13

5

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

Inst

ituti

onal approaches

to n

atu

ral reso

urce m

anagem

ent

Lik

e M

alth

us

(1803)

alm

ost

two

centu

ries

ear

lier

, H

ardin

(1968)

expre

ssed

a

pes

sim

isti

c vi

ew o

f th

e ca

pac

ity

of t

he

envi

ron

men

t to

su

pp

ort

pop

ula

tion

grow

th.

Alt

hou

gh n

ot t

he

star

t of

the

deb

ate,

the

‘Tra

gedy

of t

he

Com

mon

s’

whic

h H

ardin

des

crib

ed i

n 1

968,

has

foc

use

d m

uch

att

enti

on o

n t

he

issu

e of

acce

ss t

o nat

ura

l re

sourc

es.1

The

‘Tra

gedy

of t

he

Com

mon

s’ m

odel

pre

dic

ts

dir

e en

viro

nm

enta

l co

nse

quen

ces

as a

res

ult

of

the

hum

an i

nab

ilit

y to

res

tric

t

per

son

al g

ain

for

soc

ieta

l b

enef

it:

‘Ru

in i

s th

e d

esti

nat

ion

tow

ard

wh

ich

all

men

ru

sh,

each

pu

rsu

ing

his

ow

n b

est

inte

rest

...’ (

Har

din

19

68

:12

44

).

Rat

her

th

an a

dvo

cate

pop

ula

tion

con

trol

s su

ch a

s M

alth

us

and

su

bse

qu

ent

sup

por

ters

hav

e d

one,

Har

din

ad

voca

ted

con

trol

lin

g ac

cess

to

the

envi

ron

-

men

t.

He

reco

mm

end

ed

pri

vati

sati

on

of

nat

ura

l re

sou

rces

an

d

stat

e

enfo

rcem

ent

of e

xclu

sion

fro

m t

hem

. T

he

impli

cati

ons

of t

his

are

that

nat

ura

l

reso

urc

es e

xhib

it a

fix

ed c

arry

ing

cap

acit

y an

d t

hat

pro

du

cers

wil

l n

ot

dev

elop

thei

r ow

n s

yste

ms

regu

lati

ng

acce

ss t

o sh

ared

res

ourc

es.

Alt

hou

gh m

any

rece

nt

appro

aches

to

nat

ura

l re

sourc

e m

anag

emen

t hav

e

refl

ecte

d t

his

appro

ach,

a gr

owin

g li

tera

ture

has

dev

elop

ed,

bot

h i

n s

uppor

t of

and c

riti

cal

of H

ardin

’s t

hes

is.

Sev

eral

dis

tinct

appro

aches

can

be

iden

tifi

ed.

The

firs

t in

cludes

wor

k c

riti

cal

of t

he

confu

sion

surr

oundin

g th

e nat

ure

of

the

pro

per

ty r

ights

des

crib

ed b

y H

ardin

(1968).

A s

pec

trum

of pro

per

ty r

ights

hav

e

sub

seq

uen

tly

bee

n d

efin

ed a

nd

dis

tin

guis

hed

fro

m t

he

shar

ed r

esou

rces

to

whic

h t

hey

apply

(se

e C

iria

cy-W

antr

up &

Bis

hop

1975;

Bro

mle

y &

Cer

nea

1989; S

chla

eger

& O

stro

m 1

994 e

tc.)

. The

nex

t gr

oup b

road

ly c

oncu

rs w

ith t

he

mod

el o

f im

pen

din

g ‘tra

gedy’

, and h

as a

ttem

pte

d to

dev

ise

the

mos

t ap

pro

pri

ate

way

s to

pri

vati

se a

nd/o

r im

pos

e st

ate

regu

lati

on o

f R

NR

s. T

he

exper

ience

of

thes

e ap

pro

aches

is

exam

ined

nex

t, w

ith p

arti

cula

r re

fere

nce

to

the

Sah

el.

Oth

er a

uth

ors

hav

e re

ject

ed the

stat

ic n

otio

n o

f re

sourc

e ac

cess

arr

ange

-

men

ts i

mpli

ed b

y m

any

econ

omis

ts, a

nd e

nvi

sage

mor

e co

mple

x an

d d

ynam

ic

rela

tion

ship

s b

etw

een

res

ourc

e te

nu

re a

nd

dev

elop

men

ts i

n r

esou

rce

use

.

Two

contr

asti

ng

appro

aches

are

con

sider

ed h

ere:

thos

e w

hic

h e

nvi

sage

inst

i-

tuti

onal

ad

apta

tion

as

a p

roce

ss w

hic

h r

esp

ond

s to

dev

elop

men

ts s

uch

as

pop

ula

tion

gro

wth

; an

d t

hos

e w

hic

h p

erce

ive

the

inst

itu

tion

s w

hic

h g

over

n

acce

ss t

o nat

ura

l re

sourc

es a

s a

cruci

al d

eter

min

ant

of s

ocia

l an

d e

conom

ic

dev

elop

men

t, a

nd

are

th

emse

lves

man

ipu

late

d t

o se

rve

the

inte

rest

s of

th

e

pow

erfu

l m

ember

s of

the

soci

etie

s in

whic

h t

hey

oper

ate.

13

4

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

adm

inis

trat

ive

stat

us

of B

orno

has

var

ied,

it h

as b

een d

omin

ated

by

a K

anuri

aris

tocr

acy

for

mos

t of

its

exi

sten

ce.

Tra

dit

ional

ly,

the

Kan

uri

adm

inis

trat

ion

has

pla

yed a

cru

cial

rol

e in

all

ocat

ing

acce

ss to

farm

lan

d. I

n r

ecen

t ye

ars,

the

Kan

uri

adm

inis

trat

ion h

as n

ot o

nly

mai

nta

ined

its

pre

-col

onia

l au

thor

ity

over

farm

ing

on t

he

lake

shor

e, b

ut

has

als

o ex

pan

ded

it

to c

over

new

are

as o

f th

e

lak

e fl

oor,

as

wel

l as

th

e in

crea

sin

gly

lucr

ativ

e fi

shin

g op

por

tun

itie

s w

hic

h

the

fed

eral

gov

ern

men

t h

as b

een

un

able

to

regu

late

. T

his

su

cces

s su

gges

ts

that

col

lab

orat

ion

wit

h t

he

trad

itio

nal

ad

min

istr

atio

n i

s es

sen

tial

to

the

succ

ess

of f

utu

re n

atura

l re

sourc

e m

anag

emen

t ef

fort

s.

Intr

oducti

on

Inst

ituti

ons

are

soci

al c

onst

ruct

s w

hic

h g

uid

e hum

an b

ehav

iour.

They

ran

ge

from

law

s w

hic

h a

re f

orm

al a

nd w

ith w

hic

h c

ompli

ance

is

obli

ged, to

info

rmal

conve

nti

ons

to w

hic

h c

onfo

rman

ce i

s ex

pec

ted. T

he

impor

tance

of

such

inst

i-

tuti

ons

in

shap

ing

the

live

lih

ood

s of

th

e p

oor

has

b

een

in

crea

sin

gly

reco

gnis

ed (

e.g.

Sw

ift

1989;

Mos

er 1

998;

Car

ney

1988;

Sco

ones

1998).

The

aim

of

this

pap

er i

s to

exa

min

e th

e ev

oluti

on o

f th

e in

stit

uti

ons

whic

h g

over

n

acce

ss t

o fa

rmla

nd

an

d f

ish

ing

righ

ts o

n t

he

Nig

eria

n s

hor

e of

Lak

e C

had

.

Th

ese

hav

e b

een

exa

min

ed w

ith

in a

‘su

stai

nab

le r

ura

l li

veli

hoo

ds’

(S

RL

)

fram

ewor

k (

Sar

ch 1

999).

In f

ocusi

ng

on t

he

syst

ems

of a

cces

s to

far

mla

nd a

nd f

ishin

g ri

ghts

at

Lak

e C

had

, the

pap

er a

ims

to a

sses

s th

e ap

pli

cabil

ity

of d

iffe

rent in

stit

uti

onal

appro

aches

to

nat

ura

l re

sourc

e m

anag

emen

t on

the

lake

shor

e. T

his

is

impor

-

tan

t, b

ecau

se n

atu

ral

reso

urc

e d

evel

opm

ent

init

iati

ves

in t

he

Sah

el h

ave

freq

uen

tly

bee

n b

ased

on

in

stit

uti

onal

ap

pro

ach

es t

hat

may

not

hav

e b

een

appro

pri

ate

to t

he

situ

atio

ns

in w

hic

h t

hey

wer

e use

d a

nd,

in a

ny

even

t, a

re

rare

ly u

niv

ersa

l. A

tot

al o

f fo

ur

inst

ituti

onal

appro

aches

to

nat

ura

l re

sourc

e

man

agem

ent

are

con

sid

ered

in

th

e fi

rst

sect

ion

of

this

pap

er.

Th

ese

are

foll

owed

by

a re

view

of

the

nat

ura

l an

d s

ocia

l co

nte

xts

of L

ake

Chad

, as

wel

l

as r

esea

rch i

nto

the

fish

ing

and f

arm

ing

live

lihoo

ds

ther

e. T

he

thir

d s

ecti

on

pre

sen

ts a

n a

nal

ysis

of

reso

urc

e ac

cess

in

stit

uti

ons

on t

he

lak

e sh

ore.

Th

e

pap

er c

oncl

udes

wit

h a

dis

cuss

ion o

f th

e re

leva

nce

of

dif

fere

nt

inst

ituti

onal

app

roac

hes

to

syst

ems

of n

atu

ral

reso

urc

e ac

cess

on

th

e N

iger

ian

sh

ore

of

Lak

e C

had

.

13

7

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

auth

orit

ies

and

th

eir

nat

ion

alis

atio

n o

f n

atu

ral

reso

urc

es (

Kon

e 1

98

5;

Bri

nker

hof

f 1995;

Wil

liam

s 1998).

Lic

ense

s is

sued

by

pos

t-co

lonia

l go

vern

-

men

ts f

or c

utt

ing

woo

d a

nd f

ishin

g in

the

Del

ta h

ave

furt

her

under

min

ed t

he

cust

omar

y m

anag

emen

t of

thes

e re

sourc

es (

Moo

rehea

d 1

989; Q

uie

nsi

ère

et a

l

1994).

This

pro

cess

has

als

o bee

n o

bse

rved

in S

eneg

al, w

her

e th

e go

vern

men

t

has

per

mit

ted t

he

conve

rsio

n o

f bot

h r

ange

land a

nd f

ores

ts t

o pea

nut

fiel

ds

(Fre

uden

ber

ger

1991; W

illi

ams

1998).

Exo

gen

ous

adju

stm

ents

to

the

inst

itu

tion

s w

hic

h g

over

n a

cces

s to

nat

ura

l re

sourc

es h

ave

bee

n i

nit

iate

d i

n a

nti

cipat

ion o

f a

range

of

pot

enti

al

ben

efit

s. V

ery

gen

eral

ly,

thes

e ca

n b

e d

ivid

ed i

nto

tw

o at

tem

pts

: th

ose

des

crib

ed a

bov

e, w

hic

h a

im t

o ac

hie

ve s

ust

ainab

le p

roduct

ion t

hro

ugh

sta

te

regu

lati

on;

and

th

ose

wh

ich

aim

to

imp

rove

th

e p

rod

uct

ivit

y of

nat

ura

l

reso

urc

es t

hro

ugh

the

intr

oduct

ion o

f pri

vate

pro

per

ty r

ights

. In

Afr

ica,

a w

ell

know

n e

xam

ple

of

an e

xter

nal

att

empt

to i

mpro

ve a

gric

ult

ura

l pro

duct

ivit

y is

Ken

ya’s

str

ateg

y of

lan

d r

egis

trat

ion f

or s

mal

lhol

der

s in

itia

ted a

fter

the

Mau

Mau

reb

elli

on i

n t

he

1950s

(Sw

ynner

ton 1

954).

How

ever

, H

auge

rud (

1989)

argu

es t

hat

alt

hou

gh a

gric

ult

ura

l p

rod

uct

ivit

y d

id i

mp

rove

in

Ken

ya,

this

hap

pen

ed i

n s

pit

e of

lan

d r

egis

trat

ion

, ra

ther

th

an b

ecau

se o

f it

. A

lth

ough

Tif

fen

et

al (

19

94

) il

lust

rate

s h

ow p

opu

lati

on h

as g

row

n a

nd

how

in

div

idu

-

alis

ed t

enu

re h

as s

pre

ad i

n M

ach

akos

Dis

tric

t, t

his

has

bee

n c

riti

cise

d f

or

mas

kin

g dif

fere

nti

atio

n w

ithin

Mac

hak

os (

Roc

hel

eau 1

995; M

urt

on 1

999).

Inst

ituti

onal erosi

on

Ove

rall

, th

e al

tern

ativ

es o

f st

ate

regu

lati

on a

nd p

riva

te o

wner

ship

of

nat

ura

l

reso

urc

es h

ave

freq

uen

tly

had

lit

tle

succ

ess

in A

fric

a, a

nd i

n s

ome

case

s, t

he

reve

rse

outc

ome

has

res

ult

ed:

envi

ron

men

tal

deg

rad

atio

n a

nd

red

uce

d

pro

duct

ivit

y. S

ever

al a

uth

ors

dep

ict

a si

tuat

ion w

her

e th

e dep

leti

on o

f nat

ura

l

reso

urc

es h

as b

een

th

e d

irec

t re

sult

of

inte

rven

tion

fro

m o

uts

ide

agen

cies

.

Ext

ern

al o

rgan

isat

ion

s, s

uch

as

pow

erfu

l ru

lers

, co

lon

ial

agen

cies

an

d

emer

gin

g n

atio

n s

tate

s, h

ave

eith

er e

rod

ed o

r d

isso

lved

com

mu

nit

y-b

ased

acce

ss

arra

nge

men

ts

in

ord

er

to

app

rop

riat

e th

em

or

to

crea

te

mor

e

pro

du

ctiv

e ar

ran

gem

ents

. T

his

pro

cess

has

bee

n o

bse

rved

not

on

ly i

n t

he

range

lands,

for

ests

and f

isher

ies

of t

he

Sah

el,

but

also

in t

he

acce

ss a

rran

ge-

men

ts o

f m

any

nat

ura

l an

d ‘

com

mon

’ re

sourc

es i

n o

ther

par

ts o

f th

e w

orld

.

(Bro

mle

y &

Cer

nea

1989; Jo

dha

1986, 1992; P

latt

eau 1

996).

Whet

her

or

not

ext

ernal

att

empts

to

regu

late

acc

ess

to n

atura

l re

sourc

es

can i

mpro

ve t

hei

r su

stai

nab

ilit

y an

d/o

r th

eir

pro

duct

ivit

y, t

her

e is

con

sensu

s

that

, in

Afr

ica,

ext

ern

al i

nte

rven

tion

has

had

an

im

por

tan

t im

pac

t on

th

e

13

6

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

Inst

ituti

onal in

terventi

on

Des

pit

e m

any

inst

ance

s w

her

e co

mm

on

pro

per

ty

regi

mes

h

ave

bee

n

succ

essf

ul,

th

ere

are

seve

ral

rece

nt

exam

ple

of

‘tra

ged

ies’

wh

ich

hav

e

occu

rred

in

nat

ura

l re

sou

rce

man

agem

ent.

Fis

h s

tock

col

lap

ses

in t

he

Sco

ttis

h h

erri

ng

fish

ery,

the

Can

adia

n c

od f

isher

y, a

nd t

he

Per

uvi

an a

nch

ovy

fish

ery,

ea

ch

pro

vid

e ex

amp

les

of

‘tra

ged

y’

(Cad

dy

&

Gu

llan

d

19

83

;

Whit

mar

sh e

t al

1995;

Char

les

1996;

Roy

1996;

and s

ee C

ush

ing

1982 a

nd

1988 f

or t

he

his

tory

of

fish

sto

cks)

. A

lthou

gh s

ome

hav

e poi

nte

d t

o th

e la

rge

fluct

uat

ions

whic

h o

ccur

nat

ura

lly

in R

NR

s an

d h

ave

sugg

este

d t

hat

equil

ib-

riu

m i

n t

hem

is

not

nat

ura

l or

nor

mal

, eq

uil

ibri

um

fre

qu

entl

y re

mai

ns

the

obje

ctiv

e of

res

ourc

e m

anag

ers.

Man

y th

eori

sts

hav

e co

ncl

ud

ed t

hat

sta

te

regu

lati

on a

nd

th

e p

riva

tisa

tion

of

pro

per

ty r

igh

ts a

re t

he

only

op

tion

s to

sust

ain t

hes

e re

sourc

es,

and g

reat

eff

ort

has

bee

n c

once

ntr

ated

on d

efin

ing

how

the

lim

its

of r

esou

rce

use

shou

ld b

e se

t (M

ahon

1997).

Th

ere

hav

e b

een

su

cces

sfu

l st

ate

atte

mp

ts t

o re

gula

te a

cces

s to

fis

h-

erie

s. T

he

tran

sfer

able

quot

a sy

stem

intr

oduce

d i

n I

cela

nd h

as b

een n

oted

for

its

succ

ess

in s

ust

ainin

g th

e dem

ersa

l fi

sher

y (A

rnas

on 1

994).

How

ever

, ther

e

are

man

y m

ore

whic

h h

ave

eith

er f

aile

d i

n t

hei

r ob

ject

ives

– f

or e

xam

ple

, th

e

Bri

tish

Col

ombia

sal

mon

fis

her

y (F

rase

r 1979)

– a

nd/o

r hav

e le

d t

o co

nsi

der

-

able

dis

sati

sfac

tion

am

ong

fish

ing

com

mu

nit

ies

(Bai

ley

& J

ento

ft 1

99

0).

Des

pit

e th

e m

andat

e pro

vided

by

UN

CL

OS i

n 1

982, t

her

e hav

e bee

n c

ompar

-

ativ

ely

few

att

empts

at

stat

e re

gula

tion

of

Afr

ican

fis

her

ies

(Law

son 1

984).

In

wes

t A

fric

a, thes

e hav

e bee

n a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith the

sale

of of

fshor

e fi

shin

g ri

ghts

to t

he

Euro

pea

n U

nio

n.

The

info

rmat

ion a

vail

able

on t

he

outc

omes

of

stat

e

atte

mpts

to

regu

late

Afr

ican

fis

her

ies

show

s m

ixed

res

ult

s (J

ohnst

one

1996).

Th

e fo

rest

res

erve

s cr

eate

d t

hro

ugh

out

the

Fra

nco

ph

one

Sah

el d

uri

ng

the

colo

nia

l er

a, a

re e

xam

ple

s of

sta

te r

egula

tion

of

nat

ura

l re

sourc

es i

n s

ub-

Sah

aran

Afr

ica.

Th

ey w

ere

esta

bli

shed

in

are

as w

hic

h w

ere

thou

ght

to b

e

vaca

nt

and u

nder

-use

d,

and w

ere

subse

quen

tly

man

aged

by

the

stat

e fo

rest

serv

ice

wit

h t

he

obje

ctiv

e of

obta

inin

g su

stai

nab

le t

imber

yie

lds.

Thes

e hav

e

gener

ally

fai

led,

not

lea

st o

f al

l bec

ause

thei

r use

and m

anag

emen

t by

loca

l

vill

ager

s w

ere

under

esti

mat

ed (

Shep

her

d 1

991).

Vil

lage

rs w

ere

relu

ctan

t to

leav

e la

nd

fal

low

in

cas

e it

sh

ould

be

seen

as

vaca

nt

and

wer

e in

clin

ed t

o

over

wor

k i

t, r

ather

than

let

it

retu

rn t

o w

oodla

nd (

Thom

son 1

983).

A l

ack o

f

enfo

rcem

ent al

low

ed m

any

rese

rves

to

bec

ome

open

acc

ess

(Fre

uden

ber

ger

&

Mat

hie

u 1

99

3).

Th

e d

ecli

ne

of s

yste

ms

of a

cces

s to

th

e fo

rest

s, s

easo

nal

pas

ture

s an

d f

isher

ies

of t

he

Nig

er D

elta

in M

ali,

as

wel

l as

thei

r su

bse

quen

t

over

-exp

loit

atio

n, hav

e al

so b

een a

ttri

bute

d t

o th

e in

terv

enti

on o

f th

e co

lonia

l

13

9

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

by

bot

h n

atio

nal

and i

nte

rnat

ional

dev

elop

men

t ag

enci

es,

whic

h h

ave

advo

-

cate

d a

nd s

pon

sore

d a

ran

ge o

f lo

cal-

leve

l re

sourc

e m

anag

emen

t in

itia

tive

s,

or ‘c

omm

unit

y bas

ed s

ust

ainab

le d

evel

opm

ent’ a

round t

he

wor

ld (

Lea

ch e

t al

1997a)

. T

her

e hav

e bee

n s

ever

al s

uch

init

iati

ves

in t

he

Sah

el.3

How

ever

, th

e

outc

omes

of

such

pro

cess

es v

ary

as w

idel

y as

th

e n

atu

ral

reso

urc

es a

nd

reso

urc

e u

sers

th

emse

lves

(Tou

lmin

19

91

; P

ain

ter

et a

l 1

99

4;

Bri

nk

erh

off

1995;

Lea

ch e

t al

1997a)

. T

hey

hav

e, h

owev

er,

ofte

n f

alle

n s

hor

t of

exp

ecta

-

tion

s an

d t

hei

r ex

per

ience

s do

not

poi

nt

to e

asil

y ap

pli

cable

pol

icy

mea

sure

s

(Wes

tern

et

al 1

994; L

each

et

al 1

997a)

.

