Inspection & Maintenance of subsea Pipeline and Offshore Structure

Sigve Hamilton Aspelund

Day 1:

• Introduction to Pipelines• Classifications of Pipelines• Pipeline System• Pipeline Trenching and Route Survey• Welding Considerations• Pipe Manufacturing Techniques

Why Do We Need Pipelines?

• Everyone knows the location of their local gas station; your home may be warmed by heating oil or natural gas; and many homes use natural gas for cooking.

• But did you know that these products – gasoline, home heating oil, and natural gas – travel long distances from refineries and natural gas plants to communities all over the nation through underground pipelines?

• These pipelines are the unsung heroes of many utilities – water, sewer, telephone lines, liquid petroleum pipelines and natural gas pipelines – tucked under our streets.

• They safely go through neighborhoods and communities, stretch across farms, forests, deserts, and everywhere in between.

• These same pipelines provide fuel to generate electricity and the building blocks for fertilizers to increase crop production.

• Pipelines also collect crude oil from many rural areas to deliver to refineries and chemical plants to create all the products that come from petroleum and petrochemicals manufacturing.

• Pipelines are the energy lifelines of almost every activity of everyday life. • Do you enjoy taking a vacation? • Have you had to fly to another state for any reason? • You drive to the airport in your car. • The gasoline was delivered by pipeline. • You fly in an airplane that is powered by jet fuel.• Jet fuel travels by pipeline to every major airport. • You buy family necessities at the local grocery store, which is stocked by trucks powered by

diesel fuel. • Diesel fuel is also moved to local supply points by pipelines. • You turn on the heater on a cold night, and may be using natural gas, heating oil, or

propane, all of which are delivered by pipeline.

• A pipeline near you might supply a refinery or gasoline distribution terminal nearby.

• Even destinations far away can support your community and way of life because of the vast distribution network that gets you the energy you need.

• Energy pipelines – oil, natural gas, gasoline, and many chemicals as well – are part of the subterranean world, along with water lines, sewer lines, storm sewers, telephone lines, television cables, and electric lines.

• Natural resources, like crude oil and natural gases, are the raw material for energy that the world consumes.

• These are found in completely different locations than where they are eventually processed or refined into fuels for our lives.

• They are also in very different locations from where they are consumed.

• While many forms of transportation are used to move these products to marketplaces; pipelines remain the safest, most efficient and economical way to move these natural resources.

• America depends on a network of more than 185,000 miles of liquid petroleum pipelines, nearly 320,000 miles of gas transmission pipelines, and more than 2 million miles of gas distribution pipelines to safely and efficiently move energy and raw materials to fuel our nation's economic engine.

• This system of pipelines serves as a national network to move the energy resources we need from production areas or ports of entry throughout North America to consumers, airports, military bases, population centers and industry every day.

What Do Pipelines Transport?

Some Examples of Commodities Moved in U.S. Pipelines:For Transportation: Gasoline• Diesel Fuel• Jet Fuel• Aviation gasoline• Natural Gas• Kerosene

• To Heat Our Homes: Home heating oil• Natural gas• Propane

For Refiners & Manufacturers (examples: eyeglasses, bicycle tires, life jackets) Crude oil (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, home heating oil)• Raw natural gas liquids• Propylene (headlights, foam insulation, hoses)• Ethane (shower curtains, food containers)• Ethylene (packaging, antifreeze, trash bags)• Natural Gas (fertilizer, pharmaceuticals)

For Agriculture:• Anhydrous ammonia (fertilizer)• Diesel fuel• Propane

Crude Oil Pipelines

• Crude oil pipelines are the foundation of our liquid energy supply. • Crude oil is collected by pipelines from inland production areas like

Texas, Wyoming, North Dakota, Louisiana, Alaska, and western Canada.

• Pipelines also move crude oil produced far offshore in coastal waters.• Crude also arrives in the U.S. from Mexico, Africa and the Middle East,

and South America by marine tankers, often moving for the final leg of that trip from a U.S. port to a refinery by pipeline.

• Crude oil, also referred to as petroleum, is a resource that is drilled for throughout the world.

• When refined and processed, crude oil provides the energy resources we have come to depend on in modern society.

• Crude oil also provides the foundation for many products including plastics and petrochemicals in addition to the fuel for our cars, diesel fuel for trucks, and heating oil for our homes.

• Each day, the United States uses millions of gallons of crude oil to support our daily lives.

• While many forms of transportation are used to move this product to storage hubs and refineries, pipelines remain the safest, most efficient and economical way to move this natural resource.

• This is especially important because frequently crude oil is produced in areas far away from major marketplaces where population and manufacturing centers are located.

• Pipelines permit the movement of large quantities of crude oil and product to these areas with little or no disruption to communities everywhere.

• Most crude oil pipelines are underground, except for pump stations and valves. • Many people are familiar with the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS). • It is the most photographed pipeline because significant portions of the system

are above ground, which is unlike most pipelines. • Crude oil is produced in Alaska, moves south on TAPS, and then moves by tank

ship to the West Coast. • From the tank ship, the crude again moves by pipeline to refineries along the

west coast of the U.S.• There are many places on the internet where you can learn more about the

petroleum industry and crude oil, such as the American Petroleum Institute at www.api.org.

Refined Products Pipelines

• The nation's crude oil pipelines transport crude oil from oilfields to refineries where the oil is turned into dozens of useful products, such as gasoline, home heating oil, jet fuel, diesel, lubricants and the raw materials for fertilizer, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

• Products pipelines then transport refined products to terminals or local distribution centers.

• Refined products are distributed to the companies and consumers who rely on a steady and economically transported supply of these products.

• Most gasoline and diesel fuel supplies are delivered to the marketplace by pipelines from refineries to local distribution centers.

• Tanker trucks carry gasoline only the last few miles of the trip to individual service stations.

• Major American airports rely almost entirely on pipelines, and have dedicated pipelines to deliver jet fuel directly to the airport.

• Almost all plastics are made from resins and other raw materials derived from oil.

• From our office desks to children's toys, we touch some sort of petroleum-based product almost every moment of our day.

• Pipelines make this possible.

Natural Gas Pipelines

• Natural gas supplies nearly one-fourth or 22 percent of all of the energy used in the United States.

• There are more than 71 million residential, commercial and industrial natural gas customers in the United States. Natural gas is found across the country, and 33 states are now producing or have produced this fuel.

• Three major types of pipelines are found along the transportation route bringing natural gas from the point of production to the point of use.

• Gathering pipeline systems gather raw natural gas from production wells and transport it to large cross-country transmission pipelines.

• Transmission pipeline systems transport natural gas thousands of miles from processing facilities across many parts of the continental United States.

• Natural gas distribution pipeline systems can be found in thousands of communities from coast to coast, and distribute natural gas to homes and businesses through large distribution lines mains and service lines.

• Including both onshore and offshore lines, there are approximately 300,000 miles of interstate and intrastate transmission pipelines, and 2.1 million miles of distribution pipelines.

• Natural gas is delivered directly to homes and businesses through local distribution lines from local distribution companies.

