
ARH
(mm)
PSWS
(mm)
PWS
(mm)
En
(%)
Pn
(%)
Sn
(%)
W
(%)
WUE
(kg ha�1 mm�1)
Yield
(kg ha�1)
(B) Sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges
223 196 0 314 52 366 60.7 – – – 5.5 a 1220 a
223 196 40 376 52 429 59.9 28.5 55.0 9.4 8.9 b 2351 b
223 196 50 392 50 443 59.8 28.7 55.4 9.5 8.7 b 2390 b
223 196 59 410 52 463 61.0 28.4 55.1 9.5 8.5 b 2409 b
223 196 70 425 52 472 60.6 28.6 55.6 9.6 8.6 b 2508 b
PR is the practical rainfall during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat; UR the utilization of rainfall during the whole growth stage of
rain-fed spring wheat; ISI the index of supplemental irrigation; ARH the amount of rainwater harvesting in planting plots; PSWS the practical soil
water supply; PWS the practical water supply of rain-fed spring wheat; En is the efficiency of rainwater harvesting; Pn the efficiency of soil-dry-
humidity; Sn the efficiency of water saving of supplemental irrigation; W the efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation; WUE water use
efficiency. Means within columns followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05.
index of supplemental irrigation, but also with patterns
of field cultivation of rainwater harvesting. Therefore,
the combination of supplemental irrigation and field
cultivation of rainwater harvesting had a positive effect
on the improvement of rain-fed spring wheat yield.
4. Discussion
In the 1990s, the water saving agriculture was
developed all over the world. At the same time, global
temperatures have risen steadily, and the spring drought
as well as continuous drought across spring and summer
Table 3
The efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation and rain-fed spring wh
in the furrow between film-covered ridges, and with a sowing in the holes
Field cultivation ISI (mm)
0 40 50
W (%)
SFFCR – 5.5 a 5.7
SHFCR – 9.4 a 9.5
Yield (kg ha�1)
SFFCR 1050 a 2104 a 21
SHFCR 1220 a 2351 a 23
ISI is the index of supplemental irrigation; W the efficiency of water saving s
in the furrow between film-covered ridges; SHFCR the rainwater harvesting
followed by different lowercase letters are significantly different at p < 0.0
significantly different at p < 0.05.
is aggravating. In this case, the technologies of tillage
and cultivation have achieved a great breakthrough from
the flat to field cultivation of rainwater harvesting,
which could improve water use efficiency of natural
rainfall and limited supplemental irrigation (Wang
et al., 2004).
Rainwater harvesting can be achieved by using pre-
treated catchment and micro-catchment areas to
increase the efficiency of runoff and maximize the
amount of collected rainfall (Lindstrom, 1986; Tsiouris
et al., 2002). Micro-catchment water harvesting
(MCWH), which collects runoff from short slopes, is
eat yields for the field cultivation of rainwater harvesting with a sowing
on film-covered ridges
Mean
59 70
b 5.6 b 5.8 c 5.7 A
a b 9.5 a b 9.6 b 9.5 B
40 a 2254 b 2358 c 1981 A
90 a 2409 b 2508 c 2176 B
upplemental irrigation; SFFCR the rainwater harvesting with a sowing
with a sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges. Means within rows
5. Means within columns followed by different uppercase letters are
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437436
Fig. 6. A close positive linear relationship of rain-fed spring wheat
yield and the efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation for the
rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the furrow between film-
covered ridges.
Fig. 7. A non-linear positive relationship of rain-fed spring wheat
yield and the efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation for the
rainwater harvesting with a sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges.
especially useful in arid and semiarid regions (Bruins
et al., 1986). The major advantages of MCWH are that it
is simple, cheap, replicable, efficient and adaptable
(Reiz et al., 1988). MCWH can improve soil moisture
storage, prolong the period of moisture availability, and
enhance the growth of agricultural, horticultural and
forest crops (Carter and Miller, 1991; Gupta, 1995). The
use of terraces, rippers, contour ridges, and micro-
catchments is widely recognized to increase soil water
storage and agricultural production (Gupta et al., 1999).