Inst

ituti

onal m

anip

ula

tion

In c

ontr

ast

to m

odel

s of

inst

ituti

onal

adap

tati

on,

Nor

th (

1990)

consi

der

s th

e

pro

cess

of

inst

itu

tion

al e

volu

tion

as

a d

eter

min

ant,

rat

her

th

an a

res

ult

of

econ

omic

dev

elop

men

t. N

orth

(1990)

argu

es t

hat

rat

her

than

bei

ng

soci

ally

effi

cien

t, in

stit

uti

ons

are

crea

ted

to

‘s

erve

th

e in

tere

sts

of th

ose

wit

h

the

bar

gain

ing

pow

er t

o d

evis

e n

ew r

ule

s’.

Mor

e sp

ecif

ical

ly,

Lea

ch e

t al

(1997b:4

) ar

gue

that

the

assu

mpti

ons

of d

isti

nct

an

d c

onse

nsu

al c

omm

uni-

ties

, as

wel

l as

rel

ativ

ely

stab

le l

ocal

envi

ronm

ents

– w

hic

h a

re f

undam

enta

l

to m

ost

com

mu

nit

y-b

ased

res

ourc

e m

anag

emen

t in

itia

tive

s –

are

in

corr

ect.

Th

ey s

ugg

est

that

th

e fa

ilu

re o

f su

ch i

nit

iati

ves

can

be

attr

ibu

ted

to

thes

e

assu

mp

tion

s, a

nd

pro

pos

e an

‘E

nvi

ron

men

tal

En

titl

emen

ts F

ram

ewor

k’

in

whic

h c

o-use

rs o

f nat

ura

l re

sourc

es u

se t

hei

r va

ryin

g ri

ghts

and r

esou

rces

to

neg

otia

te f

or d

iffe

rent

leve

ls o

f ac

cess

(L

each

et

al 1

997b).

The

pro

cess

es o

f

cod

ifyi

ng

‘nat

ive’

arr

ange

men

ts f

or a

cces

s to

lan

d,

wh

ich

Ber

ry (

19

93

)

exam

ined

in f

orm

er B

riti

sh c

olon

ies,

fit

this

fra

mew

ork w

ell.

She

des

crib

es

how

th

is p

roce

ss g

ener

ated

a b

lizz

ard

of

clai

ms

and

cou

nte

rcla

ims,

an

d

pla

ced

en

orm

ous

pow

er i

n t

he

han

ds

of t

hos

e w

ith

con

tact

s in

th

e B

riti

sh

adm

inis

trat

ion

. B

oth

Nor

th’s

(1

99

0)

and

th

e en

viro

nm

enta

l en

titl

emen

ts

appro

ach p

oint

to t

he

cruci

al r

ole

of p

ower

rel

atio

ns

in s

hap

ing

the

inst

itu-

tion

s th

at d

eter

min

e th

e use

and m

anag

emen

t of

nat

ura

l re

sourc

es.

Alt

hou

gh

the

com

munit

y-le

vel

focu

s on

res

ourc

e use

rs r

emai

ns

vali

d,

conse

nsu

s an

d

coop

erat

ion b

etw

een t

hem

can

not

be

assu

med

.

Lake C

had

The

Lak

e C

had

bas

in c

over

s a

larg

e par

t of

cen

tral

Afr

ica.

The

lake

itse

lf l

ies

at t

he

sou

th-e

ast

extr

eme

of t

he

Sah

ara

Des

ert,

an

d t

rave

rses

th

e S

ahar

an,

13

8

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

inst

ituti

ons

whic

h g

over

n a

cces

s to

nat

ura

l re

sourc

es. H

owev

er, in

man

y si

tu-

atio

ns,

the

syst

ems

of a

cces

s in

trod

uce

d d

uri

ng

the

colo

nia

l an

d p

ost-

colo

nia

l

eras

hav

e n

ot r

epla

ced

cu

stom

ary

syst

ems.

Rat

her

, b

oth

sys

tem

s h

ave

per

sist

ed a

nd t

he

adm

inis

trat

ive

dual

ism

of

over

lappin

g st

ate

and c

omm

unit

y

syst

ems

of r

esou

rce

ten

ure

has

in

crea

sed

th

e vu

lner

abil

ity

of c

omm

un

ity-

bas

ed s

yste

ms

to a

buse

(P

latt

eau 1

996; W

illi

ams

1998; II

ED

1999).

Inst

ituti

onal adapta

tion

Des

pit

e th

e co

nsi

der

able

eff

ort

exp

end

ed i

n i

mp

rovi

ng

the

reso

urc

e ac

cess

inst

ituti

ons

of t

he

dev

elop

ing

wor

ld,

ther

e is

a w

ide

bod

y of

lit

erat

ure

whic

h

doc

um

ents

and e

xpla

ins

pro

cess

es o

f en

dog

enou

s in

stit

uti

onal

adap

tati

on a

nd

evol

uti

on.

The

conce

pt

of a

dap

tati

on h

as b

een u

sed i

n t

he

dev

elop

men

t of

nat

ura

l

reso

urc

es p

olic

y, w

her

e in

con

tras

t to

Har

din

’s (

19

68

) p

ictu

re o

f re

sou

rce

use

rs ‘

rush

ing

to r

uin

’, sy

stem

s of

res

ourc

e ac

cess

are

envi

sage

d a

s ev

olvi

ng

in r

espon

se t

o th

e co

sts

and b

enef

its

asso

ciat

ed w

ith r

esou

rce

explo

itat

ion.

Bos

erup’s

(1965) th

eory

pre

dic

ts that

as

the

pop

ula

tion

gro

ws,

lan

d ten

ure

wil

l

incr

easi

ngl

y bec

ome

indiv

idual

ised

in t

he

pro

cess

of

agri

cult

ura

l in

tensi

fica

-

tion

. N

etti

ng

(1993:1

58)

des

crib

es a

ran

ge o

f ex

ample

s w

hic

h h

e use

s to

show

that

‘la

nd u

se d

eter

min

es l

and t

enure

’. D

emse

tz’s

(1967)

‘Theo

ry o

f P

roper

ty

Rig

hts

’ su

gges

ts a

n a

lter

nat

ive

outc

ome

to t

he

inev

itab

le ‘

trag

edy’

, w

her

e

dem

and o

n a

res

ourc

e in

crea

ses

(for

exa

mple

, th

rough

pop

ula

tion

incr

ease

),

wit

h t

he

resu

lt t

hat

its

val

ue

incr

ease

s an

d t

he

rela

tive

cos

t of

exc

lud

ing

other

s fr

om i

ts u

se d

ecre

ases

. It

bec

omes

wor

thw

hil

e fo

r pro

duce

rs t

o dev

elop

thei

r ow

n s

yste

ms

of r

egula

ting

acce

ss t

o th

e re

sourc

e (D

emse

tz 1

967).

Wad

e’s

theo

ry (

19

88

) d

iffe

rs f

rom

oth

er t

heo

ries

of

pro

per

ty r

igh

ts,

in

that

nei

ther

en

viro

nm

enta

l tr

aged

y n

or i

ncr

easi

ng

excl

usi

on i

s in

evit

able

.

Rat

her

, com

mon

pro

per

ty c

an b

e th

e en

d r

esult

of

inst

ituti

onal

adap

tati

on. H

e

des

crib

es h

ow s

yste

ms

of p

roper

ty r

ights

dev

elop

in r

espon

se t

o ri

sk,

wher

e

the

cost

s of

pri

vati

sati

on a

nd e

xclu

sion

are

hig

h a

nd t

he

ben

efit

s unce

rtai

n.

A f

un

dam

enta

l d

iffe

ren

ce i

n t

his

ap

pro

ach

is

that

it

allo

ws

for

ind

ivid

ual

and

com

mu

nit

y in

tere

sts

to c

oin

cid

e. R

un

ge (

19

81

; 1

98

4),

Ost

rom

(1

99

0),

Qu

iqq

in

(19

93

) an

d

oth

ers

hav

e al

so

iden

tifi

ed

circ

um

stan

ces

wh

ere

com

mu

nal

for

ms

of p

rop

erty

are

eco

nom

ical

ly e

ffic

ien

t an

d h

ave

bee

n

succ

essf

ul

in a

void

ing

envi

ronm

enta

l ‘tra

gedie

s’.

Ther

e ar

e m

any

exam

ple

s w

hic

h s

how

how

res

ourc

e use

rs c

an a

nd d

o

adap

t sy

stem

s of

acc

ess

to n

atura

l re

sourc

es w

hen

it

is i

n t

hei

r bes

t in

tere

sts

to d

o so

.2T

hes

e hav

e va

lidat

ed t

he

adop

tion

of

com

munit

y-bas

ed a

ppro

aches

14

1

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

stat

es i

n t

he

Fed

eral

Rep

ubli

c of

Nig

eria

. A

lthou

gh t

he

adm

inis

trat

ive

stat

us

of B

orno

itse

lf h

as v

arie

d,

it h

as b

een d

omin

ated

by

the

Kan

uri

eth

nic

gro

up

for

mos

t of

its

exi

sten

ce.

(McE

vedy

1995).

Mig

rati

on d

uri

ng

the

latt

er p

art

of

the

mil

lenniu

m h

as b

rough

tto

the

lake

bas

in,

Shuw

a A

rabs

from

the

east

and

Fula

ni

pas

tora

list

s fr

om t

he

wes

t. R

ecen

t se

ttle

rs o

n t

he

lake

shor

e in

clude

Hau

sa

fam

ilie

s fr

om

acro

ss

nor

ther

n

Nig

eria

, w

ho

wer

e at

trac

ted

b

y

fish

ing

oppor

tunit

ies

at t

he

lake

duri

ng

the

1970s

(Mee

ren 1

980;

Nei

land &

Ver

inum

be

1990).

Alt

hou

gh c

erta

in e

thnic

gro

ups

hav

e par

ticu

lar

trad

itio

ns

(for

exa

mple

, the

fish

ing

trad

itio

ns

of the

Hau

sa),

hou

sehol

ds

from

a v

arie

ty o

f

ethnic

gro

ups

fish

, fa

rm a

nd/o

r her

d c

attl

e (H

arri

s 1942).

This

pap

er f

ocuse

s

pri

mar

ily

on t

he

com

munit

ies

who

hav

e se

ttle

d o

n t

he

south

-wes

t la

ke

shor

e.

Th

ey m

ain

ly in

clu

de

Kan

uri

an

d H

ausa

h

ouse

hol

ds,

b

ut

also

sm

alle

r

num

ber

s of

Fula

ni,

Shuw

a an

d Y

edin

a.

The

Kan

uri

heg

emon

y of

Bor

no

was

nam

ed t

he

‘Nat

ive

Adm

inis

trat

ion’

by

the

Bri

tish

col

onis

ts (

and i

s ca

lled

the

‘tra

dit

ional

adm

inis

trat

ion’

in t

his

pap

er),

who

coll

abor

ated

wit

h t

hem

to

dev

elop

thei

r sy

stem

of

taxi

ng

the

rura

l

pop

ula

tion

(Tem

ple

1919).

This

was

bas

ed o

n a

sys

tem

of fi

efs

– e

ither

ter

rito

-

rial

or

by

asso

ciat

ion (

by

trad

e, f

or e

xam

ple

) – w

hic

h w

ere

allo

cate

d b

y th

e

Sh

ehu

or s

uze

rain

to

mem

ber

s of

his

fam

ily,

fav

oure

d c

ourt

iers

, or

hig

h

rankin

g sl

aves

. Under

this

sys

tem

, the

pop

ula

tion

was

obli

ged t

o pay

a v

arie

ty

of t

axes

to

the

fief

hol

der

, w

ho

adm

inis

trat

ed t

he

fief

thro

ugh

a t

ax c

olle

ctor

or

Chim

a,

as w

ell

as a

hie

rarc

hy

of v

illa

ge h

eads,

Law

ans

or B

ula

mas

(Bre

nner

19

73

). B

ren

ner

(1

97

3:1

12

) d

escr

ibes

how

mu

tual

in

tere

st w

as t

he

pri

mar

y

just

ific

atio

n f

or t

hes

e ad

min

istr

ativ

e li

nks:

‘Bar

rin

g d

rou

ght

or o

ther

cau

ses

of c

rop

fai

lure

, th

e p

easa

ntr

y

could

suppor

t it

self

wit

hou

t th

e ai

d o

f th

e st

ate,

whic

h i

n a

ny

case

did

lit

tle

to p

lan a

gain

st p

ossi

ble

fam

ine.

But

the

pro

tect

ion w

hic

h

the

ruli

ng

clas

ses

pro

vid

ed w

as c

ruci

al,

for

wit

hou

t it

a v

illa

ge

mig

ht

be

the

const

ant

targ

et o

f sl

ave

raid

s an

d l

ooti

ng

fora

ys’.

Under

the

colo

nia

l sy

stem

of

taxa

tion

, th

e S

heh

unom

inat

ed D

istr

ict

Hea

ds

or

Aji

a,

wh

o w

ere

resp

onsi

ble

for

col

lect

ing

tax

from

th

e va

riou

s re

gion

s

thro

ugh

out

Bor

no.

Th

e A

jia

del

egat

ed t

his

tas

k t

o su

b-d

istr

ict

hea

ds

or

Law

ans,

who

usu

ally

del

egat

ed t

o lo

cal

agen

ts k

now

n a

s B

ula

ma

, al

l of

whom

wer

e ex

pec

ted t

o ch

annel

rev

enues

upw

ards

to t

he

Sh

ehu. In

itia

lly,

when

this

syst

em w

as s

et u

p i

n 1

905/6

, th

e Sheh

u w

as r

equir

ed t

o pas

s hal

f his

rec

eipts

to t

he

Bri

tish

(P

alm

er 1

929).

Sin

ce N

iger

ian

in

dep

end

ence

in

19

60

, a

mod

ern

gov

ern

men

t h

as

14

0

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

Sah

el a

nd

Su

dan

-Sav

ann

ah a

gro-

clim

atic

zon

es.

Alt

hou

gh r

ain

fall

is

low

and

var

iab

le i

n t

hes

e zo

nes

, it

has

lit

tle

imp

act

on t

he

volu

me

of t

he

lak

e

whic

h i

s ‘a

n a

ccum

ula

tor

of p

osit

ive

dep

artu

res

from

the

mea

n C

har

i/L

ogon

e

dis

char

ge,

risi

ng

in r

esp

onse

to

run

s of

wet

yea

rs,

fall

ing

wit

h s

ucc

essi

ve

year

s of

dro

ugh

t’ (

Gro

ve 1

98

5:1

46

). W

ater

fro

m t

he

Ch

ari/

Log

one

Riv

ers

flow

s in

to t

he

lak

e at

its

sou

ther

n e

xtre

me,

an

d f

low

s n

orth

war

ds

and

outw

ards,

enco

ura

ged b

y th

e la

ke’

s gr

adie

nt an

d p

reva

ilin

g w

inds.

This

infl

ow

pea

ks

in O

ctob

er/N

ovem

ber

, fo

llow

ing

the

end

of

the

rain

s in

th

e so

uth

ern

catc

hm

ent

area

, an

d r

each

es a

min

imum

in M

ay/J

une,

at

the

star

t of

the

nex

t

year

’s r

ains.

Thes

e fl

ood w

ater

s ta

ke

bet

wee

n o

ne

and tw

o m

onth

s to

rea

ch the

Nig

eria

n s

hor

e, w

her

e w

ater

lev

els

pea

k i

n J

anuar

y an

d r

each

thei

r m

inim

um

in J

uly

(O

livr

y et

al

1996).

In t

he

pas

t 25 y

ears

, annual

rai

nfa

ll i

n m

uch

of

the

catc

hm

ent

area

has

bee

n r

educe

d a

nd t

he

surf

ace

area

of

the

Lak

e has

var

ied

consi

der

ably

, bot

h o

n a

n i

ntr

a- a

nd i

nte

rannual

bas

is (

Sar

ch &

Bir

ket

t 2000).

Alt

hou

gh the

lim

its

of d

iffe

rent ec

olog

ical

zon

es in the

lake

are

det

erm

ined

by

its

leve

l, t

he

map

in

Fig

ure

1 i

nd

icat

es t

he

app

roxi

mat

e lo

cati

on o

f th

ese

zones

, as

wel

l as

the

study

area

in t

he

swam

ps

of t

he

Nig

eria

n s

hor

e.

Th

e w

este

rn s

hor

e of

Lak

e C

had

has

bee

n u

nd

er t

he

juri

sdic

tion

of

Bor

no

sin

ce t

he

end

of

the

fou

rtee

nth

cen

tury

. B

orn

o S

tate

is

curr

entl

y on

e of

36

Fig

ure 1

. M

ap o

f th

e L

ake C

had B

asi

n

14

3

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

dev

elop

men

t an

d i

nst

ituti

onal

chan

ges

des

crib

ed a

bov

e (S

arch

1999).

Unli

ke

the

syst

ems

des

crib

ed i

n m

any

text

boo

ks,

th

e fa

rmin

g sy

stem

s

at L

ake

Ch

ad a

re n

ot r

ead

ily

asse

ssed

as

‘sh

ifti

ng’

, ‘s

emi-

per

man

ent’

or

‘per

man

ent’,

or e

xten

sive

or

inte

nsi

ve (

Sar

ch 1

999).

Far

min

g sy

stem

s in

the

study

area

hav

e bee

n d

evel

oped

to

explo

it t

he

seas

onal

flo

odin

g of

the

lake

shor

e (S

arch

& B

irket

t 2000).

In k

ey r

espec

ts,

the

farm

ing

tech

niq

ues

use

d

are

exte

nsi

ve:

farm

ers

rely

on

‘n

ew’

lan

d t

o m

ain

tain

fer

tili

ty l

evel

s an

d

lab

our

is a

n i

mp

orta

nt

con

stra

int

to p

rod

uct

ion

; w

her

eas

in o

ther

res

pec

ts,

farm

ing

syst

ems

are

inte

nsi

ve,

wit

h t

hre

e or

mor

e cr

ops

ofte

n r

elay

ed w

ithin

the

seas

on.

Alt

hou

gh

farm

ing

is

larg

ely

un

mec

han

ised

, p

rod

uct

ion

is

com

mer

cial

ised

, w

ith h

igh l

evel

s of

cas

h i

nput

and c

rop s

ales

. In

1993,

the

valu

e of

far

m s

ales

rep

rese

nte

d m

ore

than

thre

e-quar

ters

of

the

mea

n h

ouse

-

hol

d o

utp

ut

wit

hin

the

study

regi

on (

Sar

ch 1

999).

Sim

ilar

ly,

the

fish

ing

syst

ems

on t

he

lake

shor

e hav

e bee

n d

evel

oped

to

explo

it s

easo

nal

flo

odin

g (I

bid

.).

Alt

hou

gh e

stim

ates

of

fish

pro

duct

ion f

rom

the

lake

vary

, an

d t

he

exac

t im

pac

t of

the

lake’

s co

ntr

acti

on a

nd t

he

explo

ita-

tion

of

fish

sto

cks

is d

iffi

cult

to

asce

rtai

n,

at l

east

par

t of

th

e re

du

ctio

n i

n

pro

duct

ion d

uri

ng

rece

nt

dec

ades

is

acco

unte

d f

or b

y th

e co

ntr

acti

on o

f th

e

lake

(Sta

uch

1977; O

livr

y et

al

1996).

4F

ollo

win

g th

is c

ontr

acti

on, th

e du

mba

met

hod

of

fish

ing

has

bec

ome

incr

easi

ngl

y pop

ula

r. A

du

mba

is a

row

of

fish

trap

s w

hic

h a

re p

lace

d a

cros

s a

chan

nel

of

rece

din

g la

ke

wat

er. T

he

trap

s ar

e

linked

by

smal

l m

eshed

net

ting,

whic

h f

orce

s th

e fi

sh i

n t

he

retr

eati

ng

floo

d

wat

er i

nto

the

trap

s. T

he

dum

bais

esp

ecia

lly

effe

ctiv

e as

fis

h r

etre

atin

g w

ith

the

rece

din

g fl

ood c

annot

esc

ape

them

, an

d t

hey

do

not

nee

d t

o be

bai

ted.

Th

e in

vest

igat

ion

of

syst

ems

of a

cces

s to

far

mla

nd

an

d f

ish

ing

righ

ts

in t

he

stu

dy

area

was

bas

ed o

n t

he

fin

din

gs o

f p

arti

cip

ator

y ap

pra

isal

s

con

du

cted

in

fou

r ca

se s

tud

y vi

llag

es w

ith

in t

he

stu

dy

area

du

rin

g 1

99

5

(Fig

ure

2).

Th

e ap

pra

isal

s w

ere

des

ign

ed t

o u

nd

erst

and

th

e in

stit

uti

onal

chan

nel

s of

res

ourc

e ac

cess

, an

d t

hei

r co

nte

xt a

nd e

volu

tion

, as

wel

l as

the

contr

asts

and c

ompar

ison

s bet

wee

n them

. The

late

r st

ages

of th

e in

vest

igat

ion

use

d p

redom

inan

tly

seco

ndar

y so

urc

es t

o ex

amin

e ac

cess

inst

ituti

ons

at t

he

dis

tric

t, r

egio

nal

, an

d n

atio

nal

lev

els.

Reso

urce a

ccess

inst

ituti

ons

at

Lake C

had

Th

e re

sult

s of

th

is i

nve

stig

atio

n a

re p

rese

nte

d i

n t

his

sec

tion

. S

yste

ms

of

acce

ss t

o fa

rmla

nd a

re c

onsi

der

ed f

irst

, an

d e

xclu

sive

acc

ess

to f

ishin

g ri

ghts

14

2

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

oper

ated

in p

aral

lel

wit

h t

he

trad

itio

nal

adm

inis

trat

ion a

nd c

onsi

sts

of t

hre

e

tier

s: L

ocal

, Sta

te a

nd F

eder

al.