• Large distribution lines, called mains, move the gas close to cities. • These main lines, along with the much smaller service lines that travel

to homes and businesses account for the vast majority of the nation’s 2.4-million- mile underground pipeline system.

• There are many places on the internet where you can learn more about the natural gas industry and pipelines, such as the Interstate Natural Gas Association of America (INGAA), the American Gas Association (AGA), the American Public Gas Association or the Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA).

Other Means Of Transport

• Pipelines are not the only way to move petroleum and refined petroleum products.

• The real question is: how do they stack up against the other transportation modes– tank ships and barges, trucks and railroad tank cars?

• Approximately 71 % of crude oil and petroleum products are shipped by pipeline on a ton-mile basis.

• Tanker and barge traffic account for 22 % of oil shipments. • Trucking accounts for four percent of shipments, and rail for the remaining

three percent. • Essentially, all dry natural gas is shipped by pipeline to end users.

• Pipelines move more than two-thirds of all the crude oil and refined products in the United States.

• According to statistics retained by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), as of December 2012, the United States produces over 10.6 million barrels of petroleum a day.

• This figure is projected to rise to 27 million by the start of the next decade, 2020.

• Liquid petroleum pipelines are usually the only feasible way to transport significant volumes by land over long distances.

• Without pipelines, our streets and highways would be overwhelmed by the trucks trying to keep up with the nation’s demand for petroleum products.

• It would take a constant line of tanker trucks, about 750 per day, loading up and moving out every two minutes, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, to move the volume of even a modest pipeline.

• The railroad-equivalent of this single pipeline would be a train of 75 2,000-barrel tank rail cars every day.

• Almost all natural gas is moved by pipeline. • Natural gas can be liquefied and turned into liquefied natural gas (LNG) and moved

by ship or truck, but few truck shipments of LNG occur in the United States.

Smart Pig Inspection

Pipeline Control Room

Pipelines Create Jobs

Pipelines Help Consumers

Pipeline Safety

How Do Pipelines Work?

• There are two general types of energy pipelines – liquid petroleum pipelines and natural gas pipelines.

• Within the liquid petroleum pipeline network there are crude oil lines, refined product lines, highly volatile liquids (HVL) lines, and carbon dioxide lines (CO2).

• Crude oil is also subdivided in to 'Gathering Lines' and ’Transmission Lines”.

• First, gathering lines are very small pipelines usually from 2 to 8 inches in diameter in the areas of the country where crude oil is found deep within the earth.

• These gathering lines exist all over the country but the bulk of them are located primarily in Texas, North Dakota, California, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Louisiana, and Wyoming with small systems in a number of other oil producing states.

• The larger cross-country crude oil transmission pipelines or trunk lines bring crude oil from producing areas to refineries.

• There are approximately 55,000 miles of crude oil trunk lines (usually 8 to 24 inches in diameter) in the United States that connect regional markets.

• There are also a few VERY large trunk lines. • One of the largest in the U.S. is the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System,

which is 48 inches in diameter.

• The next group of liquid petroleum pipelines is one that carries refined petroleum products – gasoline, jet fuel, home heating oil and diesel fuel.

• These refined product pipelines vary in size from relatively small, 8 to 12 inch diameter lines, to much larger ones that go up to 42 inches in diameter.

• There are approximately 95,000 miles of refined products pipelines nationwide. • They are found in almost every state in the U.S. These pipelines deliver petroleum

products to large fuel terminals with storage tanks that are then loaded into tanker trucks.

• Trucks cover the last few miles to make local deliveries to gas stations and homes. • Major industries, airports and electrical power generation plants are supplied

directly by pipeline.

• Highly volatile liquid (HVL) lines and carbon dioxide (CO2) lines are also a part of the liquid petroleum pipeline network.

• These liquids turn to gas once exposed to the atmosphere. • They include ethane, butane and propane. • Carbon dioxide pipelines allow carbon dioxide to enhance oil

recovery, as CO2 has long done in North America.• The natural gas pipeline system is organized somewhat differently. • Natural gas, unlike oil, is delivered directly to homes and businesses

through pipelines.

• Natural gas can contain natural gas liquids (NGL) when produced. • Processors remove water, NGLs, and impurities from the natural gas

stream to lake the natural gas suitable for sale. • Natural gas and NGLs then travel on separate pipeline systems. • It is determined to be rich or wet if it contains significant natural gas

liquids (NGL); by contrast, natural gas is known to be lean or dry if it does not contain these liquids.

• The U.S. natural gas pipeline network is a highly integrated transmission and distribution grid that can transport natural gas to and from nearly any location in the lower 48 states.

• It consists of more than 210 natural gas pipeline systems. • This accounts for 305,000 miles of interstate and intrastate

transmission pipelines.

Who Operates Pipelines?

• The network of oil and natural gas pipelines that serve the U.S. is not owned by a single entity.

• A large and growing group of pipeline systems are owned and operated by companies who are only pipeline operators and who are not involved in other aspects of the oil industry.

• Many of these companies operate as publicly traded Master Limited Partnerships and stock corporations owned by millions of Americans invested in Individual Retirement Accounts, 401(k) accounts, pension funds, and individual investments.

• There are also those companies, like a power plant or a chemical plant, which may operate a small pipeline system to bring fuel to the plant or to move feedstock from one plant to another.

• Natural gas pipelines range from large, regional companies to small, municipal gas systems and everything in between.

• Pipeline companies do not usually own the products they are transporting.

• Pipeline companies are simply transportation service intermediaries that move the product from the producers and shippers to the marketplace.

• Producers and shippers, those which actually own the product, pay pipeline companies to transport their product from oil fields to refineries, manufacturers, and distribution centers.

• In order to move their product, shippers use a nominations process to reserve a specific amount of space per month on the pipeline to transport their products.

• Visit Adventures in Energy, an exciting overview of where oil and gas comes from, the industry's use of cutting-edge technologies and environmental practices to find and develop these resources, and the many innovative products made from oil and natural gas that you use everyday.

Pipeline Design and Build

• Often, the process to design and site a pipeline is longer than the time needed to actually construct a pipeline.

• The construction phase can only begin after route selection, easement negotiations, environmental permitting and many other pre-construction actions have been accomplished.

• Before the line pipe can be buried, the pipeline right-of-way must be cleared and prepared for construction.

• Once ready, the pipeline is carefully placed in the pre-dug trench or bored under waterways or roads.

• If trenching is involved, the trench is filled and post-construction restoration begins.

• The post-construction phase of any project addresses several aspects including restoring the surface of the land affected by the trenching.

• Before the pipeline is placed into service, the pipe and components are again tested in the field with water pressure, weld x-rays, and a variety of other inspection tests.

• Each stage of this process is overseen by qualified inspectors to ensure compliance with the engineering plan, codes, permit conditions, landowner and easement agreements, and regulatory requirements.

What Is the Transportation Process?

• Most gallons of gasoline move a long way by pipeline and a short way by truck.

• After a gallon of gasoline is refined from crude oil, it goes into a pipeline along with millions of other gallons, and is moved the long distance from a refinery, say one in Texas, to a distribution terminal in a major city, like Memphis, Tennessee.