In semiarid areas of China, the field experiment of
rainwater harvesting with the sowing in the furrow
between film-covered ridges (SFFCR), and with the
sowing in the holes on film-covered ridges (SHFCR) is
applied widely in agronomic practices. This study has
showed that SFFCR and SHFCR can improve soil
moisture storage, reduce the loss of soil moisture
through evaporation, and reach the transformation from
the non-effective rainwater to effective rainwater use.
Supplemental irrigation in smallholder farming
systems can be achieved with water harvesting systems
that collect local surface runoff in small storage
structures (100–1000 m3). Rainfall is collected from
areas specifically treated to increase precipitation runoff
and stored in tanks for supplemental irrigation (Mejed
et al., 2000). In Burkina Faso, on shallow soil with low
water holding capacity, supplemental irrigation alone
improved water use efficiency (rainfall + irrigation)
with 37% on average (from 0.9 to 1.2 kg ha�1 mm�1)
compared to the control (traditional rain-fed practice
with manure but no fertilizer). The highest improve-
ment in the yield and water use efficiency was achieved
by combining supplemental irrigation and fertilizer
application (Johan et al., 2002). In semiarid areas of
China, small 10–60 m3 (on average 30 m3) sub-surface
storage tanks are widely promoted. These tanks collect
surface runoff from small, often treated catchments
(e.g., with asphalt or concrete). Research on using these
sub-surface tanks for supplemental irrigation of wheat
indicated a 20% increase in water use efficiency (rain
amounting to 420 mm + supplemental irrigation ran-
ging from 35 to 105 mm). Water use efficiency
increased on average from 8.7 kg ha�1 mm�1 for
rain-fed wheat to 10.3 kg ha�1 mm�1 because of
receiving supplemental irrigation, meanwhile incre-
mental water use efficiency ranged from 17 to
30 kg ha�1 mm�1, indicating the largely relative added
value of supplemental irrigation. Similar results were
observed on maize, with the yield increase of 20–88%,
and incremental water use efficiency ranging from 15 to
60 kg ha�1 mm�1 of supplemental irrigation (Li et al.,
2000). In this study, 40 and 59 mm of supplemental
irrigation during the whole growth stage of rain-fed
spring wheat can reach the yield of 2000 and
2250 kg ha�1, respectively, in semiarid areas of China.
Moreover, crop production using rainwater harvesting
and supplemental irrigation is the best alternative for
improving yields and water use efficiency in this region.
5. Conclusions
The study concludes that supplemental irrigation
during the whole growth stage of rain-fed spring wheat
was divided into three different periods concerning the
three-leaf stage (irrigated once), the elongation to
flowering stage (irrigated twice), and the flowering to
filling stage (irrigated once). To meet 2000 kg ha�1 yield,
the practical water supply of rain-fed spring wheat was
about 400 mm, or supplemental irrigation was 40 mm.
Also, to keep in line with the yield of 2250 kg ha�1, the
practical water supply and supplemental irrigation were
430 and 59 mm, respectively, in semiarid areas of China.
The efficiency of water saving supplemental irrigation of
the field cultivation with a sowing in the furrow between
film-covered ridges was 5.5–5.8%, and with a sowing
in the holes on film-covered ridges was 9.4–9.6%,
G. Xiao et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 93 (2007) 429–437 437
suggesting that the efficiency of water saving supple-
mental irrigation related not only to the index of
supplemental irrigation, but also to patterns of field
cultivation of rainwater harvesting.
Acknowledgements
This work was granted by the post-doctorate
research project ‘‘The Effects of Global Climate
Change on Crops Planting Pattern in the Semi-arid
Region of China’’, and Development Planning Com-
mission of Gansu Province (No. [2000] 736), and a sub-
project example of agricultural high efficiency water
saving of China Science and Technology Promoting
Agriculture Development Project.
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