Alt

hou

gh S

tate

and L

ocal

Gov

ernm

ents

can

and d

o ra

ise

thei

r ow

n r

even

ue,

they

mos

tly

rely

on F

eder

al G

over

nm

ent

allo

-

cati

ons.

In c

ontr

ast,

the

trad

itio

nal

adm

inis

trat

ion r

aise

s m

ost

of i

ts r

even

ue

at a

loc

al l

evel

, pre

dom

inan

tly

by

taxi

ng

the

rura

l pop

ula

tion

.

Ther

e ar

e fi

ve L

ocal

Gov

ernm

ent

Are

as (

LG

As)

whic

h a

re a

dja

cent

to t

he

Nig

eria

n s

hor

e of

Lak

e C

had

. A

lthou

gh L

GA

s hav

e a

fish

ing

and a

gric

ult

ure

rem

it,

the

leve

l of

invo

lvem

ent

in f

ishin

g an

d/o

r fa

rmin

g va

ries

bet

wee

n e

ach

LG

A. T

he

study

regi

on in

cludes

the

mid

dle

thre

e: K

ukaw

a, M

ongo

nu a

nd M

arte

.

The

Bor

no

Sta

te G

over

nm

ent has

a m

inim

al invo

lvem

ent in

the

adm

inis

-

trat

ion

of

the

Lak

e, a

s w

ell

as i

ts i

mm

edia

te v

icin

ity.

Th

is i

s p

artl

y d

ue

to

inte

rnat

ion

al t

ensi

ons.

Ou

tbre

aks

of a

rmed

cla

shes

an

d r

ebel

act

ivit

y on

isla

nds

in t

he

lake

hav

e per

sist

ed s

ince

the

1970s,

and a

re l

arge

ly a

ssoc

iate

d

wit

h t

he

succ

essi

on o

f ci

vil

war

s in

the

Rep

ubli

c of

Chad

. A

mult

i-nat

ional

‘Joi

nt

Pat

rol’ h

as b

een c

reat

ed i

n r

espon

se t

o th

ese

outb

reak

s, a

nd i

t has

bee

n

mon

itor

ing

the

lake

to p

reve

nt

furt

her

vio

lence

. A

long

the

wes

tern

shor

e of

the

Lak

e, t

he

Nig

eria

n A

rmy

dom

inat

es t

he

Join

t P

atro

l.

Des

pit

e huge

inve

stm

ents

in i

rrig

atio

n (

and s

mal

ler

inve

stm

ents

in f

ish-

erie

s) d

uri

ng

the

1970s,

dev

elop

men

t in

itia

tive

s hav

e ac

hie

ved l

ittl

e la

stin

g

chan

ge a

t L

ake

Chad

(A

zeza

1976;

Kol

awol

e 1986;

Hutc

hin

son e

t al

1992;

Sar

ch 1

999).

Alt

hou

gh l

inked

to

the

Nig

eria

n e

conom

y th

rough

the

mar

ket

ing

of t

hei

r pro

duce

, th

e hou

sehol

ds

mak

ing

thei

r li

ving

on t

he

Nig

eria

n s

hor

es o

f

Lak

e C

had

are

geo

grap

hic

ally

an

d p

olit

ical

ly r

emot

e fr

om N

iger

ian

pol

icy-

mak

ers.

Th

e vi

llag

es i

n w

hic

h t

his

stu

dy

was

bas

ed,

hav

e h

ard

ly b

een

acknow

ledge

d b

y F

eder

al G

over

nm

ent.

They

hav

e re

ceiv

ed n

egli

gible

publi

c

inve

stm

ent

in t

hei

r w

elfa

re:

mos

t w

ells

are

han

d d

ug;

educa

tion

is

rest

rict

ed

to K

oran

ic s

choo

lin

g fo

r b

oys;

med

ical

fac

ilit

ies

are

only

ava

ilab

le i

n t

he

larg

e to

wns;

and t

he

secu

rity

ser

vice

s usu

ally

mon

itor

only

tra

nsp

ort

nod

es.

The

vill

ages

are

rea

ched

eit

her

on u

nm

arked

tra

cks

on t

he

lake

bed

, or

via

chan

nel

s in

the

swam

p v

eget

atio

n.

Rese

arch a

t L

ake C

had

Fis

hin

g an

d fa

rmin

g li

veli

hoo

ds

hav

e b

een

an

alys

ed u

sin

g h

ouse

hol

d

surv

ey d

ata

coll

ecte

d i

n 1

993,

as w

ell

as f

indin

gs o

f par

tici

pat

ory

rese

arch

conduct

ed w

ith f

our

com

munit

ies

on t

he

lake

shor

e duri

ng

1995. T

hes

e ex

er-

cise

s w

ere

under

taken

as

par

t of

the

Bri

tish

Gov

ernm

ent

fish

erie

s re

sear

ch

pro

ject

(N

eila

nd &

Sar

ch 1

993).

The

subse

quen

t an

alys

is e

xam

ined

the

dat

a

in t

he

wid

er c

onte

xt o

f th

e en

viro

nm

enta

l fl

uct

uat

ion

s, s

ocio

-eco

nom

ic

14

5

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

Gov

ernor

; it

als

o re

stri

cted

indiv

idual

inte

rest

s in

lan

d t

o on

e of

occ

upan

cy

‘...

and [

to]

the

sole

rig

ht

to a

nd a

bso

lute

pos

sess

ion o

f al

l th

e im

pro

vem

ents

on t

he

land’.

(Ibid

:70).

The

dec

ree

vest

ed t

he

man

agem

ent

and c

ontr

ol o

f al

l

non

-urb

an l

and

in

th

e L

ocal

Gov

ern

men

t. I

nd

ivid

ual

s u

tili

sin

g n

on-u

rban

land w

ere

assi

gned

rig

hts

of

cust

omar

y oc

cupan

cy, w

hic

h m

ay b

e ce

rtif

ied b

y

the

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent.

The

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent

may

als

o gr

ant

righ

ts o

f oc

cu-

pan

cy o

f u

p t

o 5

00

hec

tare

s p

er i

nd

ivid

ual

or

orga

nis

atio

n f

or a

gric

ult

ura

l

purp

oses

. A

s th

ere

are

few

‘urb

an’ ce

ntr

es a

t L

ake

Chad

, m

ost

of t

he

land i

n

the

Nig

eria

n S

ecto

r co

mes

under

the

juri

sdic

tion

of

the

Loc

al G

over

nm

ents

adja

cent

to t

he

Lak

e.

Access

to f

arm

land in p

racti

ce

In p

ract

ice,

the

Kan

uri

ari

stoc

racy

has

ret

ained

alm

ost

tota

l au

tonom

y w

ith

rega

rd t

o th

e al

loca

ting

of l

and o

n t

he

shor

es o

f L

ake

Chad

. A

par

t fr

om l

and

acq

uir

ed i

n 1

97

3 b

y th

e fe

der

ally

-sp

onso

red

Sou

th C

had

Irr

igat

ion

Pro

ject

(SC

IP),

far

mla

nd

is

allo

cate

d i

n m

uch

th

e sa

me

way

as

bef

ore

the

19

78

dec

ree.

Curr

entl

y, B

ula

mas

act

as w

ard o

r ham

let

hea

ds.

They

all

ocat

e la

nd

and c

olle

ct t

axes

under

the

juri

sdic

tion

of

the

loca

l L

aw

an,

also

know

n a

s a

sub-d

istr

ict

hea

d.

In a

ddit

ion t

o th

e re

venue

rece

ived

fro

m B

ula

mas,

Law

ans

may

als

o re

ceiv

e dues

of va

riou

s kin

ds

from

rep

rese

nta

tive

s w

ho

rece

ive

taxe

s

from

non

-vil

lage

sou

rces

, su

ch a

s pas

tora

list

s an

d f

isher

men

. T

hes

e ta

x bas

es

par

alle

l th

e te

rrit

oria

l an

d a

ssoc

iati

onal

fie

fs g

rante

d b

y th

e S

heh

uin

the

pre

-

colo

nia

l er

a. C

urr

entl

y, L

aw

ans

are

obli

ged t

o ch

annel

thei

r ta

x re

venues

to

the

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent.

5H

owev

er,

wher

e Law

ans

do

pas

s on

a p

ropor

tion

of

thei

r re

venue,

they

do

so t

o th

e A

jia

or t

he

Dis

tric

t H

ead.

Alt

hou

gh t

his

sys

tem

has

evo

lved

sin

ce N

iger

ian

in

dep

end

ence

, it

is

sim

ilar

to

the

syst

em w

hic

h o

per

ated

bef

ore

colo

nis

atio

n.

It d

iffe

rs,

how

ever

,

in o

ne

impor

tant

resp

ect.

Wher

eas

in t

he

pas

t th

e sy

stem

was

bal

ance

d b

y th

e

nee

d t

o d

efen

d i

tsel

f —

th

e ar

isto

crac

y d

epen

ded

on

th

e p

easa

ntr

y to

rep

len

ish

th

eir

arm

ies,

an

d i

n r

etu

rn t

he

pea

san

try

was

pro

tect

ed f

rom

th

e

slav

e ra

ids

of h

osti

le n

eigh

bou

rs;

how

ever

, w

hen

the

Bri

tish

col

onis

ed B

orno

and

un

der

took

its

def

ence

, ta

xati

on a

nd

pro

tect

ion

wer

e d

ivor

ced

. T

he

curr

ent

Sta

te a

nd

Loc

al G

over

nm

ents

rec

eive

lit

tle,

if

anyt

hin

g, f

rom

lan

d

taxa

tion

(se

e fo

r ex

amp

le,

the

rep

ort

of t

he

Bor

no

Sta

te L

ocal

Rev

enu

e

Com

mit

tee

1982).

The

Join

t P

atro

l re

ceiv

es n

othin

g fr

om t

hes

e ta

xes

eith

er. I

t

is o

ffic

iall

y fu

nd

ed b

y th

e F

eder

al G

over

nm

ent,

an

d i

s al

so u

nof

fici

ally

fun

ded

by

the

char

ges

wh

ich

its

off

icer

s le

vy o

n m

ovem

ent

arou

nd

th

e

lake

bas

in.

14

4

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

is c

onsi

der

ed n

ext.

An

alys

is o

f se

con

dar

y so

urc

es a

t n

atio

nal

an

d r

egio

nal

leve

ls h

ave

bee

n u

sed t

o ex

pla

in t

he

evol

uti

on o

f th

e de

jure

or

theo

reti

cal

syst

ems

of a

cces

s, a

nd t

his

con

tras

ts w

ith w

hat

was

lea

rned

at

a vi

llag

e an

d

dis

tric

t le

vel

rega

rdin

g th

e su

bje

ct o

f h

ow a

cces

s to

far

mla

nd

an

d f

ish

ing

righ

ts o

per

ates

in p

ract

ice.

Access

to f

arm

land in t

heory

Under

the

pro

visi

ons

of t

he

1978 L

and U

se D

ecre

e, a

ll l

and i

n N

iger

ia w

as

nat

ion

alis

ed:

‘All

lan

d c

omp

rise

d i

n t

he

terr

itor

y of

eac

h S

tate

in

th

e

Fed

erat

ion a

re h

ereb

y ve

sted

in t

he

Mil

itar

y G

over

nor

of

that

Sta

te a

nd s

uch

land s

hal

l be

hel

d i

n t

rust

and a

dm

inis

tere

d f

or t

he

use

of

com

mon

ben

efit

of

all

Nig

eria

ns’

. (c

ited

in U

chen

du 1

979:6

9).

In t

heo

ry t

his

dec

ree

rem

oved

lan

d f

rom

th

e tr

ust

eesh

ip o

f fa

mil

ies,

com

mu

nit

ies

and

com

mu

nit

y le

ader

s, a

nd

rep

lace

d t

hem

by

the

Sta

te

Fig

ure 2

. M

ap o

f case

stu

dy v

illa

ges

at

Lake C

had

14

7

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

14

6

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

Det

ails

of

the

land a

cces

s ar

range

men

ts i

n f

our

case

stu

dy

vill

ages

are

pro

vided

in T

able

1.

The

table

show

s th

at t

he

arra

nge

men

ts f

or a

lloc

atin

g th

e

land h

ave

chan

ged l

ittl

e si

nce

the

sett

lem

ent

of e

ach v

illa

ge.

Alt

hou

gh t

he

firs

t se

ttle

rs d

id n

ot n

eed t

o re

ques

t la

nd t

o fa

rm w

ith,

loca

l ar

isto

crat

s w

ere

quic

k t

o cl

aim

thei

r ta

xati

on r

ights

, es

pec

iall

y w

her

e dis

pute

s ov

er l

and h

ad

aris

en.

In m

ost

case

s, t

he

loca

l L

aw

an

– n

earl

y al

way

s a

Kan

uri

– a

sked

the

com

mu

nit

y to

nom

inat

e a

Bu

lam

aw

hom

th

ey c

ould

ch

ann

el t

hei

r an

nu

al

taxe

s th

rou

gh.

In r

etu

rn,

the

Bu

lam

aw

as g

iven

th

e L

aw

an

’sau

thor

ity

to

allo

cate

res

iden

tial

pro

per

ty a

nd

far

mla

nd

, as

wel

l as

au

thor

ity

to s

ettl

e

dis

pute

s w

ithin

his

com

munit

y. D

ispute

s ov

er t

he

righ

t to

all

ocat

e fa

rmla

nd,

such

as

that

bet

wee

n t

he

Bu

lam

as

of D

aba

Sh

ata

Kw

ata

and

Dab

ar S

hat

a

Gar

i, a

re u

sual

ly s

ettl

ed i

n t

he

favo

ur

of t

he

Kan

uri

com

munit

y. I

n t

he

case

of

Sab

on T

um

bu

, si

mil

ar d

isp

ute

s w

ith

in t

he

Hau

sa c

omm

un

ity

hav

e b

een

sett

led

in

fav

our

of t

he

can

did

ate

wit

h t

he

abil

ity

to d

eliv

er t

he

larg

est

tax

pay

men

t to

the

La

wa

n.

The

size

of

the

tax

pay

men

ts m

ade

to t

he

La

wa

nis

subje

ct t

o an

nual

neg

otia

tion

s: t

he

Bula

ma

must

sat

isfy

bot

h t

he

La

wa

n(o

n w

hos

e au

thor

ity

his

pos

itio

n d

epen

ds)

and t

he

com

munit

y on

whos

e su

ppor

t he

reli

es. If

tax

es a

re

too

hig

h o

r lo

w,

he

risk

s al

ienat

ing

one

or t

he

other

. A

lthou

gh t

axes

are

nev

er

wel

com

e, t

hey

wer

e not

unex

pec

ted b

y se

ttle

rs,

since

man

y of

the

lake

floo

r

farm

ers

had

com

e fr

om h

ome

regi

ons

wher

e si

mil

ar s

yste

ms

had

oper

ated

in

the

pas

t (H

ill

1972; M

orti

mor

e 1997).

Access

to f

ishin

g r

ights

in t

heory

No

nat

ion

al l

egis

lati

on r

egar

din

g th

e li

cen

sin

g or

reg

ula

tion

of

inla

nd

fis

h-

erie

s w

as e

nac

ted

un

til

the

Inla

nd

Fis

her

ies

Dec

ree

of 1

99

2.

Th

e d

ecre

e

char

ged

th

e C

omm

issi

oner

for

Agr

icu

ltu

re i

n e

ach

sta

te w

ith

th

e re

spon

si-

bil

ity

for

lice

nsi

ng

and r

egula

ting

inla

nd f

ishin

g. C

erta

in r

egula

tion

s on

gea

r

wer

e in

trod

uce

d i

n t

he

dec

ree,

an

d t

her

e is

pro

visi

on f

or t

he

crea

tion

of

furt

her

reg

ula

tion

s at

Fed

eral

lev

el.

Non

ethel

ess,

ther

e re

mai

ns

no

pro

visi

on

in t

he

law

for

th

e ow

ner

ship

of

wat

er b

odie

s. R

ath

er,

thro

ugh

ass

ign

ing

resp

onsi

bil

itie

s to

lic

ense

and c

ontr

ol i

nla

nd f

ishin

g w

ithin

eac

h s

tate

to

the

Com

mis

sion

er f

or A

gric

ult

ure

, it

im

pli

es h

e is

the

trust

ee o

f th

e in

land w

ater

bod

ies

of e

ach

sta

te (

Inla

nd

Fis

her

ies

Dec

ree

19

92

, S

up

ple

men

t to

th

e

Off

icia

l G

azet

te E

xtra

ordin

ary

No.

75,

Vol

.79,

31 D

ecem

ber

1992).

Not

wit

h-

stan

din

g th

is,

each

LG

A a

lso

has

a r

emit

for

fis

hin

g, w

hic

h i

s u

sual

ly a

conce

rn f

or t

he

Dep

artm

ent

of N

atura

l R

esou

rces

(M

adak

an &

Lad

u 1

996).

Sin

ce t

he

pro

mu

lgat

ion

of

the

Fed

eral

Dec

ree

on I

nla

nd

Fis

her

ies

in

Conflicts

Initially, with Bulamaof DabarShata Gari over right to allocate land

Periodically, between villagersand Fulani herders over accessto lake water over farming land

Recently, between transhumantfarmers and Fulani pastoralists;and periodically within Hausacommunity over Bulamaship

None

Village

DabarShataKwata

KwatanDawashi

SabonTumbu

TumbunNaira

Land allocated by

Bulamaof neigh-bouring DabarShata Gari

The Bulama

One of threeBulamasrepre-senting the mainethnic groups

The ‘acting’Bulama

Taxes handled by

BulamaofDabar ShataGari

The Bulama’sassistants areoverseen by theLawan’s assistant

The Bulama’sassistants areoverseen by theLawan’s assistant

The Bulama’sbrothers and theBulama

Taxespassed to

The Lawanof Baga

The Lawanof Dogoshi

The Lawanof Baidari

The Lawanof Mintar

MajorChanges

None

None

None

1994: Villageflooded andabandoned;1995: Fewhad returnedto farm

Yearfarmingstarted

1981

1984

1985

1984

Table 1. Access to farmland in four case study villages on the Nigerian Shore of Lake Chad

Source: Key interviews and group discussions during the participatory rural appraisals of the four case-study villages in 1995

14

9

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

14

8

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

Conflicts

None

None

None

None

Village

DabarShataKwata

KwatanDawashi

SabonTumbu

TumbunNaira

Restrictionsenforced

None

None

None

None

Taxes/Fees

The Bulama expects anacknowledgement from fish-ermen staying in the village

None

Fee paid to one of the three Bulamas

None

Taxes/Fees passed

No further

N/A

Used to meet taxdemands of Lawanof Baidari

N/A

MajorChanges

None

None

None

None

Year fishingstarted

1978

1980

1985

1984

Table 2. Access to rising flood fishing from four case study villages on the Nigerian Shore of Lake Chad

Source: Key interviews and group discussions during the participatory rural appraisals of the four case-study villages in 1995

19

92

, th

e d

amm

ing

of i

nla

nd

wat

er (

and

in

eff

ect

– d

um

ba

s) h

as b

een

pro

hib

ited

:

‘The

appro

pri

ate

auth

orit

y sh

all

regu

late

and c

ontr

ol t

he

buil

din

g

of d

ams,

wei

rs o

r ot

her

fix

ed b

arri

ers

or o

bst

ruct

ion t

o en

sure

the

free

mov

emen

t of

fis

h, a

nd w

her

e per

mis

sion

is

gran

ted t

o a

per

son

to b

uil

d a

dam

, w

eir

or o

ther

fix

ed b

arri

er o

r ob

stru

ctio

n,

fish

lad

der

s sh

all

be

bu

ilt

to e

nsu

re f

ree

mov

emen

t of

fis

h’

(In

lan

d

Fis

her

ies

Dec

ree

1992, Sec

tion

10 [

1])

.

Th

e L

ake

Ch

ad B

asin

Com

mis

sion

’s J

oin

t R

egu

lati

ons

on F

aun

a an

d F

lora

also

eff

ecti

vely

pro

hib

it d

um

bas.

6T

he

regu

lati

ons

spec

ify

that

mem

ber

sta

tes

wil

l ta

ke

the

nec

essa

ry m

easu

res

to p

rohib

it ‘.

.. d

ikes

, dam

s or

oth

er o

bst

acle

s

wh

ich

hin

der

or

pre

ven

t th

e m

igra

tion

of

fish

’ (s

ee p

art

B,

aqu

atic

fau

na,

arti

cle

6; ci

ted i

n M

osch

etta

1991).

Access

to f

ishin

g r

ights

in p

racti

ce

Bot

h F

eder

al a

nd

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent

hav

e at

tem

pte

d t

o m

anag

e fi

shin

g at

Lak

e C

had

. T

he

LG

As

in t

he

study

regi

on e

ndea

vour

to p

lay

an a

ctiv

e ro

le i

n

regu

lati

ng

and t

axin

g fi

shin

g in

thei

r ar

eas.

In 1

995,

for

exam

ple

, M

ongo

no

and M

arte

LG

As

char

ged a

200 N

aira

lic

ense

fee

to

fish

erm

en w

ithin

thei

r

juri

sdic

tion

. H

owev

er,

com

pli

ance

wit

h m

easu

res

such

as

thes

e is

lim

ited

by

a la

ck o

f L

GA

res

ourc

es,

and b

y an

inab

ilit

y of

thei

r st

aff

to r

each

the

mos

t

pro

duct

ive

fish

ing

area

s on

the

lake

to e

nfo

rce

them

. T

he

Fed

eral

Fis

her

ies

Dep

artm

ent

has

att

empte

d t

o en

forc

e th

e re

gula

tion

s of

the

1992 d

ecre

e at

Lak

e C

had

thro

ugh

vis

its

to t

he

lakes

ide

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent

area

s to

exp

lain

the

stip

ula

tion

s of

the

1992 d

ecre

e to

LG

A s

taff

.