• So first the gallon moves 600 miles by pipeline, then a truck picks up that gallon along with about 8,000 more and moves it the last 20-30 miles to a local gas station.

• Another example is home heating oil that is also produced at a refinery in Texas and moves over 1,000 miles to Linden, New Jersey.

• There it is loaded onto a barge and taken to Portland, Maine to a distribution terminal where that gallon makes its final trip of 10-30 miles by truck to a homeowner’s fuel oil tank.

• These are examples of the integrated nature of the petroleum distribution network in the U.S. Looking at all methods of transportation and the relative distances each takes, to transport a single gallon, pipelines move the vast majority – 70% of all petroleum transportation.

What Is Batching?

• Many liquid petroleum pipelines transport different types of liquid petroleum in the same pipeline.

• To do so, the pipeline operator sends different products in “batches”. For example, an operator might send gasoline for several hours, and then switch to jet fuels, before switching to diesel fuel.

• The process of tracking the customer’s batch or product through the pipeline is done through scheduling.

• Once the product has been scheduled and actually transported, a ticket is written that shows the type of product transported, the amount, transportation origination and destination points, and the owner.

• Throughout the process, the product is measured at the receipt point in the pipeline and again upon delivery to document the amount of product moved from point A to point B.

• Many pipeline systems require the shipper to meet defined common product specifications for each product shipped. What is delivered for the shipper at the point of delivery may not be the same fuel shipped, but it will meet the same specifications (e.g., regular unleaded gasoline, ultra-low sulfur diesel).

What Is The Cost Of Transportation?

• The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission regulates the rates charged for interstate transportation services offered by liquid petroleum pipelines.

• Some states also regulate the rates charged by pipelines for intrastate transportation.

• A pipeline’s tariff specifies the rates, terms, and conditions that apply for the transportation services offered by a pipeline.

• The amount charged to the pipeline’s customer may depend on the amount transported, the distance between receipt and delivery points, and competition to transport products in the market.

• According to the National Academy of Sciences, on average the pipeline’s rate comprises about 2.5 cents of the cost at the pump to buy retail gasoline.

• The rates charged by liquid petroleum pipelines are regulated differently than natural gas pipelines.

• Natural gas pipeline rates are typically regulated like a traditional monopoly utility.

• Because liquid petroleum pipelines face significant competition, they must operate as efficiently as possible and market forces commonly dictate the rates that may be charged and the amount of transportation costs ultimately reflected in the price paid by the retail customer.

Where Are Liquids Pipelines Located?

• The map above shows major crude oil, refined products and highly volatile liquids pipelines in the U.S.

• Pipelines exist almost everywhere. • Natural gas is delivered directly to homes in relatively small diameter

distribution lines buried under the street and even your own yard. • Larger cross-country transmission pipelines delivering gasoline, home heating

oil, or moving crude oil or natural gas are actually easier to find.• Nearly the entire mainline pipe is buried, but other pipeline components such

as pump stations are above ground. • Some lines are as short as a mile, while others may extend 1,000 miles or

more.

• Although a large number of pipeline systems cover distances similar to these, not all petroleum markets are as distant from the point of supply as others.

• Some pipelines start from ports, such as San Diego or San Francisco and serve inland areas in California and the southwestern U.S. region.

• Each region of the country has some unique aspects. • Very few pipelines actually cross the highest parts of the Rocky

Mountains since the distances are long and the population centers small.

• But smaller refineries and regional pipelines serve these areas as well.

• The United States has the largest network of energy pipelines in the world, with more than 2.5 million miles of pipe.

• The network of crude oil pipelines in the U.S. is extensive. • There are approximately 55,000 miles of crude oil trunk lines (usually

8 - 24 inches in diameter) in the U.S. that connect regional markets.• Pipeline companies keep in touch with local emergency responders

along pipeline rights-of-way and work with, and sometimes even train with fire departments or hazardous materials units.

• One useful source of pipeline location information is the National Pipeline Mapping System (NPMS).

• The NPMS shows pipelines at the county by county scale. • Government officials and emergency response officials have access to

information at a more detailed scale.

How Can You Identify Pipelines?

• Pipelines exist almost everywhere throughout the U.S. and chances are you may live near or drive past one every day.

• Although pipelines are generally buried underground vegetation in accordance with DOT regulations, there are several ways you can see if there is a pipeline in your neighborhood.

• Pipelines are marked by aboveground markers (signs, placards or stakes) to provide an indication of their presence, approximate location, and product carried, and the name and contact information of the company that operates the pipeline.

• THE PRESENCE OF THESE MARKERS DOES NOT REMOVE THE NEED FOR A CALL TO 811 PRIOR TO EXCAVATION!

• They give an approximate indication of where a pipeline might be and must be verified through placement of a call to the local One Call Center.

• The signs are generally yellow, black, and red in color.• The primary function of these aboveground markers is to identify the

location of the pipeline to help the public understand the location of pipelines and prevent excavation damage accidents.

• Pipelines are generally buried 3 to 4 feet under the ground or deeper. • Other cases require the pipeline to be buried much deeper to go

under rivers or roads. • The reason for this is because sometimes these areas become shallow

after years of erosion or newly dug ditches. • The pipeline lies within an area called the pipeline right-of-way, which

is kept clear of trees and other vegetation, buildings, or other structures.

• To understand more about the ROW, check out the 'What If Pipelines Cross Private Land' section.

• Another thing you might see out walking in your neighborhood or driving along the road is a fenced and secured area with some above ground piping.

• These secured areas often provide access to valves along the pipeline system.

• These valves are controlled manually or remotely to stop the flow of products in a pipeline.

• Other functions of the aboveground signs and markers include identification of the pipeline for routine patrols by foot, ATV, airplanes and sometimes helicopters.

• Pipeline operators must patrol their pipeline corridors and inspect the pipelines valves regularly.

• Such surveillance is an important safety tool to ensure that unauthorized activities, including unauthorized digging/excavations/building that might damage the underground pipe, are noticed and can be evaluated immediately.

What If Pipelines Cross Private Land?• Because pipelines must cross the countryside to deliver products over

long distances, the pipeline has many neighbors. • Pipelines cross under creeks and rivers, highways and roads, farmers’

fields, parks, and may be close to homes, businesses or other community centers.

• As you may suspect, some of the land pipelines cross to get to desired locations is, inevitably, privately owned.

• Written agreements, or easements, between landowners and pipeline companies allow pipeline companies to construct and maintain pipeline rights-of-way across privately owned property.

• Most pipelines are buried below ground in a right-of-way, which allows the landowner to still use the property.

• The working space needed during initial construction may be temporarily wider but the permanent right-of-way width varies depending on the easement, the pipeline system, the presence of other nearby utilities, and the land use along the right-of-way.

• Many of the rights-of-way range from 25-150 feet wide, but may be wider or narrower depending on specific locations.

• These rights-of-way are kept clear to allow the pipeline to be protected, aerially surveyed, and properly maintained though the property could still be used.

• Pipeline companies are responsible for maintaining their rights-of-way to protect the public and environment, the line itself and other customers from loss of service.

• Pipeline rights-of-way are located in urban, suburban and rural communities.

Understanding the Right-of-Way (ROW)• A strip of land usually about 25 to 150 feet wide containing the

pipeline is known as the pipeline right-of-way (ROW). The ROW:• Enables workers to gain access for inspection, maintenance, testing,

or emergencies.• Maintains an unobstructed view for frequent aerial surveillance.• Identifies an area that restricts certain activities to protect the

landowner, the community through which the pipeline passes, and where the pipeline itself is located.

Natural Gas Pipelines Map

Are Pipelines Safe?

• Pipelines are an extremely safe way to transport energy across the country.

• A barrel of crude oil or petroleum product shipped by pipeline reaches its destination safely more than 99.999% of the time.

• Pipeline releases decreased more than 60 percent from 2001 to 2012. • The number of releases deemed "significant" and "serious" by the

U.S. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration has decreased, as well.

• Pipeline companies take active steps to ensure that health, safety, security, and environmental concerns are addressed throughout the planning, construction, and operational phases of pipeline operations.

• Pipeline companies work to prevent releases by evaluating, inspecting and maintaining pipelines in a program called integrity management.

• Integrity management programs have produced decreases in incidents attributed to every major cause of failure.

• Pipeline companies together fund millions of dollars worth of research into new inspection technologies and spend billions on safety each year.

• Pipeline incidents, while rare, do still happen. • Pipeline operators prepare for the unlikely event of an incident

through control room technologies and training to stop the flow of a pipeline quickly upon a release.

• Operators also develop emergency response plans, deploy resources, and work frequently with local first responders in order to reduce the impacts of any release.

• Pipeline operators work with the NTSB and PHMSA to determine incident causes, fix problems, and pay fines when appropriate.

• Liquid petroleum pipelines are usually the only feasible way to transport significant volumes by land over long distances.

• Without pipelines, our streets and highways would be overwhelmed by the trucks trying to keep up with the nation’s demand for petroleum products.

What Is The Safety Record?

• The safety performance of the oil pipeline industry has improved over the last 14 years.

• In 2013, pipelines transported over 14 billion barrels of crude oil, gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel across our nation with more than 99.999% of those barrels reaching their destination safely.

• From 1999-2012, the number of spills from onshore liquid petroleum pipelines was reduced by about 62% while volumes spilled were reduced by about 47% based on reports from pipeline operators to the Pipeline Performance Tracking System, an industry pipeline release data base.

• All major causes of liquid petroleum pipeline accidents were reduced over that period:

• Corrosion down 79% • Third Party Excavation Damage down 78%• Pipe Material, Seams and Welds down 31%

Improving Performance of All Pipe• Pipeline releases or spills related to threats that can knowingly

worsen over time declined by 36% from 2002 to 2009. • The decline was even greater for pre-1950s vintage pipes at 83%. • This demonstrates that age-related threats can and are being

managed effectively by pipeline operators. • While these are great advances, the industry continues to strive to

learn and improve from shared incident information and best practices to make pipelines even safer for the people around them and the environment.

• "If a pipeline is adequately maintained and inspected properly, its age is not the critical factor. The condition of the pipe is the critical factor."—Deborah Hershman, NTSB Chair, January 28, 2013

• U.S. Department of Transportation statistics show that pipelines have a better safety record than other modes of transportation for petroleum liquids.

How Do Operators Keep Pipelines Safe?

• Pipelines are constructed with safety in mind, using best practices in anti-corrosion coatings and pipe materials, use of shutoff valves, and a comprehensive series of construction regulations.

• Every pipeline built today must pass a test of its construction and materials before it can begin operations.

• In this test, the pipeline is filled with water and subjected to pressures well above the maximum pressure at which it will be allowed to operate otherwise.

• PHMSA and state inspectors oversee major pipeline construction projects.

• Pipeline undergo regular inspection and maintenance, including a major program known as integrity management intended to identify and treat symptoms long before they become a problem.

• Operators assess the attributes of a pipeline through a variety of inspection techniques. • The primary inspection method is in-line inspection, in which high-tech devices travel inside the

pipeline. • Referred to as “smart pigs”, these high-tech diagnostic devices produce information about

features in a pipeline. • Pipeline operators conduct a physical evaluation of a segment of the tested pipeline in order to

validate the results of the test, and use analytic software to review results and isolate potential issues for maintenance.

• Operators then decide which pipeline features identified by the test should be addressed by physical inspection, based on federal regulations and a prioritization of the greatest risks.

• Not all of the features identified by inspections need to be repaired.

Pipelines

• While in-line inspection technology has improved dramatically over the past few decades, pipeline operators want further improvements.

• As one “smart pig” vendor described, today’s tools may have a 90 percent detection rate.

• Pipeline operators tell “smart pig” companies about their needs, push these vendors to improve the technology, develop analytic tools to use when reviewing “smart pig inspection” reports, discuss with other companies best practices in integrating inspection data, and contribute millions of dollars each year into pipeline consortium work on shared pipeline technology goals.

• Most pipelines are continuously managed by control room operators reviewing information from a sophisticated series of instruments along the length of the pipeline.

• Using these systems, pipeline controllers can monitor changes in line pressure and flow rate and other inconsistencies, which might indicate a rupture.

• Control room operators are trained to shut down the pipeline during a suspected release to reduce size of a spill.

• To do so, controllers stop pumps that push liquids through a pipeline, and close valves to isolate a pipeline segment.

• Pipelines are also monitored by foot patrols, aerial patrols, and the local community.

• When a pipeline release occurs, pipeline operators work with first responders and local officials to protect people and the environment, and clean up.

• Pipeline operators develop emergency response plans to prepare for pipeline releases and conduct drills to be ready.

• Operators maintain regular contact with fire departments and other emergency response organizations along a pipeline’s length to discuss the resources and approaches to be used.

• Finally, pipeline operators work to build public awareness of a pipeline along its route, including by contacting the nearest landowners and residents.

• Operators want the public to know how to contact emergency officials and act safely during a possible release, and prevent pipeline damage caused by a third party excavator.

Who Oversees Pipeline Safety?

• Pipeline companies are responsible for the safety of pipelines, operating under a comprehensive series of regulations from construction to operation and maintenance.

• Federal and state pipeline inspectors evaluate whether operators are being diligent in meeting regulatory requirements, conducting proper inspections, and making necessary repairs.

• The U.S. Department of Transportation’s Pipelines and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) issues pipeline safety regulations addressing construction, operation, and maintenance, inspects pipeline operators, and enforces against violations of pipeline safety laws and regulations.

• PHMSA regulates interstate and intrastate hazardous liquids transmission pipelines, except that PHMSA approves some state agencies to exercise interstate inspection authority and/or intrastate inspection and enforcement authority.

• States may issue regulations over intrastate pipelines if they are consistent with federal regulations.

• These state pipeline safety agencies are usually members of the National Association of Pipeline Safety Representatives (NAPSR).