In p

ract

ice,

acc

ess

to f

ish

ing

at L

ake

Ch

ad v

arie

s w

ith

th

e se

ason

(Tab

les

2 a

nd 3

). F

ishin

g duri

ng

the

risi

ng

floo

d i

s m

ore

or l

ess

open

acc

ess.

Anyo

ne

wit

h t

he

mea

ns

to d

o so

, ca

n f

ish t

he

risi

ng

floo

d w

ater

s. R

isin

g fl

ood

fish

ing

doe

s not

req

uir

e per

mis

sion

and i

s not

char

ged f

or d

irec

tly.

Ther

e ar

e,

how

ever

, in

dir

ect

cost

s. F

or e

xam

ple

, th

e dis

cret

ionar

y ch

arge

s im

pos

ed b

y

the

Join

t P

atro

l.7

As

the

floo

d p

eaks

and b

egin

s to

subsi

de,

fis

her

men

hav

e

the

opti

on t

o ei

ther

fis

h t

he

area

of

open

wat

er r

emai

nin

g at

the

centr

e of

the

lak

e b

asin

, or

to

fish

th

e p

ools

an

d c

han

nel

s of

res

idu

al f

lood

wat

er w

hic

h

rem

ain a

round t

he

vill

ages

of

the

study

area

(Tab

le 3

). A

cces

s to

thes

e fi

shin

g

grou

nds

is r

estr

icte

d t

o th

ose

who

pay

for

it,

usu

ally

in a

dva

nce

.

Th

e al

loca

tion

an

d t

axat

ion

of

du

mba

site

s h

as b

ecom

e an

im

por

tan

t

focu

s of

fis

her

ies

regu

lati

on s

ince

they

wer

e in

trod

uce

d i

n t

he

1980s.

Sin

ce

15

1

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

then

, th

ere

has

bee

n c

onsi

der

able

com

pet

itio

n f

or s

uit

able

sit

es i

n w

hic

h t

o a

loca

te d

um

ba.

Un

til

19

93

, d

um

bas

had

bee

n a

sou

rce

of c

onfl

ict

bet

wee

n

dum

bafi

sher

men

and t

hos

e dow

nst

ream

of

them

. In

1993,

the

confl

ict

was

reso

lved

by

a w

ealt

hy

Law

ans,

who

agre

ed t

o is

sue

a w

ritt

en l

icen

se w

hic

h

could

be

chec

ked

and (

the

excl

usi

ve r

ights

of

the

lice

nse

e) e

nfo

rced

by

the

Join

t P

atro

l or

Arm

y.

Then

in 1

994,

Kukaw

a an

d M

arte

LG

As

atte

mpte

d t

o li

cense

and t

ax

the

dum

bas,

and c

onfu

sion

dev

elop

ed o

ver

who

had

the

righ

t to

lic

ense

them

.

This

was

res

olve

d w

hen

, in

ear

ly 1

995,

Fed

eral

fis

her

ies

offi

cers

vis

ited

the

LG

As

and

exp

lain

ed t

he

regu

lati

ons

of t

he

19

92

dec

ree.

Th

ese

pro

hib

it

dum

bas

and t

hus

pre

vent

LG

As

from

tax

ing

them

(Tab

le 2

). N

onet

hel

ess,

the

use

of

dum

bas

per

sist

s. T

he

‘tra

dit

ional

’ adm

inis

trat

ion f

ille

d t

he

void

cre

ated

by

the

wit

hd

raw

al o

f L

ocal

Gov

ern

men

ts a

nd

exp

and

ed i

ts a

uth

orit

y ov

er

fish

ing,

par

ticu

larl

y w

ith r

egar

d t

o th

e al

loca

tion

of

dum

bas.

Alt

hou

gh t

her

e w

as c

onsi

der

able

var

iati

on i

n t

he

syst

ems

of a

cces

s to

dum

bas

whic

h o

per

ated

fro

m e

ach c

ase

study

vill

age,

the

pro

fits

to

be

mad

e

from

du

mba

fish

ing

wer

e re

flec

ted in the

ubiq

uit

ousl

y hig

h lic

ense

fee

s w

hic

h

wer

e ch

arge

d f

or t

hem

. In

1995,

the

excl

usi

ve r

ights

to

oper

ate

a dum

baat

a

par

ticu

lar

site

wer

e so

ld f

or a

s m

uch

as

10,0

00 N

aira

, or

mor

e th

an U

S$100.

Not

surp

risi

ngl

y, t

he

focu

s of

acc

ess

inst

ituti

ons

has

shif

ted a

way

fro

m o

ther

met

hod

s of

rec

essi

on f

ishin

g. I

n g

ener

al,

the

excl

usi

ve r

ights

to

the

fish

ing

from

a d

um

ba

site

wer

e so

ld f

or c

ash

(in

ad

van

ce)

on a

sea

son

al b

asis

.

Purc

has

ers

of t

hes

e co

uld

then

sub-l

et t

hes

e ri

ghts

for

var

ious

tim

e per

iods

duri

ng

that

sea

son.

Dum

basi

tes

are

allo

cate

d b

y va

riou

s ag

ents

of

the

loca

l

La

wan, al

thou

gh r

arel

y th

e B

ula

ma

, w

ith t

he

obje

ctiv

es o

f re

venue

coll

ecti

on

and

con

flic

t p

reve

nti

on.

Th

e se

con

d o

f th

ese

obje

ctiv

es i

s sh

ared

wit

h t

he

Join

t P

atro

l, w

hos

e of

fice

rs a

lso

pro

fit

from

thei

r en

dor

sem

ent

of t

he

dum

ba

lice

nse

s is

sued

by

cert

ain L

aw

ans.

Dis

cuss

ion a

nd c

onclu

sion

Rat

her

th

an e

volv

ing

from

com

mu

nit

ies

in r

esp

onse

to

thei

r p

rod

uct

ion

stra

tegi

es,

the

syst

em o

f ac

cess

to

farm

land o

n t

he

curr

ent

Nig

eria

n s

hor

e of

Lak

e C

had

has

bee

n i

mpos

ed b

y an

ari

stoc

racy

, w

hic

h i

s bas

ed i

n t

he

tow

ns

and v

illa

ges

alon

g th

e fo

rmer

lak

e sh

ore.

This

sys

tem

was

fam

ilia

r to

mos

t in

the

case

stu

dy

com

munit

ies

and, si

nce

much

of

the

agri

cult

ura

l pro

duct

ion a

t

Lak

e C

had

is

for

sale

, th

e sy

stem

doe

s not

see

m t

otal

ly u

nw

orkab

le. H

owev

er,

15

0

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

Conflicts

Bulamainvolved indispute over thedumbalicence whichhe paid for in 1995and was subsequentlyignored and dumbarights denied

None mentioned

None mentioned

None mentioned

Village

DabarShataKwata

KwatanDawashi

SabonTumbu

TumbunNaira

Restrictionsenforced

Fishing at Dumbasites is restrictedand licencessold. Licencesare endorsedand enforced by the Army

Fishing at dumbasites is restrictedand licences sold

Fishing at dumbasites is restrictedand licences sold

Fishing at dumbasites is restricted &sites are allocatedby acting Bulamafor an initial fee

Taxes/Fees

Negotiated throughhis village-basedassistant and paid in cash to Lawan’srepresentative. A further fee is alsopaid to the Army

Fees negotiated withand paid in cash tothe Bulamawhoissues a LGA receipt

Negotiated through1 of the 3 Bulamas.Lawan’s rep. decideswhether to issuelicence & acceptspayment in cash

Taxes assessed inrelation to catchesand paid to actingBulama

Taxes/Feespassed to

The LawanofBaga

Kukawa LGA

A proportionis passed tothe LawanofBaidari (&on to DistrictHead)

A proportionis passed toLawanofMintar (& toDistrict Head)

Major Changes

In 1993, conflict led to regulationand licensing of dumbasite allo-cation, which had previouslybeen on a ‘first-come, first-servedbasis’

In 1994, Kukawa LGA took overdumbalicensing revenues fromLawan of Dogoshi (and theArmy). Recent enforcement of1992 decree challenges the LGAtaxation of dumbas

In 1994, Marte LGA took overdirect allocation and licensing ofdumbas, and then had to stopafter the enforcement of the 1992decree. The system then revertedback to its current status.

The system of dumbaregulationhad evolved by 1993.Mongonou LGA consideredtaking over dumbalicensing, butconsidered it too problematic

Dumbafishingstarted

1989

1989/1990

1989

1989

Table 3. Access to Dumbafishing during the receding flood from four case study villages on the Nigerian Shore ofLake Chad

Source: Key interviews and group discussions during the participatory rural appraisals of the four case-study villages in 1995

15

3

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

dif

fer

from

th

ose

of t

he

syst

ems

of c

ust

omar

y te

nu

re i

n t

he

Fra

nco

ph

one

Sah

el. T

he

firs

t d

iffe

ren

ce i

s in

th

e re

lati

onsh

ip b

etw

een

th

e tr

adit

ion

al

adm

inis

trat

ion

an

d t

he

stat

e. R

ath

er t

han

bei

ng

un

der

min

ed b

y ‘m

oder

n’

tenure

arr

ange

men

ts,

the

Bri

tish

col

onia

l pol

icy

of c

olle

ctin

g ta

x th

rough

the

trad

itio

nal

ad

min

istr

atio

n s

erve

d t

o st

ren

gth

en i

t. T

his

leg

itim

ised

wh

at i

s

esse

nti

ally

a s

yste

m o

f fe

ud

al e

xplo

itat

ion

. T

he

curr

ent

syst

em d

iffe

rs v

ery

litt

le. H

owev

er, i

n t

he

pas

t th

e ‘N

ativ

e A

dm

inis

trat

ion’ p

asse

d o

n a

pro

por

tion

of t

he

tax

coll

ecte

d t

o th

e B

riti

sh,

wher

eas

today

, ve

ry l

ittl

e of

the

reve

nue

from

far

m t

axes

rea

ches

the

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent

or N

iger

ian A

rmy,

whic

h n

ow

def

ends

the

lake.

A s

econ

d l

ies

in t

he

obje

ctiv

es o

f th

e tw

o sy

stem

s. S

yste

ms

of c

ust

omar

y

tenure

hav

e bee

n c

har

acte

rise

d a

s bro

adly

ben

evol

ent,

in t

hat

they

sust

ained

rura

l li

veli

hoo

ds.

At

Lak

e C

had

, how

ever

, th

e ov

erri

din

g an

d o

vert

obje

ctiv

e

of i

nst

ituti

ons

for

reso

urc

e ac

cess

is

pro

fit.

Law

ans

coll

ect

taxe

s as

ren

t on

‘thei

r’ f

iefs

. T

he

abil

ity

of s

uch

fie

fhol

der

s to

acq

uir

e an

d e

xten

d t

hei

r fi

efs

has

not

bee

n t

he

resu

lt o

f an

y in

vest

men

t in

, or

his

tori

cal

asso

ciat

ion w

ith t

he

lak

e fl

oor.

Aft

er a

ll,

the

floo

r w

as o

nly

rev

eale

d a

fter

th

e la

ke

beg

an t

o

contr

act

in t

he

1970s.

Ess

enti

ally

, th

eir

abil

ity

to i

nst

igat

e th

e in

stit

uti

ons

f

or a

cces

s to

the

reso

urc

es o

f th

e la

ke

floo

r is

a f

unct

ion o

f th

e pow

er o

f th

e

‘tra

dit

ional

’ adm

inis

trat

ors

to p

urs

ue

thei

r ow

n i

nte

rest

s.

Th

e th

ird

mod

el c

onsi

der

ed w

as t

hat

of

the

inst

itu

tion

al d

evel

opm

ent

whic

h B

oser

up (1965) an

d N

etti

ng

(1993) li

nked

to

the

pro

cess

of ag

ricu

ltura

l

inte

nsi

fica

tion

gen

erat

ed b

y p

opu

lati

on g

row

th a

nd

an

in

crea

sed

dem

and

for

land.

The

mod

el p

redic

ts t

hat

the

inte

nsi

ty o

f re

sourc

e ex

plo

itat

ion w

ill

det

erm

ine

the

excl

usi

vity

of

pro

per

ty r

ights

, as

res

ourc

e use

rs w

ill

dev

elop

inst

ituti

ons

to e

xclu

de

other

s fr

om b

enef

itin

g fr

om t

hei

r re

sourc

e in

vest

men

t.

Agr

icult

ure

at

Lak

e C

had

has

not

exp

erie

nce

d i

nte

nsi

fica

tion

or

inst

ituti

onal

dev

elop

men

t in

the

way

that

Bos

erup, N

etti

ng

and o

ther

s hav

e des

crib

ed. T

he

contr

acti

on o

f th

e la

ke

has

pre

vente

d t

he

esta

bli

shm

ent

of l

ong-

term

rig

hts

to

farm

lan

d,

and

wh

ile

farm

ers

use

a h

igh

lev

el o

f w

ork

ing

cap

ital

an

d s

ell

a

larg

e p

rop

orti

on o

f th

eir

outp

ut,

th

ey h

ave

mad

e m

inim

al i

nve

stm

ents

in

fixe

d c

apit

al.

The

pro

cess

of

inst

ituti

onal

dev

elop

men

t at

Lak

e C

had

con

form

s m

ost

clos

ely

to t

he

mod

el p

rop

oun

ded

by

Nor

th (

19

90

), i

n w

hic

h i

nst

itu

tion

al

evol

uti

on d

eter

min

es t

he

outc

ome

of e

conom

ic d

evel

opm

ent,

rat

her

than

vic

e

vers

a. N

orth

mai

nta

ins

that

wher

e th

e ev

oluti

on o

f in

stit

uti

ons

is d

rive

n b

y th

e

inte

rest

s of

thos

e w

ith t

he

pow

er t

o dev

ise

them

, nep

otis

m,

mon

opol

ies

and

15

2

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

it i

s, l

arge

ly a

rbit

rary

, b

ecau

se f

arm

ers

hav

e n

o sa

y in

wh

o re

ceiv

es t

hei

r

taxe

s, o

r how

they

are

spen

t. U

nli

ke

duri

ng

the

pre

-col

onia

l er

a w

hen

pea

s-

ants

rec

eive

d p

rote

ctio

n f

rom

the

Kan

uri

ari

stoc

racy

, th

e fa

rmer

s of

the

lake

shor

e re

ceiv

e not

hin

g (o

ther

than

acc

ess

to f

arm

the

rece

ntl

y re

veal

ed l

ake

shor

e) i

n r

eturn

for

the

taxe

s pai

d t

o th

e L

aw

an.

Unli

ke

the

case

for

far

mla

nd, th

e sy

stem

s of

reg

ula

ting

acce

ss t

o fi

shin

g

hav

e on

ly b

een c

reat

ed r

ecen

tly.

They

dev

elop

ed i

n r

espon

se t

o th

e in

trod

uc-

tion

of

the

hig

hly

pro

fita

ble

met

hod

of

fish

ing,

wh

ich

led

to

con

flic

t an

d

confu

sion

. C

onfl

ict

bet

wee

n f

isher

men

dev

elop

ed o

ver

the

impac

t of

dum

bas

on d

ownst

ream

fis

her

ies,

as

wel

l as

con

fusi

on b

etw

een m

oder

n a

dm

inis

trat

ive

agen

cies

ove

r d

um

bare

gula

tion

and t

axat

ion.

Lar

ge d

um

bapro

fits

wer

e bot

h

a so

urc

e of

con

flic

t an

d a

mot

ive

for

the

trad

itio

nal

adm

inis

trat

ion t

o re

solv

e

the

confl

ict

in o

rder

to

ben

efit

fro

m t

he

pro

fits

.

Th

e in

stit

uti

ons

for

acce

ss t

o re

sou

rces

at

Lak

e C

had

do

not

rea

dil

y

con

form

to

exis

tin

g m

odel

s of

res

ourc

e te

nu

re.

Th

e fo

llow

ing

dis

cuss

ion

consi

der

s th

e ex

tent

to w

hic

h t

hos

e dis

cuss

ed a

t th

e st

art

of t

his

pap

er o

ffer

an e

xpla

nat

ion

of

reso

urc

e ac

cess

at

Lak

e C

had

. T

he

firs

t m

odel

to

be

consi

der

ed w

as o

utl

ined

by

Gor

don

(1954)

and d

escr

ibed

as

the

‘Tra

gedy

of

the

Com

mon

s’ b

y H

ardin

(1968).

This

was

bas

ed o

n t

he

not

ions

that

envi

ron-

men

tal

carr

yin

g ca

pac

ity

is f

init

e, ‘

trag

edy’

en

sues

on

ce t

his

cap

acit

y h

as

bee

n e

xcee

ded

an

d a

s th

e u

sers

of

a re

sou

rce

wil

l n

ot v

olu

nta

rily

res

tric

t

thei

r ex

plo

itat

ion o

f it

, th

e st

ate

must

im

pos

e an

d e

nfo

rce

excl

usi

ve r

ights

to

the

reso

urc

e. T

his

th

eory

can

not

be

app

lied

to

Lak

e C

had

, w

her

e a

maj

or

det

erm

inan

t of

en

viro

nm

enta

l ca

rryi

ng

cap

acit

y is

th

e ex

ten

t of

th

e fl

ood

,

whic

h f

luct

uat

es f

rom

yea

r to

yea

r. T

he

impac

t of

res

ourc

e ex

plo

itat

ion o

n t

he

capac

ity

of t

he

lake

to s

uppor

t it

s pop

ula

tion

is

uncl

ear

and i

n a

ny

even

t, i

s

rest

rict

ed b

y a

vari

ety

of i

nst

itu

tion

s w

hic

h c

ontr

ol a

cces

s to

th

e la

kes

reso

urc

es.

Th

e se

con

d m

odel

to

be

con

sid

ered

was

th

e h

isto

rica

l p

roce

ss o

f

inst

ituti

onal

ero

sion

obse

rved

in t

he

Fra

nco

phon

e Sah

el.

The

deg

radat

ion o

f

fore

sts

and r

ange

lands

thro

ugh

out th

e re

gion

has

bee

n a

ttri

bute

d to

the

par

tial

imp

osit

ion

of

‘mod

ern

’ st

atu

tory

mea

sure

s to

en

sure

th

eir

sust

ain

abil

ity.

Th

ese

not

on

ly f

aile

d i

n t

hei

r ob

ject

ives

, b

ut

un

der

min

ed t

he

cust

omar

y

ten

ure

arr

ange

men

ts t

hat

did

exi

st.

Th

e re

sult

has

bee

n a

du

al s

yste

m,

in

whic

h t

he

man

y ar

eas

wher

e te

nure

is

eith

er u

ncl

ear

or n

ot e

nfo

rced

, hav

e

bee

n o

ver-

explo

ited

. A

sim

ilar

inst

ituti

onal

dual

ism

exi

sts

at L

ake

Chad

and

this

als

o has

had

gap

s in

its

cov

erag

e. F

or e

xam

ple

, in the

allo

cati

on o

f fi

shin

g

righ

ts.

How

ever

, th

e fo

rtunes

of

the

trad

itio

nal

adm

inis

trat

ion a

t L

ake

Chad

15

5

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

pro

ble

m o

f ad

dre

ssin

g th

e in

consi

sten

t nat

ure

of

much

tax

atio

n a

t th

e la

ke.

Whet

her

the

taxa

tion

is

legi

tim

ate

or n

ot,

is n

ot t

he

real

iss

ue.

Rat

her

, if

the

taxa

tion

is

at l

east

tra

nsp

aren

t, t

hen

hou

sehol

ds

could

pla

n f

or i

t. L

ower

ing

the

tran

sact

ion

cos

ts i

nvo

lved

in

bot

h a

cqu

irin

g an

d a

lloc

atin

g ac

cess

to

fish

ing

grou

nd

s w

ould

be

in t

he

inte

rest

of

bot

h t

he

hou

seh

old

s m

akin

g

thei

r li

vin

g on

th

e la

ke

shor

e, a

nd

th

e or

gan

isat

ion

s w

hos

e ag

ents

rel

y on

fish

ing

reve

nues

. T

his

wou

ld n

ot r

equir

e ri

gid r

egula

tion

s. T

he

com

par

ativ

e

succ

ess

of t

he

trad

itio

nal

adm

inis

trat

ion i

n a

lloc

atin

g fa

rmla

nd c

an b

e par

tly

attr

ibute

d t

o th

eir

flex

ibil

ity

in a

dap

ting

to t

he

chan

ging

envi

ronm

ent

at L

ake

Chad

. If

for

mula

e (r

ather

than

fix

ed a

mou

nts

or

dat

es)

could

be

esta

bli

shed

and d

isse

min

ated

for

tax

es w

hic

h m

ust

be

pai

d,

this

wou

ld r

educe

the

tran

s-

acti

on c

osts

for

all

invo

lved

.

Acknow

ledgm

ents

Th

e re

sear

ch a

t L

ake

Ch

ad w

as u

nd

erta

ken

as

par

t of

th

e T

rad

itio

nal

Man

agem

ent

of A

rtis

anal

Fis

her

ies

Pro

ject

(T

MA

F).

TM

AF

was

fu

nd

ed b

y

the

UK

Ove

rsea

s D

evel

opm

ent

Ad

min

istr

atio

n P

roje

ct N

o.R

54

71

, an

d w

as

con

du

cted

by

the

Un

iver

sity

of

Por

tsm

outh

(U

K),

in

col

lab

orat

ion

wit

h t

he

Univ

ersi

ty o

f M

aidugu

ri (N

iger

ia) an

d the

Fed

eral

Univ

ersi

ty o

f Tec

hnol

ogy

in

Yol

a (N

iger

ia).

Furt

her

anal

ysis

of th

is r

esea

rch h

as b

een m

ade

pos

sible

by

an

ESR

C r

esea

rch s

tuden

tship

aw

arded

to

Mar

ie-T

hér

èse

Sar

ch.

Endnote

s

1In

a s

imil

ar v

ein t

o H

ardin

, O

lson

(1965)

argu

ed t

hat

if

an i

ndiv

idual

can

der

ive

a ben

efit

from

a p

ubli

c go

od, th

ere

wou

ld b

e no

reas

on f

or s

he

or h

e to

con

trib

ute

to

the

good

. O

ther

auth

ors

hav

e des

crib

ed t

his

theo

ry u

sing

the

‘pri

soner

s’ d

ilem

ma’

, w

her

e in

div

idual

s ar

e

offe

red a

choi

ce b

etw

een c

ooper

atio

n w

ith

eac

h o

ther

or

def

ecti

on.

If b

oth c

ooper

ate

and

stin

t in

thei

r use

of

the

com

mon

res

ourc

e, i

ts o

ver-

explo

itat

ion i

s not

inev

itab

le.

How

ever

,

the

theo

ry p

redic

ts that

joi

nt use

rs o

f a

com

mon

res

ourc

e h

ave

no

ince

nti

ve to

stin

t in

thei

r

use

of

it,

as t

hey

can

not

be

sure

th

at t

hei

r co

-use

rs w

ill

do

lik

ewis

e. I

nst

ead

, th

ey w

ill

pu

rsu

e th

e ‘f

ree-

rid

er’

stra

tegy

an

d w

ill

ult

imat

ely

over

-exp

loit

, le

adin

g to

‘tr

aged

y’.

(Runge

1984, M

oore

hea

d &

Lan

e 1993, W

ade

1988)

2F

or e

xam

ple

: A

ches

on (

1975)

des

crib

es h

ow ‘f

ief’

hol

der

s hav

e cr

eate

d e

xclu

sive

rig

hts

to

the

lob

ster

s on

th

e M

ain

e co

ast;

McG

ood

win

(1

98

3)

des

crib

es a

var

iety

of

ind

igen

ous

mec

han

ism

s of

sel

f re

gula

tion

in u

nm

anag

ed f

isher

ies;

Wad

e (1

988)

show

s how

use

rs h

ave

dev

elop

ed a

sys

tem

of

man

agin

g ac

cess

to

irri

gati

on;

Ch

ild

(1

99

3)

des

crib

es h

ow r

ura

l

15

4

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

under

dev

elop

men

t re

sult

s. F

or h

ouse

hol

ds

mak

ing

thei

r li

ving

at L

ake

Chad

,

the

resu

lt o

f th

is p

roce

ss i

s ar

bit

rary

tax

atio

n. T

he

taxe

s im

pos

ed b

y th

e tr

adi-

tion

al a

dm

inis

trat

ion a

re i

lleg

itim

ate,

bec

ause

the

obli

gati

on t

o pay

them

is

not

mat

ched

by

a d

uty

to

pro

vid

e. S

uch

tax

es a

re i

nim

ical

to

live

lih

ood

s,

bec

ause

rev

enu

es a

re n

ot u

sed

to

pro

vid

e th

e sc

hoo

ls,

hea

lth

cen

tres

an

d

oth

er s

ocia

l an

d p

hys

ical

in

fras

tru

ctu

re t

hat

wou

ld e

nab

le h

ouse

hol

ds

to

buil

d o

n t

hei

r as

sets

.

Des

pit

e th

e ex

plo

itat

ion i

nher

ent

in i

t, t

he

syst

em o

f la

nd t

enure

at

Lak

e

Chad

has

im

por

tant

adva

nta

ges

over

the

syst

em o

f fi

sher

ies

man

agem

ent.

The

mos

t im

por

tant

of t

hes

e is

that

it

wor

ks.

The

inst

ituti

ons

for

acce

ss t

o la

nd a

re

wid

ely

un

der

stoo

d,

they

hav

e al

mos

t co

mp

lete

com

pli

ance

an

d t

hey

are

stab

le.

The

hou

sehol

ds

of t

he

lake

shor

e know

when

they

wil

l be

expec

ted t

o

pay

thei

r fa

rm t

ax,

they

know

who

they

wil

l pay

it

to,

they

know

rou

ghly

what

pro

por

tion

of

thei

r h

arve

st w

ill

be

req

uir

ed a

nd

rou

ghly

wh

at o

ther

hou

se-

hol

ds

in t

he

vill

age

wil

l be

pay

ing.

In c

ontr

ast,

the

allo

cati

on o

f fi

shin

g ri

ghts

vari

es f

rom

vil

lage

to

vill

age,

has

req

uir

ed t

he

Arm

y to

pre

vent

confl

ict,

and

has

sw

ung

bet

wee

n t

he

contr

ol o

f L

ocal

Gov

ernm

ent,

the

‘Nat

ive

Adm

inis

tr-

atio

n’ a

nd t

he

Arm

y.

Alt

hou

gh b

road

ly b

enev

olen

t an

d s

imil

ar i

n t

hei

r ai

ms

to s

ust

ain

fis

h

stoc

ks

and fis

hin

g li

veli

hoo

ds,

the

effo

rts

of the

Fed

eral

Fis

her

ies

Dep

artm

ent

and

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent

hav

e co

nfl

icte

d a

nd

res

ult

ed i

n f

ailu

re.

Fed

eral

atte

mp

ts t

o en

forc

e a

ban

on

du

mba

fish

ing

at t

he

beg

inn

ing

of 1

99

5,

pre

vente

d L

ocal

Gov

ernm

ent

regu

lati

on o

f d

um

bafi

shin

g. C

onse

quen

tly,

the

trad

itio

nal

ad

min

istr

atio

n r

esu

med

th

eir

allo

cati

on a

nd

tax

atio

n o

f d

um

ba

lice

nse

s, a

nd w

her

e dis

pute

s ar

ose,

the

Nig

eria

n A

rmy

wer

e pai

d t

o en

dor

se

thes

e ‘t

rad

itio

nal

’ li

cen

ses.

Du

mba

fish

ing

per

sist

s an

d L

ocal

Gov

ern

men

t

has

lit

tle

con

trol

ove

r it

. F

ish

erie

s m

anag

emen

t, l

ike

the

oth

er m

oder

n

adm

inis

trat

ive

inst

ituti

ons

at L

ake

Chad

, ca

nnot

oper

ate

effe

ctiv

ely

bec

ause

ther

e is

con

fusi

on o

ver

whic

h a

genci

es h

ave

juri

sdic

tion

ove

r w

hic

h a

reas

. In

addit

ion, th

e fo

rmula

tion

of

regu

lati

ons

cannot

to

kee

p u

p w

ith o

f dyn

amic

s of

the

Lak

e.

Alt

hou

gh f

arm

tax

es a

re n

eith

er a

ccou

nte

d f

or,

nor

in

vest

ed i

n t

he

com

munit

ies

who

pay

them

, th

e under

stan

din

g w

hic

h a

ll i

nvo

lved

hav

e ab

out

the

way

they

are

col

lect

ed i

s an

adva

nta

ge. M

ost

of t

he

other

tax

es i

mpos

ed a

t

Lak

e C

had

are

not

only

ill

egit

imat

e, b

ut

inco

nsi

sten

t to

o. T

he

allo

cati

on o

f

excl

usi

ve fis

hin

g ri

ghts

is

one

exam

ple

of th

is. T

he

inco

nsi

sten

t nat

ure

of th

ese

taxe

s se

vere

ly c

onst

rain

s th

e ab

ilit

y of

far

mer

s an

d fis

her

men

to

pla

n for

them

.

Th

ese

con

clu

sion

s in

dic

ate

a ra

dic

al r

oute

for

war

d w

ith

reg

ard

to

the

15

7

Inst

ituti

onal evolu

tion a

t L

ake C

had

Beh

nke,

Jnr.

R.

and S

coon

es,

I.,

1993,

Ret

hin

kin

g R

ange

Eco

logy

: Im

pli

cati

ons

for

Ran

gela

nd

Man

agem

ent

in A

fric

a, C

hap

ter

1 i

n B

ehnke,

Jnr.

R., S

coon

es,

I. a

nd K

erve

n,

C., (

eds)

,

Ra

ng

e E

colo

gy a

t D

iseq

uil

ibri

um

: N

ew M

od

els

of

Na

tura

l Va

ria

bil

ity a

nd

Pa

stora

l

Adapt

ati

on i

n A

fric

an S

ava

nnas,

Lon

don

: O

vers

eas

Dev

elop

men

t In

stit

ute

.

Ber

ry, S., 1

989, Soc

ial

Inst

ituti

ons

and A

cces

s to

Res

ourc

es, A

fric

a,5

9(1

):4

1-5

5, 1

98

9.

Ber

ry,

S., 1

993,

No

Con

dit

ion i

s P

erm

anen

t: T

he

Soc

ial

Dyn

am

ics

of A

gra

rian C

hange

in S

ub-

Sahara

n A

fric

a, M

adis

on: U

niv

ersi

ty o

f W

isco

nsi

n P

ress

.

Bor

no

Sta

te,

19

82

, B

orn

o S

tate

Loca

l R

even

ue

Com

mit

tee

Rep

ort

Au

gu

st 1

98

2,

Mai

du

guri

,

Nig

eria

: G

over

nm

ent

Pri

nte

r.

Bos

eru

p,

E.,

19

65

, T

he

Con

dit

ions

of A

gri

cult

ura

l G

row

th:

The

Eco

nom

ics

of A

gra

rian C

hange

under

Pop

ula

tion

Pre

ssure

, N

ew Y

ork: A

ldin

e P

ubli

shin

g C

ompan

y.

Bre

nn

er,

L.,

19

73

, T

he

Sheh

us

of K

uka

wa:

A H

isto

ry o

f th

e A

l-K

anem

i D

yna

sty

of B

ornu

, O

xfor

d:

Cla

rendon

Pre

ss.

Bri

nk

erh

off,

D.W

., 1

99

5,

Afr

ican

Sta

te-s

ocie

ty L

ink

ages

in

Tra

nsi

tion

: T

he

Cas

e of

For

estr

y

Pol

icy

in M

ali,

Canadia

n J

ourn

al

of D

evel

opm

ent

Stu

die

s,X

VI(

2):

201-2

28.

Bro

mle

y, D

.W.

and

Cer

nea

, M

.M.,

19

89

, T

he

Man

agem

ent

of C

omm

on P

rop

erty

Nat

ura

l

Res

ourc

es:

Som

e C

once

ptu

al a

nd

Op

erat

ion

al F

alla

cies

, W

orld

Ba

nk

Dis

cuss

ion

Pa

pers

No.

57, W

ashin

gton

DC

: T

he

Wor

ld B

ank.

Cad

dy,

J.F

. an

d G

ull

and,

J.A

., 1

983,

His

tori

cal

Pat

tern

s of

Fis

h S

tock

s, M

ari

ne

Pol

icy,

Oct

ober

,

pp

.26

7-2

78

.

Car

ney

, D

., 1

99

8,

Imp

lem

enti

ng

the

Su

stai

nab

le R

ura

l L

ivel

ihoo

ds

Ap

pro

ach

, C

hap

ter

1 i

n

Car

ney

, D

., (

ed),

Su

sta

ina

ble

Ru

ral

Liv

elih

ood

s. W

ha

t C

on

trib

uti

on

Ca

n W

e M

ake?

Lon

don

: D

epar

tmen

t fo

r In

tern

atio

nal

Dev

elop

men

t.

Car

swel

l, G

., 1

99

7,

Agr

icu

ltu

ral

Inte

nsi

fica

tion

an

d R

ura

l S

ust

ain

able

Liv

elih

ood

s: A

Th

ink

Pie

ce, ID

S W

orki

ng P

ape

r N

o.63

, B

righ

ton, U

K: In

stit

ute

for

Dev

elop

men

t Stu

die

s.

Char

les,

A.T

., 1

996,

Cre

ati

ng a

Col

laps

e: A

tlanti

c C

anada’s G

roundfi

sher

y, p

aper

pre

sente

d t

o

the

Eig

hth

Con

fere

nce

of

the

Inte

rnat

ional

Inst

itute

for

Fis

her

ies

Eco

nom

ics

and T

rade,

Mar

rakec

h, 1-4

July

1996.

Ch

ild

, B

., 1

99

3,

Zim

bab

we’

s C

AM

PF

IRE

Pro

gram

me:

Usi

ng

the

Hig

h V

alu

e of

Wil

dli

fe

Rec

reat

ion

to

R

evol

uti

onis

e N

atu

ral

Res

ourc

e M

anag

emen

t in

C

omm

un

al

Are

as,

Com

mon

wea

lth F

ores

try

Rev

iew

,7

2(4

):2

84

-29

6.

Cir

iacy

-Wan

tru

p,

S.V

. an

d B

ish

op,

R.C

., 1

97

5,

‘Com

mon

Pro

per

ty’

as a

Con

cep

t in

Nat

ura

l

Res

ourc

e P

olic

y, N

atu

ral

Res

ourc

es J

ourn

al,

15

:71

3-7

27

.

Cu

shin

g, D

.H.,

19

82

, C

lim

ate

and F

isher

ies,

Lon

don

: A

cadem

ic P

ress

.

Cu

shin

g, D

.H.,

19

88

, T

he

Pro

viden

t Sea

, C

ambri

dge

, U

K: C

ambri

dge

Univ

ersi

ty P

ress

.

Dav

ies,

S.,

19

98

, A

da

pta

ble

Liv

elih

ood

s: C

opin

g w

ith

Foo

d I

nse

curi

ty i

n t

he

Ma

lia

n S

ah

el,

Lon

don

: M

acm

illa

n.

15

6

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

com

munit

ies

in Z

imbab

we

now

man

age

and m

arket

thei

r w

ildli

fe s

ucc

essf

ull

y; a

nd K

uri

en

(1995)

des

crib

es h

ow c

omm

unit

ies

are

acti

ng

coll

ecti

vely

to

reju

venat

e co

asta

l fi

sher

ies.

3F

or e

xam

ple

, th

e P

rogra

mm

e N

ati

onal

de

Ges

tion

des

Ter

roir

s V

illa

geo

isin

Burk

ina

Fas

o

(see

T

oulm

in 1

99

1)

and

a

sim

ilar

st

rate

gy fo

r fo

rest

ry m

anag

emen

t in

M

ali

(see

Bri

nk

erh

off

19

95

). T

he

TM

AF

pro

ject

, th

rou

gh w

hic

h r

esea

rch

for

th

e th

esis

was

conduct

ed, i

s an

exa

mple

of su

ch a

n init

iati

ve funded

by

the

UK

DF

ID to

pro

mot

e co

mm

u-

nit

y-bas

ed s

oluti

ons

to p

erce

ived

fis

her

ies

man

agem

ent

pro

ble

ms.

The

rece

nt

UK

DF

ID

spon

sore

d C

apac

ity

Bu

ild

ing

for

Dec

entr

alis

ed D

evel

opm

ent

(CB

DD

) p

roje

ct,

bas

ed i

n

centr

al N

iger

ia, is

anot

her

exa

mple

.

4E

xtra

pol

atin

g fr

om fig

ure

s fo

r th

e fi

sh s

old in the

two

key

, lak

e-si

de

mar

ket

s, S

agua

(1991)

esti

mat

ed a

n a

vera

ge a

nnual

pro

duct

ion o

f 56,0

00 t

ons

(fre

sh w

eigh

t eq

uiv

alen

t) b

etw

een

1986 a

nd 1

989.

This

is

a fr

acti

on o

f th

e fi

gure

s ca

lcula

ted b

y D

ura

n (

1980)

for

the

1970-

19

77

per

iod

, w

hic

h a

llow

a c

omp

arab

le e

stim

ate

for

an a

vera

ge a

nn

ual

pro

du

ctio

n o

f

24

3,0

00

ton

s.

5Sin

ce 1

976,

vill

age

hea

ds

(i.e

. Law

ans

rath

er t

han

Bula

mas,

who

are

offi

cial

ly d

escr

ibed

as w

ard o

r ham

let

hea

ds)

hav

e, i

n t

heo

ry,

bee

n t

he

pai

d e

mplo

yees

of

Loc

al G

over

nm

ent

(see

Th

omas

, Ji

moh

& M

atth

es 1

99

3).

Th

is i

s n

ot,

how

ever

, al

way

s th

e ca

se f

or t

he

Law

ans,

whos

e ar

eas

of j

uri

sdic

tion

are

adja

cent

to L

ake

Chad

. T

he

pow

er a

nd s

tatu

s of

ind

ivid

ual

La

wa

ns

vari

es c

onsi

der

ably

: th

ose

wit

h l

east

are

mos

t li

kel

y to

att

end

LG

A

sess

ions,

and t

hos

e w

ith m

ost

wil

l not

. L

GA

off

icia

ls m

ay e

ven s

eek a

udie

nce

s w

ith t

he

mos

t pow

erfu

l Law

ans.

For

exa

mple

, th

e L

aw

an

of B

aga.

6A

lthou

gh t

he

Lak

e C

had

Bas

in C

omm

issi

on’s

Joi

nt

Reg

ula

tion

s on

Fau

na

and F

lora

wer

e

rati

fied

by

the

mem

ber

sta

tes

(Nig

eria

, N

iger

, C

amer

oon a

nd C

had

) in

1988, th

ey h

ave

not

bee

n e

nfo

rced

in N

iger

ia.

7In

theo

ry, fi

sher

s w

ere

requir

ed t

o hav

e li

cence

s is

sued

by

the

LG

A. In

pra

ctic

e, t

he

LG

A

doe

s not

enfo

rce

com

pli

ance

wit

h t

his

how

ever

mem

ber

s of

the

Join

t P

atro

l ca

n a

sk t

o se

e

thes

e li

cence

s an

d c

an e

xtor

t pay

men

t w

hen

they

are

not

pre

sente

d i

mm

edia

tely

.

Refe

rences

Ach

eson

, J.

M., 1

975,

The

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Fie

fs:

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nom

ic a

nd E

colo

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l E

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ts o

f Ter

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ity

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Nor

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ura

nce

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ble

m in C

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e A

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pp

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nit

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her

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ctic

es a

nd O

pti

ons

for

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nd

In

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Lev

els,

Chap

ter

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N.M

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den

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F.A

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s),

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d Z

on

e H

yd

rolo

gy a

nd

Wa

ter

Res

ou

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aid

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niv

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ty o

f

Mai

dugu

ri P

ress

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Legis

lati

on

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Join

t R

egula

tion

s on

Fau

na

and F

lora

of

the

Lak

e C

had

Bas

in C

omm

issi

on, ra

tifi

ed b

y th

e

Fed

eral

Gov

ernm

ent

of N

iger

ia i

n 1

988.

16

5

Wate

r W

ars:

Endurin

g M

yth

or

Impendin

g R

eality

?

An

tho

ny

Tu

rto

n

Intr

oducti

on

Ther

e is

a f

asci

nat

ion w

ith t

he

not

ion o

f a

Wat

er W

ar,

and t

he

exis

tence

of

such

a f

alse

phen

omen

on s

eem

s to

pre

vail

, des

pit

e ir

refu

table

evi

den

ce t

o th

e

contr

ary.

This

con

cludin

g ch

apte

r w

ill

sugg

est

that

it

is t

ime

for

us

to d

ebunk

the

myt

h o

f W

ater

War

s fo

r tw

o im

por

tant

reas

ons.

Fir

stly

, su

ch t

hin

gs t

end t

o

be

hig

hly

em

otiv

e, a

nd a

s su

ch, th

ey l

ure

us

away

fro

m t

he

real

iss

ues

that

we

shou

ld b

e fo

cuss

ing

on.

Wat

er W

ars

are

not

hin

g m

ore

than

a r

ed h

erri

ng,

consu

min

g ou

r co

llec

tive

res

earc

h e

ner

gy w

hen

ther

e ar

e ot

her

mor

e pre

ssin

g

pro

ble

ms

whic

h w

e nee

d t

o at

tack

. Sec

ondly

, th

is c

onst

ruct

ion o

f know

ledge

is a

ctiv

ely

fed

in

to t

he

med

ia,

wh

o th

en p

rop

agat

e th

e m

yth

as

if i

t w

ere

real

ity.

As

such

, th

e m

edia

is

doi

ng

us

a gr

ave

dis

serv

ice,

bec

ause

su

ch

unte

sted

info

rmat

ion i

nfo

rms

an a

lrea

dy

neg

ativ

e per

cepti

on t

hat

exi

sts

abou

t

Afr

ica,

whic

h u

nder

min

es i

nve

stor

con

fiden

ce a

nd c

onti

nues

to

mar

ginal

ise

the

con

tin

ent.

Wh

o, a

fter

all

, w

ould

wan

t to

in

vest

in

a r

egio

n w

hen

th

e

pop

ula

r bel

ief

is t

hat

it

is l

ikel

y to

sli

p i

nto

a q

uag

mir

e of

wat

er w

ars

duri

ng

the

twen

ty-f

irst

cen

tury

?

16

7

Wate

r w

ars

under

Eth

iopia

n r

ule

.

•B

etw

een 1

965 a

nd 1

966,

Isra

el a

nd S

yria

exc

han

ged f

ire

over

the

‘all

-Ara

b’ p

lan t

o div

ert

the

Jord

an R

iver

hea

dw

ater

s, p

resu

mab

ly i

n

ord

er t

o co

un

ter

the

Isra

eli

pla

ns

to d

evel

op t

he

‘nat

ion

al w

ater

carr

ier’

. C

onst

ruct

ion o

f th

e Syr

ian d

iver

sion

hal

ted i

n J

uly

1966.