• PHMSA also regulates onshore crude oil gathering pipelines that could impact highly populated areas, cross commercially navigable waterways, or affect rural unusually sensitive areas.

• PHMSA regulates gathering pipelines greater than 6 5/8” diameter in all “non-rural” areas and rural areas (1) within a quarter-mile of an “unusually sensitive area” and (2) operating above a certain pressure.

• Unusually sensitive areas are determined by PHMSA and include drinking water sources and ecological resources unusually sensitive to environmental damage from a liquids release.

• Other gathering lines can be regulated by states or the Interior Department.

• The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigates some pipeline accidents and issues reports and recommendations to regulators, companies, and industry groups.

Better Safety Through Technology

• Pipeline operators inspect pipelines regularly in order to identify and treat symptoms long before they become a problem.

• Most inspections of hazardous liquids pipelines are conducted by in-line inspection devices known as “smart pigs”.

• These high-tech diagnostic devices travel through a pipeline gathering information without stopping flow of the product of a pipeline.

• Smart pigs produce terabytes of data about a pipeline, intending to measure wall thickness and geometric shape, identify dents and microscopic cracks, and more.

• Then, pipeline operators conduct a physical evaluation of a segment of the tested pipeline in order to validate the results of the test, and use analytic software to review results and isolate potential issues for maintenance.

• Operators next decide which pipeline features identified by the test should be addressed by physical inspection, based on federal regulations and a prioritization of the greatest risks.

• In-line inspection devices use electromagnetic acoustic, magnetic flux, and other advanced technologies.

• They are generally developed and owned by independent third-party inspection companies.

• While in-line inspection technology has improved dramatically over the past few decades, pipeline operators want further improvements.

• As one “smart pig” vendor described, today’s tools may have a 90 percent detection rate.

• Pipeline operators tell “smart pig” companies about their needs, push these vendors to improve the technology, develop analytic tools to use when reviewing “smart pig inspection” reports, discuss with other companies best practices in integrating inspection data, and contribute millions of dollars each year into pipeline consortium work on shared pipeline technology goals.

• Other technologies are used in pipeline operations. Advanced telecommunications and computer systems such as SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) continue to improve the monitoring and remote operation of the pipeline from control rooms.

• Companies also employ a cathodic protection system to control the corrosion of steel by applying a small electrical current on the pipeline that inhibits corrosion.

The History of Pipelines

• While iron pipe for other uses in the U.S. dates back to the 1830s, the use of pipe for oil transportation started soon after the drilling of the first commercial oil well in 1859 by “Colonel” Edwin Drake in Titusville, Pennsylvania.

• The first pipes were short and basic, to get oil from drill holes to nearby tanks or refineries.

• The rapid increase in demand for a useful product, in the early case kerosene, led to more wells and a greater need for transportation of the products to markets.

• Early transport by teamster wagon, wooden pipes, and rail rapidly led to the development of better and longer pipes and pipelines.

• In the 1860s as the pipeline business grew, quality control of pipe manufacture became a reality and the quality and type of metal for pipes improved from wrought iron to steel.

• Technology continues to make better pipes of better steel, and find better ways to install pipe in the ground, and continually analyze its condition once it is in the ground.

• At the same time, pipeline safety regulations become more complete, driven by better understanding of materials available and better techniques to operate and maintain pipelines.

• They continue to play a major role in the petroleum industry providing safe, reliable and economical transportation.

• As the need for more energy increases and population growth continues to get further away from supply centers, pipelines are needed to continue to bring energy to you.

• From the early days of wooden trenches and wooden barrels, the pipeline industry has grown and employed the latest technology in pipeline operations and maintenance.

• Today, the industry uses sophisticated controls and computer systems, advanced pipe materials, and corrosion prevention techniques.

1800s1859: Colonel Drake Strikes Oil • "Colonel" Edwin Drake, one-time railroad conductor, drilled the first

commercial oil well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. • By the 1880s, the commercial potentialities of oil were just beginning

to be realized. • In two decades, oil production grew to the point where more than 80

percent of the world’s petroleum consumption was supplied by Pennsylvania oil fields.

1863: The Teamsters & Pipeline Gathering

• The first discoveries were transported to rail stations by Teamsters using converted whiskey barrels and horses.

• From the very beginning, transportation was essential with the Teamsters holding the first regional monopoly position.

• They charged more to move a barrel of oil 5 miles by horse than the entire rail freight charge from Pennsylvania to New York City.

• Despite considerable ridicule, threats, armed attacks, arson, and sabotage, the first wooden pipeline, which was about 9 miles in length, was built in 1862; in essence bypassing the Teamsters.

1879: Tidewater - The First Trunk line• Independent oilmen, in a desperate effort to compete with

Rockefeller’s position in transportation, built the first crude oil trunk line called Tidewater in 1879.

• Within a year, Rockefeller owned half of Tidewater and was busily laying pipelines to Buffalo, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and New York.

• Rockefeller looked to export his kerosene lamp oil production to Northern Europe and Russia.

1880-1905: Gushers and Refineries

• Refineries sprang up near oil fields, and new markets, with the largest being Rockefeller’s venture on the southern shores of Lake Michigan, in Whiting, Indiana.

• By the turn of the century, oil was discovered as far west as California.

• This timeline represents an edited version of text obtained from the book, the History of The Standard Oil Company, written by Ida M. Tarbell in 1904.

1900-1950

1905: Crude Oil Pipelines

• At this point in history the oil business was shifting from kerosene lamp oil to gasoline.

• Edison's electric light bulb replaced oil lamps in many of the cities, reducing the kerosene market, but Henry Ford had changed the landscape with mass produced automobiles.

• Crude oil pipelines carrying oil from the prolific fields in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas to the refineries in the East began to cross the country.

• 1900-1915: The Government Acts• By now Standard Oil controlled over 80 % of the world’s refining and transportation. • John D. Rockefeller was the most powerful man in the world. • 1890, the U.S. government passed the Sherman Antitrust Act and an energetic young

president, Theodore Roosevelt, challenged the Standard Oil Trust. • Pipeline regulation went hand-in-hand in 1906, as the Hepburn Act made interstate

pipelines common carriers that were required to offer their services at equal cost to all shippers.

• In 1912, the antitrust litigation was final and Standard Oil dissolved into seven regional oil companies.

• In 1913, the Valuation Act was the first attempt at Federal involvement in U.S. pipeline ratemaking.

• 1917: Crude Oil Pipelines• By the advent of WWI, crude oil pipelines were traversing much of the

nation.• 1920s: Pipeline Mileage Triples• During the 1920s, driven by the growth of the automobile industry,

total U.S. pipeline mileage grew to over 115,000 miles.• 1935: Population Shifts (Product Lines)• By the 1930s, the population continued to move west across the

Mississippi River, and the first product pipelines were built from Whiting, St. Louis and Kansas City to the west.

• 1945: Product Lines Grow During WWII• Throughout WWII, product systems grew rapidly along the eastern

seaboard. • 48 U.S. oil tankers were sunk in the early stages of the war, showing the

U.S. vulnerability to such an attack. • This quickly led to the expansion of land-based large-diameter pipelines

carrying crude oil and products from areas, such as Texas and Oklahoma to East Coast consumer states.