•In

1975, Ir

aq c

laim

ed t

hat

thei

r w

ater

fro

m t

he

Eu

phra

tes

was

insu

f-

fici

ent,

cit

ing

upst

ream

dam

con

stru

ctio

n a

s th

e ca

use

. This

res

ult

ed

in S

yria

n-I

raq

i h

osti

lity

wit

h m

ilit

ary

pos

turi

ng,

bu

t su

cces

sfu

l

med

iati

on b

y Sau

di

Ara

bia

eve

ntu

ally

eas

ed t

ensi

ons.

•B

etw

een 1

989 a

nd 1

991,

two

Sen

egal

ese

pea

sants

wer

e kil

led i

n a

dis

pute

ove

r gr

azin

g ri

ghts

on t

he

Sen

egal

Riv

er.

This

spar

ked

off

ethnic

and l

and r

efor

m t

ensi

ons

in t

he

regi

on,

resu

ltin

g in

the

dea

th

of s

ever

al h

un

dre

d p

eop

le.

Sig

nif

ican

tly,

th

e fi

ghti

ng

was

not

bet

wee

n t

wo

arm

ies,

but

bet

wee

n c

ivil

ians

from

oppos

ing

sides

. T

he

arm

y in

terv

ened

and o

rder

was

res

tore

d.

We

can

th

eref

ore

safe

ly c

oncl

ud

e, t

hat

bas

ed o

n a

vail

able

evi

den

ce,

Wat

er

War

s as

def

ined

by

Turt

on (

2000)

are

very

rar

e in

dee

d. I

n f

act,

thei

r ex

iste

nce

is n

othin

g m

ore

than

a m

yth w

hic

h d

eser

ves

to b

e deb

unked

. T

he

concl

usi

on

of W

olf’s

com

pre

hen

sive

stu

dy

serv

es a

s a

wis

e w

arnin

g in

this

reg

ard —

he

said

that

, ‘w

hil

e w

ater

war

s m

ay b

e a

myt

h, th

e co

nnec

tion

bet

wee

n w

ater

and

pol

itic

al s

tabil

ity

cert

ainly

is

not

’ (W

olf

1998:2

61).

Con

sequen

tly,

we

shou

ld

acce

pt

that

wat

er a

nd c

onfl

ict

are

dee

ply

inte

rtw

ined

, th

eref

ore

we

nee

d t

o

focu

s m

ore

shar

ply

on t

he

finer

nuan

ces

of t

his

if

we

are

to m

ove

forw

ard w

ith

the

dis

cipli

ne

of h

ydro

pol

itic

s as

a d

isti

nct

bra

nch

of

pol

itic

al s

cien

ce.

When

it

com

es t

o w

ater

as

a ta

rget

of

war

, th

ere

is v

ast

lite

ratu

re t

o sh

ow

that

this

is

indee

d t

rue.

How

ever

, this

is

not

a w

ater

war

. It

can b

e re

gard

ed a

s

a co

nve

nti

onal

for

m o

f w

ar,

wit

h h

ydra

uli

c in

stal

lati

ons

as a

tac

tica

l co

mpo-

nen

t (T

urt

on 2

000).

The

bes

t ex

ample

s of

this

in s

outh

ern A

fric

a at

pre

sent

are

in A

ngo

la,

wher

e m

ajor

hyd

rauli

c in

stal

lati

ons

on t

he

Kunen

e R

iver

are

eith

er d

amag

ed o

r m

alfu

nct

ion

ing,

dir

ectl

y as

th

e re

sult

of

mil

itar

y ac

tion

(Mei

ssner

2000).

The

exis

tence

of

quas

i W

ater

War

s ca

n a

lso

be

found

in s

outh

ern A

fric

a.

In t

his

cas

e, t

he

confl

ict

is n

ot o

ver

the

reso

urc

e it

self

, but

the

thea

tre

of t

he

confl

ict

hap

pen

s to

coi

nci

de

wit

h a

quat

ic e

nvi

ronm

ents

. T

he

bes

t ex

ample

of

this

is

the

Kas

ikil

i/Sed

udu I

slan

d i

ssue,

whic

h w

as d

ealt

wit

h i

n t

he

chap

ter

by

Ash

ton

(2

00

0).

Th

ese

are

inte

rest

ing

case

s in

th

eir

own

rig

hts

, b

ecau

se

des

pit

e th

e fa

ct t

hat

the

Inte

rnat

ional

Cou

rt o

f Ju

stic

e has

mad

e a

ruli

ng

on

16

6

Anth

ony T

urto

n

The m

yth

of

wate

r w

ars

Wat

er W

ars

are

not

hin

g m

ore

than

a m

yth. T

her

e is

not

a s

hre

d o

f ev

iden

ce t

o

suppor

t th

eir

exis

tence

in a

ny

of t

he

chap

ters

in t

his

boo

k. Tru

e, t

her

e is

a l

ot

of c

onfl

ict,

or

pot

enti

al c

onfl

ict,

ove

r w

ater

res

ourc

es. T

his

is

par

ticu

larl

y tr

ue

wh

ere

thes

e w

ater

res

ourc

es a

re f

oun

d i

n s

har

ed r

iver

bas

ins

or a

qu

ifer

s.

How

ever

, th

is d

oes

not

mea

n a

war

ove

r w

ater

. In

this

sen

se, w

e nee

d c

once

p-

tual

cla

rity

(Turt

on 2

000a)

. W

ater

sca

rcit

y, a

s bot

h a

nec

essa

ry a

nd s

uff

icie

nt

condit

ion f

or g

oing

to w

ar, is

an a

lmos

t non

-exi

sten

t phen

omen

on.

In t

his

reg

ard

, it

is

illu

min

atin

g to

rea

d t

he

reve

alin

g fi

nd

ings

of

a

com

pre

hen

sive

res

earc

h p

roje

ct w

hic

h u

sed

th

e Tra

nsb

oun

dar

y F

resh

wat

er

Dis

pute

Dat

abas

e. O

ne

of the

mai

n c

oncl

usi

ons

was

that

, ‘th

e ac

tual

his

tory

of

arm

ed w

ater

con

flic

t is

som

ewhat

les

s dra

mat

ic t

han

the

wat

er w

ars

lite

ratu

re

wou

ld l

ead

on

e to

bel

ieve

: a

tota

l of

sev

en i

nci

den

ts,

in t

hre

e of

wh

ich

no

shot

s w

ere

fire

d.

As

nea

r as

we

can f

ind,

ther

e has

nev

er b

een a

sin

gle

war

fought

over

wate

r’ (

emphas

is i

n t

he

orig

inal

tex

t),

(Wol

f 1998:2

55)

This

has

bee

n t

he

case

sin

ce a

t le

ast

2,5

00

0 B

C,

wh

en t

he

Su

mer

ian

cit

y-st

ates

of

Lag

ash a

nd U

mm

a w

ent

to w

ar o

ver

the

righ

t to

exp

loit

bou

ndar

y ch

annel

s

alon

g th

e T

igri

s R

iver

(C

oop

er 1

98

3 a

s ci

ted

in

Wol

f 1

99

8:2

55

). H

owev

er,

that

was

not

eve

n a

tru

e w

ater

war

(Turt

on 2

000),

fal

ling

nea

tly,

inst

ead,

into

the

def

init

ion

of

a q

uas

i w

ater

war

. T

hes

e se

ven

in

cid

ents

are

bri

efly

as

foll

ows

(Wol

f 1998:2

56):

•T

he

1948 p

arti

tion

bet

wee

n I

ndia

and P

akis

tan s

aw t

he

Indus

Bas

in

bei

ng

div

ided

in

a c

onvo

lute

d f

ash

ion

. N

o le

ss t

han

12

yea

rs o

f

neg

otia

tion

s, l

ed b

y th

e W

orld

Ban

k,

resu

lted

in t

he

Indus

Wat

ers

Agr

eem

ent.

•B

etw

een 1

951 a

nd 1

953,

Syr

ia a

nd I

srae

l ex

chan

ged s

por

adic

fir

e

over

Isr

aeli

wat

er d

evel

opm

ent

in t

he

Huhle

h B

asin

. Is

rael

mov

ed

its

fres

hw

ater

inta

ke

to t

he

Sea

of

Gal

ilee

.

•In

19

58

, E

gyp

t m

oun

ted

an

un

succ

essf

ul

mil

itar

y ex

ped

itio

n i

nto

dis

pu

ted

Nil

e ri

par

ian

ter

rito

ries

. T

ensi

ons

ease

d w

hen

a p

ro-

Egy

pti

an g

over

nm

ent

was

ele

cted

in

Su

dan

an

d t

he

Nil

e W

ater

s

Agr

eem

ent

was

sig

ned

.

•B

etw

een

19

63

an

d 1

96

4,

bor

der

sk

irm

ish

es b

etw

een

Som

alia

an

d

Eth

iop

ia e

rup

ted

ove

r d

isp

ute

d t

erri

tori

es i

n t

he

Oga

den

Des

ert,

wh

ich

in

clu

ded

som

e cr

itic

al w

ater

(an

d o

il)

reso

urc

es.

Sev

eral

hundre

d d

eath

s oc

curr

ed b

efor

e th

e ce

asef

ire.

One

elem

ent

in t

his

confl

ict

was

the

fact

that

the

1948 b

oundar

y had

lef

t Som

ali

nom

ads

16

9

Wate

r w

ars

is t

he

idea

that

mee

ting

the

envi

ronm

enta

l ch

alle

nge

wil

l re

quir

e

new

con

cepti

ons

of s

ecuri

ty a

nd o

f th

e nat

ional

inte

rest

, an

d n

ew

form

s of

act

ion a

nd c

oord

inat

ion.

The

exis

ting

inte

rnat

ional

pol

it-

ical

an

d e

con

omic

sys

tem

, gr

oun

ded

in

th

e p

aroc

hia

l in

tere

sts

of s

tate

s an

d i

nd

ust

ries

, is

see

n a

s a

maj

or p

art

of t

he

pre

sen

t

envi

ron

men

tal

pro

ble

m.

Ind

eed

, th

e en

viro

nm

ent

is s

een

as

the

quin

tess

enti

al g

lobal

iss

ue.

... It

is

seen

as

bei

ng

abov

e id

eolo

gy. I

t

serv

es a

s so

met

hin

g of

a u

nif

yin

g co

nce

pt

lin

kin

g a

ran

ge o

f

pro

ble

ms

whic

h n

eed c

onnec

ted, t

ransn

atio

nal

, com

ple

x st

rate

gies

if t

hey

are

to

be

trea

ted

. It

is

an e

lem

ent

in s

tate

craf

t, f

orei

gn

pol

icy,

Can

ada’

s re

lati

ons

wit

h o

ther

sta

tes

and i

n C

anad

a’s

par

tic-

ipat

ion i

n i

nte

rnat

ional

bod

ies’

.

If e

nvi

ronm

enta

l se

curi

ty i

s in

crea

singl

y bec

omin

g an

iss

ue,

and i

f E

nvi

ron-

men

tal

Dip

lom

acy

is b

ecom

ing

a pos

t-C

old W

ar p

hen

omen

on, th

en t

he

whol

e

issu

e of

con

flic

t m

itig

atio

n b

ecom

es r

elev

ant.

Th

us,

th

e th

ird

maj

or i

ssu

e

rela

tes

to c

onfl

ict m

itig

atio

n, w

ith tw

o si

des

of th

e co

in b

eing

evid

ent.

The

one

side

rela

tes

to c

onfl

ict

reso

luti

on,

wher

eas

the

other

sid

e re

late

s to

con

flic

t

mit

igat

ion. A

num

ber

of

key

iss

ues

are

cen

tral

to

bot

h o

f th

ese

com

pon

ents

:

•W

e nee

d t

o re

ach c

onse

nsu

s on

what

a h

ydro

pol

itic

al h

otsp

ot i

s an

d

how

we

def

ine

it.

This

is

com

pli

cate

d a

nd n

ot e

asy

to d

evel

op.

The

chai

n r

eact

ion

of

casc

adin

g p

rob

lem

s is

evi

den

t in

Moz

amb

iqu

e,

wher

e dam

s th

at a

re b

uil

t dow

nst

ream

as

the

dir

ect

resu

lt o

f re

duce

d

flow

(ca

use

d b

y u

pst

ream

use

), i

n t

urn

res

ult

in

flo

odin

g an

d

unse

ason

al w

ater

supply

on p

easa

nt

land (

Lee

stem

aker

2000).

The

con

trib

uti

on b

y M

eiss

ner

(2

00

0)

show

s th

e va

lue

of d

evel

opin

g

a h

ydro

pol

itic

al

his

tory

of

ea

ch

maj

or

rive

r b

asin

. T

his

w

ill

hel

p c

onte

xtu

alis

e ea

ch c

onfl

ict

wit

hin

a b

road

er h

isto

rica

l an

d

geog

raphic

al s

etti

ng,

and w

ill

assi

st w

ith t

he

gener

atio

n o

f en

duri

ng

confl

ict

mit

igat

ion s

trat

egie

s.

•T

he

role

of

good

gov

ern

ance

is

also

hig

hli

ghte

d u

nd

er t

his

bro

ad

hea

din

g (M

och

ebel

ele

20

00

). W

e n

eed

to

un

der

stan

d w

hat

goo

d

gove

rnan

ce e

nta

ils,

and t

hen

tra

nsp

lant

it f

rom

one

bas

in s

etti

ng

to

anot

her

if

we

are

to e

ffec

tive

ly m

itig

ate

confl

ict.

An e

lem

ent

of g

ood

gove

rnan

ce i

s th

e es

tabli

shm

ent

of a

cle

ar s

et o

f in

stit

uti

onal

guid

e-

lin

es t

hat

em

bra

ce t

he

valu

es o

f so

ciet

y (N

un

dw

e &

Mu

len

dem

a

2000).

In t

his

reg

ard,

the

conce

pt

of t

he

‘hyd

ro-s

ocia

l co

ntr

act’ i

s of

crit

ical

im

por

tan

ce (

Tu

rton

& M

eiss

ner

20

00

). T

hu

s, w

e n

eed

to

16

8

Anth

ony T

urto

n

the

case

s, t

he

fundam

enta

l dyn

amic

s of

the

confl

ict

hav

e not

bee

n c

onsi

der

ed

in t

he

judge

men

ts.

The

confl

ict

can r

eturn

, in

res

pon

se t

o fl

uvi

al d

ynam

ics

and t

ecto

nic

mov

emen

ts, w

hic

h c

an i

n f

act

affe

ct a

num

ber

of

other

isl

ands

in

the

area

. C

lear

ly t

his

is

an i

nte

rest

ing

area

of

futu

re w

ork,

and o

ne

that

wil

l

yiel

d r

ich p

ickin

gs f

or t

he

rese

arch

er.

The im

porta

nt

em

ergin

g iss

ues

So,

if

Wat

er W

ars

are

unli

kel

y – a

t le

ast

in t

he

true

sense

of

the

def

init

ion –

wh

at a

re t

he

real

ly i

mp

orta

nt

hyd

rop

olit

ical

iss

ues

th

at w

e sh

ould

con

cern

ours

elve

s w

ith?

At

leas

t si

x dis

tinct

iss

ues

can

be

isol

ated

at

this

tim

e.

Th

e fi

rst

maj

or i

ssu

e is

th

at w

hic

h r

elat

es t

o th

e ro

le o

f ci

vil

soci

ety.

Rec

ent

wor

k (

Turt

on &

Mei

ssner

2000)

sugg

ests

that

civ

il s

ocie

ty h

as b

ecom

e

an i

ncr

easi

ngl

y im

por

tant

role

pla

yer

wit

hin

the

wat

er s

ecto

r. N

owher

e is

this

mor

e ev

iden

t th

an in the

acti

viti

es o

f N

GO

s. I

n this

reg

ard, N

GO

s ar

e li

kel

y to

pla

y a

key

rol

e in

at

leas

t th

ree

area

s – t

he

envi

ronm

ent,

hum

an r

ights

and

wat

er s

ervi

ce d

eliv

ery

– a

nd s

hou

ld b

e re

gard

ed a

s le

giti

mat

e hyd

ropol

itic

al

role

pla

yers

. T

his

im

pli

es t

hat

con

flic

t is

in

evit

able

as

mor

e ro

le p

laye

rs

bec

ome

invo

lved

in w

hat

use

d t

o be

the

excl

usi

ve d

omai

n o

f th

e go

vern

men

t.

This

con

flic

t is

lik

ely

to c

entr

e on

the

inte

ract

ion b

etw

een,

and d

efin

itio

n o

f,

legi

tim

ate

role

s fo

r ea

ch a

ctor

. C

onse

qu

entl

y, t

her

e is

th

e n

eed

to

con

du

ct

rese

arch

in

to t

his

pro

ble

m,

in o

rder

to

map

ou

t th

e p

roce

sses

at

wor

k a

nd

sugg

est

viab

le s

oluti

ons.

The

seco

nd m

ajor

iss

ue

is t

hat

reg

ardin

g en

viro

nm

enta

l se

curi

ty,

whic

h

is a

llu

ded

to

in t

he

Ch

ongu

ica

(20

00

) co

ntr

ibu

tion

. E

lem

ents

of

this

are

exp

and

ed o

n i

n t

he

con

trib

uti

on b

y D

u P

less

is (

20

00

). T

his

is

lik

ely

to

bec

ome

a m

ajor

thru

st o

f pol

itic

al s

cien

ce s

tudie

s in

the

futu

re,

espec

iall

y as

Envi

ronm

enta

l D

iplo

mac

y is

incr

easi

ngl

y bro

ugh

t to

bea

r by

the

dev

elop

ed

countr

ies

of the

wor

ld. T

o th

is e

nd, t

he

wor

ds

of R

odal

(1996) ar

e il

lum

inat

ing:

‘[T

]he

envi

ronm

enta

l is

sue

sym

bol

ises

the

logi

c an

d c

omple

xity

of

the

new

age

nda,

a d

efin

ing

elem

ent

in t

he

emer

gence

of

a dif

fere

nt

shap

ing

spir

it o

f w

orld

pol

itic

s. ... E

nvi

ronm

enta

l is

sues

sym

bol

ise

what

appea

r to

be

amon

g th

e sa

lien

t fe

ature

s of

the

pos

t-C

old W

ar

[and]

the

emer

gence

of

an a

genda

com

pri

sing

truly

glo

bal

iss

ues

.

In t

he

Wes

t, a

t le

ast,

th

e h

ealt

h o

f th

e gl

obal

en

viro

nm

ent

is

com

mon

ly p

erce

ived

to

be

crit

ical

for

the

sust

ainab

ilit

y of

civ

ilis

a-

tion

, an

d y

et t

o be

in d

eepen

ing

cris

is.

Inte

gral

to

this

con

cepti

on

17

1

Wate

r w

ars

one

han

d,

stat

e so

vere

ign

ty a

s em

bod

ied

in

th

e U

nit

ed N

atio

ns

Ch

arte

r is

taken

to

be

abso

lute

; w

her

eas

on t

he

other

han

d,

the

chan

ging

conse

nsu

s on

the

des

irab

ilit

y of

Inte

grat

ed C

atch

men

t M

anag

emen

t pla

ces

the

emphas

is o

n

the

enti

re r

iver

bas

in a

s an

inte

gral

unit

. T

hus,

thes

e tw

o co

nce

pts

are

mutu

-

ally

exc

lusi

ve o

f on

e an

other

if

inte

rpre

ted i

n e

xtre

me

form

s. C

onse

quen

tly,

acce

pta

ble

mid

dle

gro

un

d n

eed

s to

be

fou

nd

. In

ter

ms

of t

his

iss

ue,

th

e

foll

owin

g ar

e bec

omin

g in

crea

singl

y re

leva

nt:

•T

he

nee

d t

o dec

onst

ruct

the

conce

pt

of s

over

eign

ty w

as e

xpre

ssed

at

the

Sec

ond W

orld

Wat

er F

orum

at

The

Hag

ue.

In t

his

reg

ard,

ther

e

has

bee

n a

cal

l fo

r th

e ac

cepta

nce

that

nat

ional

sov

erei

gnty

is

lim

ited

by

the

resp

ect

for

the

sove

reig

nty

an

d r

igh

ts o

f ot

her

sta

tes

(GC

I

2000b:6

1).

We

nee

d t

o m

ap o

ut

the

ram

ific

atio

ns

of t

his

new

tre

nd.

•R

elat

ed t

o th

is i

s th

e em

ergi

ng

deb

ate

on r

ights

ver

sus

nee

ds,

whic

h

was

als

o ev

iden

t at

bot

h t

he

1999 S

tock

hol

m W

ater

Sym

pos

ium

and

the

Sec

ond W

orld

Wat

er F

orum

at

The

Hag

ue.

Wher

eas

the

abso

lute

sove

reig

nty

par

adig

m f

ocuse

s on

the

righ

ts t

hat

sta

tes

hav

e to

appro

-

pri

ate

wat

er i

n a

giv

en i

nte

rnat

ion

al r

iver

bas

in,

the

alte

rnat

ive

nee

ds-

bas

ed p

arad

igm

sugg

ests

that

we

shou

ld a

ppro

ach the

issu

e of

allo

cati

on i

n a

mor

e hum

ane

way

. A

n e

xam

ple

of

the

form

er i

s th

e

Har

mon

Doc

trin

e, a

nd

an

exa

mp

le o

f th

e la

tter

is

the

pri

nci

ple

of

equit

able

uti

lisa

tion

as

found i

n t

he

Hel

sinki

Rule

s. T

his

is

gain

ing

cred

ibil

ity

and

is

extr

emel

y im

por

tan

t fr

om a

con

flic

t m

itig

atio

n

per

spec

tive

, b

ecau

se

the

righ

ts-b

ased

ap

pro

ach

is

in

her

entl

y

con

flic

tual

(b

ein

g b

ased

on

th

e ze

ro-s

um

pri

nci

ple

), w

her

eas

the

nee

ds-

bas

ed a

pp

roac

h i

s in

her

entl

y co

nci

liat

ory.