• Near the end of the war, pipeline regulation became the responsibility of the U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission, who introduced the notion of reasonable returns in the eight percent to 10 % range.

• 1950-Present• 1950s-1960s: The Search for Oil Expands Overseas• In the 1950s and 60s, the balance of supply was shifting rapidly.• U.S. oil companies became major explorers for oil in far-flung lands.• Major discoveries were made by U.S. companies in: Egypt, Argentina,

Venezuela, Trinidad, West Africa, the North Sea, Western Canada, the Caspian Sea, the Middle East and offshore China.

• 1950s-1960s: Shifting crude supply• As oil production declined in the lower 48 states, and petroleum

supply came increasingly from overseas and Canada, the pipeline industry responded with major industry systems from the U.S. Gulf Coast to the Mid-West, Western Canada to the Mid-West, and California to the U.S. West Coast.

• In 1954, Stanolind, the Indiana Standard pipeline company, became the largest liquid pipeline carrier in North America- a position it held until the most recent Enbridge expansion.

• 1968: The population West• The relentless move westward continued and product pipelines

followed. • Also, the rise of import refineries on the U.S. Gulf Coast led to the

construction of Colonial Pipeline to supply the eastern seaboard.• Colonial Pipeline was the largest privately financed undertaking in

U.S. history in 1968.

• 1970 - 1977: The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS)• Following the discovery of the Alaskan Prudhoe Bay oil field in 1968,

pipeline designers faced the challenge of building a pipeline to carry 1.6 million barrels per day of oil across 800 miles of frigid, snow-covered mountains, and frozen tundra.

• Completed in 1977, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline carried over 2 million barrels per day in 1988.

• It delivered approximately 579 thousand barrels per day in 2012.

• 1970s - 1990s: The Advent of Specialty Pipes• Modern pipelines became increasingly versatile as they were called

upon to:• Gather oil and gas over one mile beneath the ocean surface.• Transport super critical fluid such, as carbon dioxide for oil recovery.• Carry natural gas liquids for growing regional heating and olefins

industries.• Transport specialty chemicals between chemical plants and refineries.

• 1992 - In 1992, Congress passed the Energy Policy Act (EPAct), which required FERC to establish a "simplified and generally applicable" ratemaking methodology for oil pipelines.

• In response, the FERC issued a rulemaking in which it adopted the industry wide oil pipeline rate indexing methodology.

• The indexing methodology is the most frequently used approach to set oil pipeline rates. FERC reviews the rate index every five years.

• 2010s - ?: The North American Energy Revolution• Dramatic gains in crude oil and natural gas production in the US and

Western Canada reshaped energy markets. This energy revolution produced a series of major pipeline projects carrying crude oil, natural gas liquids, and natural gas.

• Some pipelines were reversed to carry product in the opposite direction, others were converted from one type of service to another (i.e., from refined products to crude oil), and still others saw additions to pump station power to safely transport additional levels of product on existing pipelines.

• PIPELINE RESOURCES AND INFORMATION• Association of Oil Pipe Lines (AOPL)• American Petroleum Institute (API)• REGULATORY AND SAFETY OVERSIGHT AGENCIES• U.S. Department of Transportation Pipeline and Hazardous Materials

Safety Administration (PHMSA)• National Association of Pipeline Safety Representatives (NAPSR)• U.S. National Transportation Safety Board

Types of Pipelines

• Learn more about the differences between liquids pipelines and natural gas pipelines.

• Liquids Pipelines• Liquids pipelines are used to transport crude oil or natural gas liquids

from producing fields to refineries, where they are turned into gasoline, diesel and other petroleum products.

• Some liquids pipelines are also used to transport these finished petroleum products from refineries to terminals and distribution centres in or nearby large population centres.

The Crude Oil Delivery Network

This diagram is illustrative of the Liquids delivery network. Actual delivery network configurations vary.

• Moving liquids through pipelines• Producing oil fields commonly have a number of small diameter

gathering lines that gather crude oil from the wells and move it to central gathering facilities called oil batteries.

• From here, larger diameter feeder pipelines transport the crude oil to nearby refineries and to long-haul pipelines.

• The largest pipelines, called transmission lines, transport crude oil and other liquids across the country.

• Powerful pumps spaced along the pipeline push the liquid through the pipe at between four and eight kilo metres per hour.

• Liquids pipelines can be used to move different batches of liquids — on any given day a pipeline could be used to transport different grades or varieties of crude oil — with each batch of liquid is pushed along at the same speed along the pipe.

• Where the two batches do come in contact with each other there is a small amount of mixing that occurs — these small volumes, known as transmix, are reprocessed

• Transmission pipelines transport crude oil to oil refineries — these are the facilities that convert the crude oil into petroleum products through various refining processes.

• Petroleum products are the useful fuels we use every day. • Petroleum products include fuels such as gasoline, aviation fuel, diesel

and heating oil, as well as hundreds of products such as solvents and lubricants, as well as raw materials for manufacturing petrochemicals.

Output From a Barrel of Oil (%)

• Natural Gas Pipelines• Natural gas pipelines are used to transport natural gas from gas wells,

to processing plants, to distribution systems throughout Canada. • Unlike refined petroleum products, natural gas is delivered directly to

homes and businesses through an extensive network of very small diameter distribution pipelines.

The Natural Gas Delivery Network

This diagram is illustrative of the Natural Gas delivery network. Actual delivery network configurations vary.

Operating gas pipelines

• In natural gas producing fields, small-diameter pipes gather the raw natural gas from the producing well and transport it to a gas processing facility, where water, impurities and other gases, such as sulphur are removed.

• Some gas plants also extract ethane, propane, and butane, which are referred to as natural gas liquids or NGLs.

• NGLs are then transported via liquid pipelines to oil refineries for processing.

• Once cleaned at the gas processing plants, natural gas is compressed prior to moving into large transmission pipelines consisting of steel pipe.

• The natural gas flows through the transmission system from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure through the use of compressors — these are large turbines similar to jet engines, placed along the pipeline to increase the pressure of the gas, “pushing” the natural gas along the pipe to its destination.

• The compressors often use gas turbines supplied by fuel from the pipeline, but they can also use electricity where preferable.

• Once the natural gas reaches its destination, local distribution companies (LDCs) or gas utilities reduce the pressure before the gas continues on for local delivery through smaller distribution network of pipelines.

• Did you know?• If laid end-to-end, there are enough underground natural gas and

liquids pipelines to circle the Earth around 20 times at the equator.

Pipeline system

Trans-Arabian Pipeline System• Trans-Arabian Pipeline System, oljeledning som forbinder oljefeltene

ved Persiske bukt i Saudi-Arabia med oljehavnen i Sayda, Libanon ved Middelhavet.

• Ledningen er 1720 km lang og ble åpnet i 1950 som verdens lengste oljeledning.

• Begrenset drift (leveranser til Jordan) siden 1970-årene, ute av drift etter Golfkrigen 1980–88.