Th

is d

ebat

e is

lik

ely

to f

ind

rea

dy

sup

por

ters

in

th

e so

uth

ern

Afr

ican

reg

ion

.

Dow

nst

ream

sta

tes

whic

h h

ave

a hea

vy r

elia

nce

on e

xoge

nou

s w

ater

are

likel

y to

suppor

t th

e nee

ds-

bas

ed m

odel

, w

hil

e upst

ream

sta

tes

are

lik

ely

to s

up

por

t th

e ri

ghts

-bas

ed m

odel

. T

her

e ar

e cl

earl

y

impli

cati

ons

for

this

whic

h w

e nee

d t

o st

art

under

stan

din

g in

a m

ore

pro

found m

anner

.

•L

inked

to

the

not

ion o

f so

vere

ignty

is

the

pro

ble

m o

f in

tern

atio

nal

bor

der

dis

pute

s. T

hes

e ty

pic

ally

fal

l in

to t

he

cate

gory

of

quas

i-w

ater

war

s as

def

ined

by

Tu

rton

(2

00

0a)

, an

d s

outh

ern

Afr

ica

has

a

nu

mb

er o

f p

oten

tial

hot

spot

s u

nd

er t

his

hea

din

g. A

t th

e ti

me

of

wri

ting,

ther

e ar

e te

nsi

ons

over

the

vari

ous

isla

nds

in t

he

Zam

bez

i

Bas

in a

round t

he

Cap

rivi

Str

ip,

and t

he

ram

ific

atio

ns

of s

hif

ting

the

Sou

th A

fric

an/N

amib

ian

bor

der

to

the

cen

tre

of t

he

Ora

nge

Riv

er

17

0

Anth

ony T

urto

n under

stan

d t

his

bet

ter.

•W

hen

tal

kin

g of

hot

spot

s, t

he

issu

e of

geo

grap

hic

sca

le i

mm

edia

tely

com

es t

o m

ind. W

hat

is

a cr

uci

ally

im

por

tant

issu

e at

the

wat

er-h

ole

or h

ouse

hol

d l

evel

, se

ems

to p

ale

into

insi

gnif

ican

ce a

t th

e in

tern

a-

tion

al l

evel

. W

olf’

s (1

99

8:2

61

) fi

nd

ing

– t

hat

th

ere

is a

n i

nve

rse

rela

tion

ship

bet

wee

n t

he

leve

l of

geo

grap

hic

sca

le (

rangi

ng

from

the

inte

rnat

ion

al d

own

to

the

hou

seh

old

or

farm

er)

and

th

e d

egre

e of

viol

ence

– i

s th

eref

ore

hig

hly

rel

evan

t. I

n o

ther

wor

ds,

an i

ndiv

idual

is m

ore

likel

y to

res

ort

to v

iole

nce

ove

r w

ater

than

a c

ountr

y is

. Y

et

each

lev

el i

s re

leva

nt,

and e

ach i

s pot

enti

ally

a s

ourc

e of

endem

ic

con

flic

t. T

hu

s, w

e n

eed

to

map

th

ese

out

and

un

der

stan

d t

hem

bet

ter

as p

art

of a

com

pre

hen

sive

con

flic

t m

itig

atio

n s

trat

egy

at t

he

SA

DC

lev

el.

•A

n a

ge-o

ld c

opin

g st

rate

gy h

as b

een t

he

use

of

trad

e. I

n h

ydro

pol

it-

ical

ter

ms,

this

tra

de

in ‘

Vir

tual

Wat

er’

– t

he

wat

er t

hat

is

use

d t

o

pro

duce

a c

rop o

r pro

duct

– h

as o

ffer

ed a

via

ble

way

of

bal

anci

ng

the

wat

er b

ud

get

at t

he

stra

tegi

c le

vel.

‘V

irtu

al W

ater

’ is

th

eref

ore

likel

y to

bec

ome

incr

easi

ngl

y re

leva

nt

to c

onfl

ict

mit

igat

ion.

Yet

we

un

der

stan

d l

ittl

e of

th

is p

roce

ss.

Wh

erea

s a

lot

of w

ork

has

bee

n

don

e in

the

Mid

dle

Eas

t/N

orth

Afr

ica

(ME

NA

) re

gion

, m

ost

not

ably

by

Pro

fess

or T

ony

All

an,

very

lit

tle

has

bee

n d

one

in s

outh

ern

Afr

ica.

We

nee

d t

o as

k t

his

cen

tral

qu

esti

on:

can

‘V

irtu

al W

ater

’

trad

e be

an e

ffec

tive

alt

ernat

ive

to a

ugm

enta

tion

wit

hin

the

SA

DC

Reg

ion,

and i

f so

, w

hat

do

we

nee

d t

o do

in o

rder

to

imple

men

t th

is

as

a co

her

ent

stra

tegy

? In

tr

uth

, th

is

is

a co

mp

lex

pro

ble

m,

des

ervi

ng

a m

ajor

res

earc

h init

iati

ve. O

ne

crit

ical

iss

ue

whic

h n

eeds

to b

e u

nd

erst

ood

is

the

imp

lica

tion

of

chan

gin

g fr

om a

pol

icy

of

nat

ional

sel

f-su

ffic

iency

in f

ood p

roduct

ion,

to o

ne

of f

ood s

ecuri

ty.

Th

ere

are

far-

reac

hin

g ra

mif

icat

ion

s re

gard

ing

this

iss

ue,

an

d w

e

hav

e not

yet

beg

un t

o m

ap t

hes

e ou

t in

a c

oher

ent

way

.

Th

is l

ead

s on

to

the

fou

rth

em

ergi

ng

hyd

rop

olit

ical

iss

ue,

nam

ely

that

of

Sov

erei

gnty

. A

t th

e hea

rt o

f nor

mal

inte

rnat

ional

pol

itic

al i

nte

ract

ion i

s th

e

con

cep

t of

sov

erei

gnty

, w

hic

h i

s sa

id t

o b

e in

div

isib

le a

nd

ab

solu

te,

resu

ltin

g

in a

n i

nte

rnat

ion

al p

olit

ical

mil

ieu

in

wh

ich

all

sta

tes

are

trea

ted

as

lega

l

equ

als.

Th

is i

s a

myt

h h

owev

er,

as s

tate

s ar

e eq

ual

on

ly i

n t

erm

s of

leg

al

fict

ion

. N

owh

ere

is t

his

pro

ble

m m

ore

evid

ent

than

in

in

tern

atio

nal

riv

er

bas

ins,

wh

ere

you

hav

e tw

o m

ajor

iss

ues

con

fron

tin

g on

e an

oth

er.

On

th

e

17

3

Wate

r w

ars

crit

ical

im

por

tan

ce i

f w

e ar

e to

eff

ecti

vely

mit

igat

e ag

ain

st t

he

con

flic

t

pot

enti

al i

n t

he

south

ern A

fric

an r

egio

n.

Con

sequen

tly,

we

nee

d t

o fo

cus

on

the

dev

elop

men

t of

a m

ult

idis

cipli

nar

y ca

pac

ity,

acr

oss

inte

rnat

ional

bor

der

s,

bet

wee

n b

ure

aucr

atic

enti

ties

, an

d w

ithin

the

bro

ader

fra

mew

ork o

f SA

DC

.

To

this

end, w

e nee

d t

o lo

ok t

o th

e SA

DC

Wat

er S

ecto

r an

d a

sk w

hat

nee

ds

to

be

don

e to

em

pow

er t

his

str

uct

ure

in o

rder

to

mak

e it

an e

ffec

tive

veh

icle

for

del

iver

y? O

ne

imp

orta

nt

elem

ent

of t

his

pro

ble

m i

s th

e es

tab

lish

men

t of

a

set

of c

once

pts

and m

odel

s w

hic

h c

an b

e use

d t

o li

nk t

he

vari

ous

dis

cipli

nes

.

An

oth

er c

riti

cal

elem

ent

is h

ow w

e d

eal

wit

h t

he

issu

e of

his

tori

call

y

adva

nta

ged

ver

sus

his

tori

call

y d

isad

van

tage

d i

nst

itu

tion

s. T

hu

s, w

e ar

e

confr

onte

d w

ith t

he

chal

lenge

of

dev

elop

ing

capac

ity

– a

gain

st t

he

tren

ds

of

the

his

tori

call

y sk

ewed

pat

tern

s w

hic

h c

har

acte

rise

sou

ther

n A

fric

a –

bet

wee

n c

ountr

ies,

inst

ituti

ons

and d

isci

pli

nes

.

Th

ese

six

issu

es a

re t

he

imp

orta

nt

ones

, d

eser

vin

g of

ou

r u

nd

ivid

ed

atte

nti

on.

Th

eref

ore,

to

focu

s an

y m

ore

ener

gy o

n W

ater

War

s w

ill

mer

ely

dil

ute

th

ose

effo

rts

and

un

der

min

e th

e lo

ng-

term

nee

d t

o d

evel

op e

ffec

tive

copin

g st

rate

gies

to

ensu

re s

ocia

l st

abil

ity

in a

reg

ion f

acin

g in

crea

sing

leve

ls

of w

ater

sca

rcit

y.

Propose

d r

ese

arch p

roje

ct

for s

outh

ern A

fric

a

Hav

ing

not

ed t

hat

the

Wat

er W

ar d

ebat

e is

lar

gely

ste

rile

, an

d t

hen

hav

ing

sugg

este

d s

ix m

ore

fruit

ful

area

s of

hyd

ropol

itic

al r

esea

rch,

it n

ow b

ecom

es

pos

sible

to

pro

pos

e a

focu

ssed

res

earc

h a

genda

for

consi

der

atio

n b

y va

riou

s

fundin

g ag

enci

es,

gove

rnm

ents

and i

nst

ituti

ons.

It

seem

s th

at w

hat

is

nee

ded

in s

outh

ern A

fric

a is

a r

egio

nal

map

of

exis

ting

and p

oten

tial

hyd

ropol

itic

al

hot

spot

s. I

n s

hor

t, w

e nee

d a

n a

tlas

of

such

pro

ble

m a

reas

, ca

pab

le o

f ov

er-

com

ing

the

issu

e of

sca

le.

Su

ch a

ven

ture

wou

ld p

rovi

de

dec

isio

n-m

aker

s

wit

h a

sol

id f

oundat

ion o

f em

pir

ical

ly d

eriv

ed d

ata

on w

hic

h t

hey

can

bas

e

futu

re d

ecis

ions.

This

wil

l go

a l

ong

way

to

mit

igat

e co

nfl

ict

bef

ore

it f

lare

s up

to u

nm

anag

eable

pro

por

tion

s. W

e th

eref

ore

nee

d a

thre

e phas

ed a

ppro

ach t

o

the

pro

ble

m.

Ph

ase

1 w

ould

en

tail

th

e d

evel

opm

ent

of a

cle

arer

con

cep

tual

un

der

-

stan

din

g of

what

we

actu

ally

mea

n w

hen

we

refe

r to

a ‘h

ydro

pol

itic

al h

otsp

ot’.

Idea

lly,

th

is w

ould

be

con

sen

sus-

bas

ed a

nd

wou

ld c

ross

all

of

the

inte

rna-

tion

al b

ord

ers

wit

hin

SA

DC

. T

he

outc

ome

of t

his

in

itia

l p

roce

ss w

ould

tcon

sist

of

two

dis

tinct

ite

ms:

Fir

stly

, th

ere

wou

ld b

e a

gener

al u

nder

stan

din

g

17

2

Anth

ony T

urto

n (Ash

ton

20

00

) ar

e on

ly s

tart

ing

to b

e ap

pre

ciat

ed b

y go

vern

men

t.

We

nee

d t

o unra

vel

the

dyn

amic

s of

thes

e is

sues

furt

her

, so

that

we

can e

ffec

tive

ly r

esol

ve t

hem

in a

pea

cefu

l an

d s

ust

ainab

le m

anner

.

The

fift

h e

mer

ging

hyd

ropol

itic

al i

ssue

is d

irec

tly

rela

ted t

o w

ater

sca

rcit

y at

the

regi

onal

lev

el. S

outh

ern A

fric

a is

char

acte

rise

d a

t pre

sent

by

the

dev

elop

-

men

t (o

r pla

nnin

g) o

f m

ajor

inte

r-bas

in t

ransf

ers

of w

ater

, som

e of

whic

h c

ross

inte

rnat

ion

al b

ord

ers.

Som

e of

th

ese

pro

ject

s ar

e ex

trem

ely

amb

itio

us.

Th

e

Eas

tern

Nat

ion

al W

ater

Car

rier

in

Nam

ibia

is

a co

mp

lex

syst

em o

f d

ams,

pip

elin

es,

canal

s an

d a

quif

ers.

Pla

ns

exis

t to

augm

ent

supply

by

buil

din

g a

pip

elin

e fr

om t

he

Okav

ango

Riv

er a

t R

undu.

Ther

e is

a n

etw

ork o

f pip

elin

es

and c

anal

s w

hic

h t

ake

wat

er f

rom

the

Kunen

e R

iver

into

Ow

ambol

and.

Pla

ns

exis

t fo

r har

nes

sing

wat

er f

rom

the

Con

go (

Zai

re)

Riv

er a

nd t

ransf

erri

ng

it t

o

Nam

ibia

. This

wou

ld t

rave

rse

Ango

la, l

inkin

g at

lea

st t

hre

e dif

fere

nt

south

ern

Afr

ican

cou

ntr

ies,

one

of w

hic

h (

Ango

la)

has

bee

n t

he

centr

e of

an o

ngo

ing

civi

l w

ar t

hat

appea

rs t

o be

unst

oppab

le.

The

firs

t phas

e of

the

Nor

th-S

outh

Car

rier

has

bee

n c

omp

lete

d i

n B

otsw

ana,

an

d a

dd

itio

nal

ph

ases

are

bei

ng

pla

nn

ed (

Ch

enje

& J

ohn

son

19

96

:20

2).

Th

e M

ateb

elel

and

Zam

bez

i W

ater

Pro

ject

is

pla

nned

to

take

wat

er f

rom

the

Zam

bez

i R

iver

to

Bula

way

o (C

hen

je

& J

ohn

son

19

96

:17

4)

(Ber

ry &

Nel

19

93

), b

ut

at p

rese

nt

no

fun

din

g is

avai

lable

. In

dic

atio

ns

are

that

this

may

be

linked

, at

som

e fu

ture

dat

e, w

ith

the

Nor

th-S

outh

Car

rier

in

Bot

swan

a. T

hen

th

ere

is t

he

Les

oth

o H

igh

lan

ds

Wat

er P

roje

ct w

hic

h i

s al

read

y in

exi

sten

ce.

Th

ese

pip

elin

es a

re g

etti

ng

incr

easi

ngl

y co

mple

x, c

ostl

y an

d v

uln

erab

le t

o th

e va

gari

es o

f in

tern

atio

nal

pol

itic

al t

ensi

ons.

Thus,

we

nee

d t

o dev

elop

a d

eeper

under

stan

din

g of

the

pol

itic

s of

pip

elin

es (

Turt

on 2

000b)

wit

hin

the

conte

xt o

f SA

DC

. T

he

centr

al

ques

tion

s her

e ar

e:

•W

ho

ben

efit

s?

•W

ho

pay

s?

•To

what

ext

ent

is r

esou

rce

captu

re j

ust

ifia

ble

?

•W

hat

are

the

impac

ts o

n t

he

envi

ronm

ent?

•C

an ‘V

irtu

al W

ater

’ tra

de

be

a vi

able

alt

ernat

ive

to p

ipel

ine

dev

elop

-

men

t, a

nd i

f so

, w

hat

nee

ds

to b

e don

e to

mak

e th

is s

ust

ainab

le?

Six

thly

, w

e nee

d t

o gr

asp t

he

fact

that

the

pro

ble

ms

we

are

bei

ng

confr

onte

d

wit

h a

re b

ecom

ing

incr

easi

ngl

y co

mple

x. A

s W

olf

(1998:2

63)

not

es,

wat

er i

s

an i

nte

rdis

cip

lin

ary

reso

urc

e, t

her

efor

e th

e at

ten

dan

t d

isp

ute

s ca

n o

nly

be

reso

lved

thro

ugh

act

ive

dia

logu

e bet

wee

n a

nd a

mon

g dis

cipli

nes

. T

his

is

of

17

5

Wate

r w

ars

of a

ll o

f th

e re

gion

s’ l

eader

s. F

rom

this

, th

e dev

elop

men

t of

sol

id i

nst

ituti

onal

stru

cture

s m

ust

evo

lve.

Thes

e, i

n t

urn

, m

ust

be

emp

ower

ed w

ith t

he

nec

es-

sary

in

tell

ectu

al a

nd

fin

anci

al c

apit

al.

In s

hor

t, t

he

so-c

alle

d s

econ

d-o

rder

reso

urc

es a

re l

ikel

y to

be

the

key

det

erm

inan

ts o

f ou

r jo

int

futu

res.

For

that

reas

on,

a u

niq

ue

and

sp

ecif

ic r

esea

rch

pro

ject

has

bee

n p

rop

osed

— t

he

Hyd

rop

olit

ical

Hot

spot

Atl

as o

f S

outh

ern

Afr

ica.

If

adop

ted

, it

wil

l fo

ster

coop

erat

ion

acr

oss

inte

rnat

ion

al b

ord

ers,

dev

elop

in

tell

ectu

al c

apit

al a

nd

red

istr

ibu

te t

his

sca

rce

reso

urc

e in

a m

ore

equ

itab

le w

ay,

wh

ich

wil

l u

lti-

mat

ely

hel

p g

ener

ate

the

blu

epri

nt

for

sust

ainab

le p

eace

. In

shor

t, u

nle

ss w

e

effe

ctiv

ely

dev

elop

sec

ond

-ord

er r

esou

rces

wh

ere

they

are

nee

ded

in

th

e

wat

er s

ecto

r, s

ocia

l in

stab

ilit

y is

lik

ely

to r

esu

lt f

rom

in

crea

sin

g le

vels

of

wat

er s

carc

ity.

Refe

rences

Ash

ton

, P.

, 2

00

0,

Sou

ther

n A

fric

an W

ater

Con

flic

ts:

Are

th

ey I

nev

itab

le o

r P

reve

nta

ble

? in

Sol

omon

, H

. an

d T

urt

on,

A.R

., (

eds)

, W

ate

r W

ars

: E

nduri

ng M

yth o

r Im

pendin

g R

eali

ty?

Durb

an: A

CC

OR

D.

Ber

ry,

B.

and N

el,

E., 1

993,

‘Oper

atio

n P

ipel

ine’

– B

ula

way

o’s

Sea

rch f

or W

ater

, in

Geo

gra

phy,

No.

78

, p

p.3

12

-31

5.

Chon

guic

a, E

., 2

000,

Wat

er a

nd t

he

Envi

ronm

ent

as a

Loc

us

for

Con

flic

t in

Sou

ther

n A

fric

a, i

n

GC

I, (

20

00

a),

Wa

ter

for

Pea

ce i

n t

he

Mid

dle

Ea

st a

nd

Sou

ther

n A

fric

a,

Gen

eva:

Gre

en

Cro

ss I

nte

rnat

ional

.

Chen

je, M

. an

d J

ohnso

n, P.

, (e

ds)

, 1996, W

ate

r in

Sou

ther

n A

fric

a, M

aser

u/H

arar

e:

SA

DC

/IU

CN

/SA

RD

C.

Coo

per

, J.

, 1

98

3,

Rec

onst

ruct

ing

His

tory

fro

m A

nci

ent

Insc

ript

ion

s: T

he

La

ga

sh-U

mm

a B

ord

er

Con

flic

t, M

alib

u: U

nden

a.

Du

P

less

is,

A.,

2

00

0,

Ch

arti

ng

the

Cou

rse

of th

e W

ater

D

isco

urs

e th

rou

gh th

e F

og of

Inte

rnat

ion

al R

elat

ion

s T

heo

ry,

in S

olom

on,

H.

and

Tu

rton

, A

.R.,

(ed

s),

Wa

ter

Wa

rs:

Enduri

ng M

yth o

r Im

pendin

g R

eali

ty?

Durb

an: A

CC

OR

D.

GC

I, 2

00

0(a

), W

ate

r fo

r P

eace

in

th

e M

idd

le E

ast

an

d S

outh

ern

Afr

ica

, G

enev

a: G

reen

Cro

ss

Inte

rnat

ional

.

GC

I, 2

00

0(b

), N

ati

on

al

Sove

reig

nty

an

d I

nte

rna

tion

al

Wa

terc

ou

rses

, G

enev

a: G

reen

Cro

ss

Inte

rnat

ional

.

Lee

stem

aker

, J.

, 2

00

0,

Th

e D

omin

o E

ffec

t. A

Dow

nst

ream

Per

spec

tive

on

Wat

er M

anag

emen

t in

Sou

ther

n A

fric

a, i

n G

CI,

2000(a

), W

ate

r fo

r P

eace

in t

he

Mid

dle

East

and S

outh

ern A

fric

a,

Gen

eva:

Gre

en C

ross

Inte

rnat

ional

.

17

4

Anth

ony T

urto

n

of w

hat

is

mea

nt

by

the

term

‘hyd

ropol

itic

al h

otsp

ot’.

If s

uff

icie

nt

conse

nsu

s

has

bee

n a

chie

ved

, th

en t

his

con

cep

t w

ould

be

legi

tim

ate;

Sec

ond

ly,

ther

e

shou

ld b

e a

clea

rly

def

ined

res

earc

h m

ethod

olog

y, c

apab

le o

f bei

ng

use

d i

n

ever

y ri

ver

bas

in i

n s

outh

ern A

fric

a. T

his

wil

l hav

e to

be

dev

elop

ed i

n c

lose

consu

ltat

ion w

ith a

wid

e sp

ectr

um

of

role

pla

yers

.

Phas

e 2 w

ould

then

con

sist

of

a num

ber

of

indep

enden

t st

udie

s, a

t th

e

leve

l of

th

e re

spec

tive

riv

er b

asin

s, b

ut

usi

ng

the

agre

ed m

eth

odol

ogy

that

emer

ged f

rom

Phas

e 1.

Idea

lly

thes

e st

udie

s w

ould

foc

us

on t

he

maj

or r

iver

bas

ins,

but

if p

ossi

ble

, th

e en

tire

SA

DC

reg

ion s

hou

ld b

e co

vere

d.

The

end

pro

duct

of

this

pro

cess

wou

ld b

e a

seri

es o

f bas

in-w

ide

studie

s, a

ll u

sing

the

sam

e m

ethod

olog

y an

d s

har

ing

a co

mm

on t

erm

inol

ogy.

Phas

e 3 w

ould

then

enta

il t

he

synth

esis

of

thes

e bas

in-w

ide

studie

s in

to

one

coh

eren

t A

tlas

. Id

eall

y, t

his

ph

ase

wou

ld r

esu

lt i

n t

hre

e d

isti

nct

en

d

pro

duct

s: F

irst

ly,

a H

ydro

pol

itic

al H

otsp

ot A

tlas

wou

ld b

e ge

ner

ated

, w

hic

h

wou

ld s

how

up

eve

ry e

xist

ing

and

pot

enti

al p

rob

lem

are

a; S

econ

dly

, a

coh

eren

t co

nfl

ict

mit

igat

ion

pla

n w

ill

be

dev

elop

ed f

or c

onsi

der

atio

n b

y

SA

DC

an

d m

emb

er c

oun

trie

s; T

hir

dly

, sc

ien

tist

s fr

om a

wid

e va

riet

y of

dis

cip

lin

es,

from

acr

oss

the

enti

re S

AD

C r

egio

n,

wou

ld b

e ab

le t

o se

e th

e

pro

ble

m i

n a

mor

e hol

isti

c w

ay, an

d a

ttac

k i

t w

ith a

n a

rsen

al o

f new

ly-d

efin

ed

conce

pts

and m

odel

s th

at a

re b

oth i

ndig

enou

s an

d a

ppro

pri

ate.

Conclu

sion

This

boo

k h

as b

een a

n a

ttem

pt

to s

tart

the

journ

ey t

owar

ds

the

esta

bli

shm

ent

of a

reg

ion

al h

ydro

pol

itic

al c

onfl

ict

mit

igat

ion

/res

olu

tion

cap

abil

ity.

Th

e

auth

ors

hav

e co

vere

d a

wid

e va

riet

y of

top

ics,

som

e of

them

fro

m a

bro

ader

Afr

ican

per

spec

tive

. W

hil

e it

see

ms

dou

btf

ul

that

Wat

er W

ars

wil

l hap

pen

,

this

doe

s not

mea

n to

say

that

con

flic

t ov

er w

ater

wil

l si

mply

go

away

. It w

on’t!

In f

act,

con

flic

t ov

er w

ater

res

ourc

es i

s li

kel

y to

esc

alat

e, b

ut

pro

bab

ly o

nly

at

the

sub-n

atio

nal

lev

el.

It i

s ab

undan

tly

clea

r th

at w

ithin

sou

ther

n A

fric

a, w

e

alre

ady

hav

e th

e n

eces

sary

goo

dw

ill

to c

oop

erat

e in

a p

eace

ful

way

. O

ur

com

bin

ed c

hal

lenge

is

to t

ransf

orm

the

pre

vail

ing

neg

ativ

e pea

ce –

the

mer

e

abse

nce

of

open

hos

tili

ty –

to

a co

ndit

ion o

f pos

itiv

e pea

ce —

the

exis

tence

of

all

the

nec

essa

ry p

re-c

ondit

ions

for

pro

sper

ity,

inve

stm

ent,

job

cre

atio

n a

nd

soci

al s

tabil

ity.

For

this

to

hap

pen

, at

lea

st f

our

key

ele

men

ts a

re n

eeded

. SA

DC

must

get

full

y in

volv

ed i

n t

he

pro

cess

. W

e al

so n

eed t

he

full

pol

itic

al c

omm

itm

ent

17

7

Note

s on C

ontr

ibuto

rs

Pete

r A

shto

n

Dr.

Pet

er A

shto

n t

rain

ed a

s a

bot

anis

t at

Rhod

es U

niv

ersi

ty i

n G

raham

stow

n

and r

ecei

ved h

is P

hD

in a

quat

ic p

lant

ecol

ogy

in 1

983.

He

is a

Pro

fess

ional

Mem

ber

of

the

Sou

th A

fric

an I

nst

itu

te o

f E

colo

gist

s an

d E

nvi

ron

men

tal

Sci

enti

sts,

an

d i

s al

so a

mem

ber

of

eigh

t ot

her

Sou

th A

fric

an a

nd

in

tern

a-

tion

al s

cien

tifi

c as

soci

atio

ns.

He

has

bee

n e

mplo

yed b

y th

e C

SIR

sin

ce 1

975

as a

wat

er q

ual

ity

and r

esou

rces

spec

iali

st,

and w

as a

ppoi

nte

d a

s D

ivis

ional

Fel

low

on

1 J

anu

ary

19

98

. H

e h

as c

arri

ed o

ut

envi

ron

men

tal

stu

die

s an

d

con

sult

anci

es i

n s

ever

al A

fric

an c

oun

trie

s. P

eter

Ash

ton

was

ele

cted

as

Vic

e-P

resi

den

t of

the

Inte

rnat

ional

Com

mis

sion

on W

ater

Qual

ity

(IC

WQ

) of

the

Inte

rnat

ional

Ass

ocia

tion

of

Hyd

rolo

gica

l Sci

ence

s (I

AH

S)

(1999-2

003),

and

w

as

also

ap

poi

nte

d

as

Hon

oura

ry

Pro

fess

or

of

Wat

er

Res

ourc

es

Man

agem

ent

at t

he

Univ

ersi

ty o

f P

reto

ria

for

a th

ree-

year

ter

m (

1999-2

002).

He

has

stu

die

d t

he

imp

act

of l

and

use

an

d d

evel

opm

ent

pro

ject

s on

th

e

qu

anti

ty a

nd

qu

alit

y of

wat

er r

esou

rces

an

d,

in p

arti

cula

r, t

hei

r ef

fect

s on

aqu

atic

eco

syst

ems,

as

wel

l as

th

eir

role

in

in

tegr

ated

cat

chm

ent

man

age-

men

t. H

e h

as a

sp

ecia

l in

tere

st i

n t

he

role

of

aqu

atic

eco

logi

cal

issu

es i

n

dec

isio

n-m

akin

g p

roce

sses

for

con

flic

t p

reve

nti

on o

r re

solu

tion

, an

d t

he

man

agem

ent

of w

ater

res

ourc

es i

n s

har

ed r

iver

bas

ins.

Pet

er A

shto

n i

s th

e

auth

or a

nd c

o-au

thor

of

mor

e th

an 8

0 a

rtic

les

on a

quat

ic p

lant

ecol

ogy

and

man

agem

ent,

ph

ytop

lan

kto

n s

ucc

essi

on p

atte

rns,

nu

trie

nt

cycl

ing,

sal

ine

lakes

, ge

ner

al l

imnol

ogy,

the

impac

ts o

f dev

elop

men

t on

aquat

ic e

cosy

stem

s,

wat

er r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

in s

har

ed r

iver

bas

ins.

In

ad

dit

ion

, h

e is

th

e

auth

or a

nd c

o-au

thor

of

mor

e th

an 7

0 t

echnic

al r

epor

ts f

or e

xter

nal

con

trac

t

17

6

Anth

ony T

urto

n

Mei

ssner

, R

., 2

000,

Hyd

ropol

itic

al H

otsp

ots

in S

outh

ern A

fric

a: T

he

Cas

e of

the

Kunen

e R

iver

,

in S

olom

on, H

. and T

urt

on, A

.R., (ed

s), W

ate

r W

ars

: E

nduri

ng M

yth o

r Im

pendin

g R

eali

ty?

Durb

an: A

CC

OR

D.

Moc

heb

elel

e, R

.T.,

20

00

, G

ood

Gov

ern

ance

an

d t

he

Avo

idan

ce o

f C

onfl

icts

: T

he

Les

oth

o

Hig

hla

nds

Wat

er P

roje

ct E

xper

ience

, in

GC

I, 2

000(a

), W

ate

r fo

r P

eace

in t

he

Mid

dle

East

and S

outh

ern A

fric

a, G

enev

a: G

reen

Cro

ss I

nte

rnat

ional

.

Nundw

e, C

.D. an

d M

ule

ndem

a, C

., 2

000, M

itig

atio

n o

f C

onfl

icts

der

ived

fro

m W

ater

Use

-rel

ated

Pro

ble

ms

– Z

ambia

, in

GC

I, 2

000(a

), W

ate

r fo

r P

eace

in t

he

Mid

dle

East

and S

outh

ern

Afr

ica, G

enev

a: G

reen

Cro

ss I

nte

rnat

ional

.

Rod

al,

B.,

19

96

, T

he

En

viro

nm

ent

an

d C

ha

ng

ing

Con

cept

s of

Sec

uri

ty,

Com

men

tary

No.

47

,

Can

adia

n S

ecu

rity

In

tell

igen

ce S

ervi

ce P

ub

lica

tion

, IS

SN

11

92

-27

7X

, C

atal

ogu

e JS

73

-

1/4

7,

avai

lab

le f

rom

CS

IS,

P.O

.Box

97

32

, P

osta

l S

tati

on T

, O

ttaw

a, O

nta

rio

K1

G 4

G4

,

Can

ada.

Tu

rton

, A

.R.,

20

00

(a),

Wat

er W

ars

in S

outh

ern

Afr

ica:

Ch

alle

ngi

ng

Con

ven

tion

al W

isd

om,

in

Sol

omon

, H

. an

d T

urt

on,

A.R

., (

eds)

, W

ate

r W

ars

: E

nduri

ng M

yth o

r Im

pendin

g R

eali

ty?

Durb

an: A

CC

OR

D.

Tu

rton

, A

.R.,

20

00

(b),

Pre

cip

itat

ion

, P

eop

le,

Pip

elin

es a

nd

Pow

er:

Tow

ard

s a

‘Vir

tual

Wat

er’

Bas

ed P

olit

ical

Eco

logy

Dis

cours

e, i

n S

tott

, P.

and S

ull

ivan

, S., (

eds)

, P

olit

ical

Eco

logy:

Sci

ence

, M

yth a

nd P

ower

, L

ondon

: E

dw

ard A

rnol

d.

Turt

on, A

.R. an

d M

eiss

ner

, R

., 2

000, T

he

Hyd

ro S

ocia

l C

ontr

act

and i

ts M

anif

esta

tion

in S

ocie

ty,

AW

IRU

Occ

asi

onal

Pape

r, F

orth

com

ing

in a

boo

k a

s ye

t unti

tled

. A

vail

able

fro

m W

ebsi

te

<htt

p:/

/ww

w.u

p.a

c.za

/aca

dem

ic/l

ibar

ts/p

olsc

i/aw

iru>

.

Wol

f, A

.T., 1

998, C

onfl

ict

and C

ooper

atio

n a

long

Inte

rnat

ional

Wat

erw

ays,

in W

ate

r P

olic

y, V

ol.1

,

pp

.25

1-2

65

.

17

9

Sch

ool of

Dev

elop

men

t Stu

die

s at

the

Univ

ersi

ty o

f E

ast A

ngl

ia. T

his

fol

low

ed

from

her

wor

k o

n a

UK

-DF

ID s

pon

sore

d p

roje

ct i

n n

orth

ern

Nig

eria

an

d

pre

viou

s as

sign

men

ts i

n A

fric

a fo

r U

SA

ID,

OD

I an

d o

ther

non

-gov

ernm

ent

orga

nis

atio

ns.

Sh

e h

as w

ritt

en n

um

erou

s re

por

ts i

ncl

ud

ing

dev

elop

men

t

impac

t st

udie

s an

d e

valu

atio

ns

of p

arti

cipat

ory

rese

arch

init

iati

ves,

and h

as

pu

bli

shed

wid

ely

on t

he

dev

elop

men

t is

sues

su

rrou

nd

ing

fish

erie

s. S

he

is

now

a r

esea

rch

fel

low

at

Mid

dle

sex

Un

iver

sity

’s F

lood

Haz

ard

Res

earc

h

Cen

tre

and

her

cu

rren

t re

sear

ch i

nte

rest

s ce

ntr

e on

how

flo

od d

epen

den

t

com

munit

ies

const

ruct

thei

r li

veli

hoo

ds

on t

he

floo

dpla

in.

She

is b

uil

din

g a

net

wor

k o

f re

sear

cher

s w

orkin

g at

the

land-w

ater

in

terf

ace.

Em

ail:

t.s

arch

@m

dx.

ac.u

k

Huss

ein

Solo

mon

Pro

fess

or H

uss

ein

Sol

omon

is

hea

d o

f th

e U

nit

for

Afr

ican

Stu

die

s at

th

e

Cen

tre

for

Inte

rnat

ional

Pol

itic

al S

tudie

s, U

niv

ersi

ty o

f P

reto

ria

and i

s Sen

ior

Ass

ocia

te o

f th

e A

fric

an C

entr

e fo

r th

e C

onst

ruct

ive

Res

oluti

on o

f D

ispute

s

(AC

CO

RD

). H

e is

als

o a

Res

earc

h A

ssoc

iate

of

the

Cen

tre

for

Def

ence

Stu

die

s in

Zim

bab

we

and t

he

Inst

itute

for

Sec

uri

ty S

tudie

s in

Pre

tori

a. H

is

rese

arch

inte

rest

s in

clude

inte

rnat

ional

rel

atio

ns

theo

ry,

confl

ict

and c

onfl

ict

reso

luti

on i

n A

fric

a, a

nd S

outh

Afr

ican

for

eign

pol

icy.

Em

ail:

huss

ein@

acco

rd.o

rg.z

a

Anth

ony T

urto

n

Anth

ony

Turt

on is

hea

d o

f th

e A

fric

an W

ater

Iss

ues

Res

earc

h U

nit

(A

WIR

U) at

the

Cen

tre

for

Inte

rnat

ional

Pol

itic

al S

tudie

s (C

IPS),

Univ

ersi

ty o

f P

reto

ria.

A

pol

itic

al s

cien

tist

by

trai

nin

g, h

e has

a s

pec

ial

inte

rest

in a

quat

ic e

cosy

stem

s

and t

hei

r as

soci

ated

soc

ial

and p

olit

ical

envi

ronm

ents

. M

r Tu

rton

is

also

an

asso

ciat

e of

the

SO

AS W

ater

Iss

ues

Stu

dy

Gro

up a

t th

e U

niv

ersi

ty o

f L

ondon

.

He

curr

entl

y se

rves

on

th

e C

oord

inat

ing

Com

mit

tee

for

Wat

er E

cosy

stem

Res

earc

h (

CC

WE

R)

at t

he

Wat

er R

esea

rch C

omm

issi

on. H

is e

-mai

l ad

dre

ss i

s

awir

u@

pos

tino.

up.a

c.za

, ar

t@ic

on.c

o.za

and a

t31@

soas

.ac.

uk.

Mr.

Turt

on i

s

acti

ve i

n t

he

inte

rnat

ion

al w

ater

sec

tor,

hav

ing

coor

din

ated

an

d l

ed t

he

17

8

clie

nts

. P

eter

Ash

ton i

s D

ivis

ional

Fel

low

/Wat

er Q

ual

ity

and W

ater

Res

ourc

es

Sp

ecia

list

at

the

Div

isio

n o

f W

ater

, E

nvi

ron

men

t &

For

estr

y Tec

hn

olog

y,

CSIR

em

ail:

pas

hto

n@

csir

.co.

za

Anto

n d

u P

less

is

An

ton

du

Ple

ssis

is

Pro

fess

or o

f In

tern

atio

nal

Rel

atio

ns,

Dep

artm

ent

of

Pol

itic

al S

cien

ces

at t

he

Univ

ersi

ty o

f P

reto

ria.

He

has

als

o le

cture

d a

t th

e

Univ

ersi

ties

of

Ste

llen

bos

ch a

nd P

reto

ria.

Pro

fess

or d

u P

less

is i

s a

spec

iali

st

in i

nte

rnat

ional

rel

atio

ns

theo

ry, fo

reig

n a

ffai

rs a

nd s

trat

egic

for

ecas

ting,

wit

h

an e

mphas

is o

n g

eost

rate

gic

conce

rns.

He

is a

con

trib

uto

r to

sev

eral

boo

ks,

auth

or o

f va

riou

s m

onog

raphs

and h

as a

lso

wri

tten

num

erou

s ar

ticl

es o

n inte

r-

nat

ional

rel

atio

ns

and r

elat

ed i

ssues

. H

e re

ceiv

ed a

D.P

hil

in I

nte

rnat

ional

Pol

itic

s fr

om t

he

Univ

ersi

ty o

f P

reto

ria

in 1

985.

He

is a

mem

ber

of

seve

ral

asso

ciat

ion

s, i

ncl

ud

ing

the

Sou

th A

fric

an P

olit

ical

Stu

die

s A

ssoc

iati

on a

nd

the

Sou

th A

fric

an I

nst

itute

of

Inte

rnat

ional

Aff

airs

.

Em

ail:

adupple

s@pos

tino.

up.a

c.za

.

Ric

hard M

eis

sner

Ric

har

d M

eiss

ner

is

Res

earc

h A

ssoc

iate

at

the

Afr

ican

Wat

er I

ssues

Res

earc

h

Un

it,

e-m

ail

add

ress

, m

eiss

@m

web

.co.

za.

Ric

har

d M

eiss

ner

has

a M

aste

r’s

deg

ree

in P

olit

ical

Stu

die

s ob

tain

ed f

rom

th

e R

and

Afr

ikaa

ns

Un

iver

sity

.

His

Mas

ter’

s th

esis

was

on

: W

ater

as

a S

ourc

e of

Pol

itic

al C

onfl

ict

and

Coo

per

atio

n:

A C

ompar

ativ

e A

nal

ysis

of

the

Mid

dle

Eas

t an

d S

outh

ern A

fric

a.

He

is c

urr

entl

y busy

wit

h h

is D

.Phil

. in

Pol

itic

al S

cien

ces

at t

he

Univ

ersi

ty o

f

Pre

tori

a. T

he

study

wil

l be

on t

he

role

and i

nvo

lvem

ent

of i

nte

rest

gro

ups

in

inte

rnat

ional

wat

er p

olit

ics.

Marie

-Thérèse

Sarch

Mar

ie-T

hér

èse

Sar

ch B

Sc,

Msc

, P

hD

, R

esea

rch F

ello

w.

Dr.

Sar

ch c

omple

ted

her

doc

tora

l w

ork

on

fis

hin

g an

d f

arm

ing

live

lih

ood

s at

Lak

e C

had

in

th

e

18

0

Sou

ther

n A

fric

an P

anel

at

the

Sec

ond W

orld

Wat

er F

orum

whic

h w

as h

eld a

t

The

Hag

ue

duri

ng

Mar

ch 2

000.

Mr.

Turt

on i

s cu

rren

tly

doi

ng

his

D.P

hil

. in

Inte

rnat

ional

Rel

atio

ns

at t

he

Univ

ersi

ty o

f P

reto

ria,

wit

h h

is t

hes

is b

eing

on

the

pol

itic

s of

the

inte

rnat

ional

riv

er b

asin

s in

Sou

th A

fric

a, w

ith a

n e

mphas

is

on c

onfl

ict

mit

igat

ion

, re

gim

e cr

eati

on a

nd

in

stit

uti

onal

dev

elop

men

t. A

n

elem

ent

of t

his

is

the

pro

pos

ed d

evel

opm

ent

of a

Hyd

ropol

itic

al H

otsp

ot A

tlas

for

use

at

the

regi

onal

lev

el. H

e al

so h

as a

n a

ctiv

e in

tere

st i

n t

he

dev

elop

men

t

of h

ydro

pol

itic

al t

heo

ry,

spec

ific

ally

wher

e th

is c

an b

e use

d t

o as

sist

wit

h t

he

dev

elop

men

t of

pol

icy

for

dev

elop

ing

countr

ies

in w

ater

-sca

rce

regi

ons.

Mr.

Turt

on a

lso

wor

ks

as a

con

sult

ant

in t

he

wat

er s

ecto

r, a

nd i

s a

mem

ber

of

the

Inte

rnat

ional

Unio

n o

f A

nth

ropol

ogic

al a

nd E

thnol

ogic

al S

cien

ces

(IU

AE

S),

the

Sou

th A

fric

an I

nst

itu

te o

f In

tern

atio

nal

Aff

airs

(S

AII

A),

th

e S

outh

ern

Afr

ican

Soc

iety

of

Aq

uat

ic S

cien

ces

(SA

SA

QS

), t

he

Afr

ica

Inst

itu

te (

AI)

,

Pugw

ash a

nd t

he

Pro

fess

ional

Ass

ocia

tion

of

Div

e In

stru

ctor

s (P

AD

I).