Pipeline system

Major gas pipelines

Russian and European Pipelines

Pipeline Trenching and Route Survey

Trench• A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground that is

generally deeper than it is wide (as opposed to a wider gully or ditch), and narrow compared to its length (as opposed to a simple hole).

• In geology, trenches are created as a result of erosion by rivers or by geological movement of tectonic plates.

• In the civil engineering field of construction or maintenance of infrastructure, trenches are created to install underground infrastructure or utilities (such as gas mains, water mains or telephone lines), or later to search for these installations.

• Trenches have often been dug for military defensive purposes. • In archaeology, the "trench method" is used for searching and excavating

ancient ruins or to dig into strata of sedimented material.A gas main being laid in a trench

Civil engineering

• In the civil engineering field of construction or maintenance of infrastructure, trenches play a major role.

• They are used to place underground easily damaged and obstructive infrastructure or utilities (such as gas mains, water mains or telephone lines).

• A similar use for higher bulk would be in pipeline transport. • They may also be created later to search for pipes and other infrastructure that

is known to be underground in the general area, but whose exact location has been lost ('search trench' or 'search slit').

• Finally, trenches may be created as the first step of creating a foundation wall. • Trench shoring is often used in trenchworks to protect workers and stabilise

embankments.

• An alternative to digging trenches is to create a utility tunnel. • The advantages of utility tunnels are the reduction of maintenance manholes, one-time

relocation, and less excavation and repair, compared to separate cable ducts for each service. • When they are well mapped, they also allow rapid access to all utilities without having to dig

access trenches or resort to confused and often inaccurate utility maps. • One of the greatest advantages is public safety. • Underground power lines, whether in common or separate channels, prevent downed utility

cables from blocking roads, thus speeding emergency access after natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and tsunamis.

• For a comparison of utility tunnels vs. direct burial, see the article referred to above.• In some cases, a large trench is dug and deliberately preserved (not filled in), often for

transport purposes. • This is typically done to install depressed motorways, open railway cuttings, or canals.

Route Survey

• Route survey [ rüt ‚sər‚vā] (civil engineering)′• A survey for the design and construction of linear works, such as roads and pipelines.• Route Survey• A survey of the earth’s surface along a particular route in the compilation and

updating of topographical, geological, soil, and other maps and the correlation of selected contours and objects with geodetic reference points or land marks¨during linear surveys, and also in the study of¨the dynamics of natural and socioeconomic phenomena in a narrow strip of terrain.

• In a route survey, representations of the actual course of¨the survey and of the plane horizontal features (including the terrain, if necessary) on both sides of it within the limits of direct visibility are plotted on a map board using methods of instrument surveying (plane-table, tachymetric, and aerial phototopographic surveying) or exploratory surveying.

• Ground¨level route surveying has been extensively used for centuries in mapping inaccessible areas.

• In the 20th century aerial route¨surveying (instrumental and, less frequently, exploratory surveying from the air, particularly during aerovisual observations) has come to be used in addition to ground-level route surveying.

• Route surveys made from aircraft are done principally as sets of survey jobs to supplement¨a comprehensive areal survey; this is done on a larger scale and under different surveying conditions (for the purpose of singling outparticular objects).

• Aerial route surveying is also done for such specific purposes as recording the ice conditions at sea, the boundaries of¨river flooding, and the centers of forest fires.

Pipeline Equipment - Trenching Wheel In Action

Disque Pipeline network Route Survey

Welding Considerations

• The increasing prevalence of reverse osmosis treatment water projects which produce aggressive water has led to a commensurate increase in the specification of stainless steel for process piping.

• Based upon material characteristics alone, stainless steel appears suitable for many of these environments, but neglecting how these piping components are fabricated and attached together can lead to otherwise unexpected corrosion problems.

• This discussion is intended for application to the austenitic stainless steels, (e.g., UNS S30400, etc.) or more commonly the "300 series."

• Austenitic stainless steels contain about 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel as their principal alloying elements.

• They are the most common types specified for waterworks because of their normally good resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

• Austenitic stainless steels resist corrosion because of the passive oxide layer that forms on the surface.

• They are readily welded, and the welds are generally tough and ductile, if properly made.

• However, the passive oxide layer is disturbed during the welding of joints.

• The welding procedure specification, which must be submitted for review by the engineer of record, will usually include the critical variables for ensuring that the properly made weld has adequate strength.

• What the welding procedure will not include are the techniques necessary to allow the weld and heat-affected zone of the base material to enjoy the same corrosion resistance of the base material.

• This paper addresses good specification and detailing practices intended to result in corrosion-free stainless steel pipe installations.

Pipe Manufacturing Techniques

Fact Sheet: Pipe Manufacturing ProcessOverview:• The manufacture of steel pipe dates from the early 1800’s. • Initially, pipe was manufactured by hand – by heating, bending,

lapping, and hammering the edges together. • The first automated pipe manufacturing process was introduced in

1812 in England. • Manufacturing processes have continually improved since that time. • Some popular pipe manufacturing techniques are described below.

Lap Welding

• The use of lap welding to manufacture pipe was introduced in the early 1920’s.

• Although the method is no longer employed, some pipe that was manufactured using the lap welding process is still in use today.

• In the lap welding process, steel was heated in a furnace and then rolled into the shape of a cylinder.

• The edges of the steel plate were then “scarfed”.

• Scarfing involves overlaying the inner edge of the steel plate, and the tapered edge of the opposite side of the plate.

• The seam was then welded using a welding ball, and the heated pipe was passed between rollers which forced the seam together to create a bond.

• The welds produced by lap welding are not as reliable as those created using more modern methods.

• The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has developed an equation for calculating the allowable operating pressure of pipe, based on the type of manufacturing process.

• This equation includes a variable known as a “joint factor”, which is based on the type of weld used to create the seam of the pipe.

• Seamless pipes have a joint factor of 1.0. • Lap welded pipe has a joint factor of 6.

Electric Resistance Welded Pipe

• Electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe is manufactured by cold-forming a sheet of steel into a cylindrical shape.

• Current is then passed between the two edges of the steel to heat the steel to a point at which the edges are forced together to form a bond without the use of welding filler material.

• Initially this manufacturing process used low frequency A.C. current to heat the edges. • This low frequency process was used from the 1920’s until 1970. • In 1970, the low frequency process was superseded by a high frequency ERW process which

produced a higher quality weld.• Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective

seam corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture pipe.

• The high frequency process is still being used to manufacture pipe for use in new pipeline construction.

Electric Flash Welded Pipe

• Electric flash welded pipe was manufactured beginning in 1927. • Flash welding was accomplished by forming a steel sheet into a cylindrical shape. • The edges were heated until semi-molten, then forced together until molten steel

was forced out of the joint and formed a bead. • Like low frequency ERW pipe, the seams of flash welded pipe are susceptible to

corrosion and hook cracks, but to a lesser extent than ERW pipe. • This type of pipe is also susceptible to failures due to hard spots in the plate steel. • Because the majority of flash welded pipe was produced by a single manufacturer,

it is believed these hard spots occurred due to accidental quenching of the steel during the manufacturing process used by that particular manufacturer.

• Flash welding is no longer used to manufacture pipe.

Double Submerged Arc Welded (DSAW) Pipe

• Similar to other pipe manufacturing processes, the manufacture of Double Submerged Arc Welded Pipe involves first forming steel plates into cylindrical shapes.

• The edges of the rolled plate are formed so that V-shaped grooves are formed on the interior and exterior surfaces at the location of the seam.

• The pipe seam is then welded by a single pass of an arc welder on the interior and exterior surfaces (hence double submerged).

• The welding arc is submerged under flux.• The advantage of this process is that welds penetrate 100% of the pipe

wall and produce a very strong bond of the pipe material.

Seamless Pipe

• Seamless pipe has been manufactured since the 1800’s. • While the process has evolved, certain elements have remained the same. • Seamless pipe is manufactured by piercing a hot round steel billet with a mandrel. • The hollowed steel is than rolled and stretched to achieve the desired length and diameter. • The main advantage of seamless pipe is the elimination of seam-related defects; however, the

cost of manufacture is greater.• Early seamless pipe was susceptible to defects caused by impurities in the steel. • As steel-making techniques improved, these defects were reduced, but they have not been

totally eliminated. • While it seems that seamless pipe would be preferable to formed, seam-welded pipe, the

ability to improve characteristics desirable in pipe is limited. • For this reason, seamless pipe is currently available in lower grades and wall thicknesses than

welded pipe.

Conclusion• Continual advances in materials and welding techniques have resulted in

dramatic improvements in the reliability of pipes. • As mentioned, however, there is still pipe in use that is susceptible to corrosion

and seam-related defects. • These defects are identified through integrity assessments and are repaired when

found.• Pipe manufactured today is subject to non-destructive tests such as ultrasonic

testing and x-ray, as well as pressure-testing. • Each individual section of pipe must be pressure-tested by the manufacturer, and

new pipelines are also pressure-tested during the actual construction process.

Day 2:

• Codes, Standards and Regulations• Classification Societies doing inspection• Pipeline Threats• Pipeline Inspection Technologies• Pipeline Technologies Under Development• Internal Failure Mechanism

Codes, Standards and Regulations

Oil & Gas Projects Standards & Construction Codes & Standards

The ISO 9001 family - Global management standards (International Organization for Standardization)

Classification Societies doing inspection

Classification Societies doing inspection• A classification society is a non-governmental organization that

establishes and maintains technical standards for the construction and operation of ships and offshore structures.

• The society will also validate that construction is according to these standards and carry out regular surveys in service to ensure compliance with the standards.

• To avoid liability, they explicitly take no responsibility for the safety, fitness for purpose, or seaworthiness of the ship.

Responsibilities• Classification societies set technical rules, confirm that designs and calculations

meet these rules, survey ships and structures during the process of construction and commissioning, and periodically survey vessels to ensure that they continue to meet the rules.

• Classification societies are also responsible for classing oil platforms, other offshore structures, and submarines.

• This survey process covers diesel engines, important shipboard pumps and other vital machinery.

• Classification surveyors inspect ships to make sure that the ship, its components and machinery are built and maintained according to the standards required for their class

History• In the second half of the 18th century, London merchants, shipowners, and

captains often gathered at Edward Lloyds’ coffee house to gossip and make deals including sharing the risks and rewards of individual voyages.

• This became known as underwriting after the practice of signing one's name to the bottom of a document pledging to make good a portion of the losses if the ship didn’t make it in return for a portion of the profits.

• It did not take long to realize that the underwriters needed a way of assessing the quality of the ships that they were being asked to insure. In 1760, the Register Society was formed — the first classification society and the one which would subsequently become Lloyd's Register — to publish an annual register of ships.

• This publication attempted to classify the condition of the ship’s hull and equipment. At that time, an attempt was made to classify the condition of each ship on an annual basis.

• The condition of the hull was classified A, E, I, O or U, according to the state of its construction and its adjudged continuing soundness (or lack thereof).

• Equipment was G, M, or B: simply, good, middling or bad. In time, G, M and B were replaced by 1, 2 and 3, which is the origin of the well-known expression 'A1', meaning 'first or highest class'.

• The purpose of this system was not to assess safety, fitness for purpose or seaworthiness of the ship. It was to evaluate risk.

• Samuel Plimsoll pointed out the obvious downside of insurance:

• The first edition of the Register of Ships was published by Lloyd's Register in 1764 and was for use in the years 1764 to 1766.

• Bureau Veritas (BV) was founded in Antwerp in 1828, moving to Paris in 1832. Lloyd's Register reconstituted in 1834 to become 'Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping'.

• Where previously surveys had been undertaken by retired sea captains, from this time surveyors started to be employed and Lloyd's Register formed a General Committee for the running of the Society and for the Rules regarding ship construction and maintenance, which began to be published from this time.

The ability of shipowners to insure themselves against the risks they take not only with their property, but with other peoples’ lives, is itself the greatest threat to the safe operation of ships.

• In 1834, the Register Society published the first Rules for the survey and classification of vessels, and changed its name to Lloyds Register of Shipping.

• A full-time bureaucracy of surveyors (inspectors) and support personnel was put in place.

• Similar developments were taking place in the other major maritime nations.• The adoption of common rules for ship construction by Norwegian insurance societies

in the late 1850s led to the establishment of Det Norske Veritas (DNV) in 1864. • RINA was founded in Genoa, Italy in 1861 under the name Registro Italiano, to meet

the needs of Italian maritime operators. • Germanischer Lloyd (GL) was formed in 1867 and Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK) in

1899. The Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (RS) was an early offshoot of the River Register of 1913.

• As the classification profession evolved, the practice of assigning different classifications has been superseded, with some exceptions.

• Today a ship either meets the relevant class society’s rules or it does not. • As a consequence it is either 'in' or 'out' of 'class'. Classification societies do not

issue statements or certifications that a vessel is 'fit to sail' or 'unfit to sail', merely that the vessel is in compliance with the required codes.

• This is in part related to legal liability of the classification society.• However, each of the classification societies has developed a series of notations

that may be granted to a vessel to indicate that it is in compliance with some additional criteria that may be either specific to that vessel type or that are in excess of the standard classification requirements. See Ice class as an example.

Flags of convenience• For more details on this topic, see Flag of convenience.• The advent of open registers, or flags of convenience, has led to competition

between classification societies and to a relaxation of their standards.• Flags of convenience have lower standards for vessel, equipment, and crew than

traditional maritime countries and often have classification societies certify and inspect the vessels in their registry, instead of by their own shipping authority.

• This made it attractive for ship owners to change flag, whereby the ship lost the economic link and the country of registry.

• With this, also the link between classification society and traditional maritime country became less obvious - for instance Lloyd's Register with the United Kingdom and ABS with the United States.

• This made it easier to change class and introduced a new phenomenon; class hopping. • A ship owner that is dissatisfied with class can change to a different class relatively

easily. • This has led to more competition between classes and a relaxation of the standards. In

July 1960, Lloyds Register published a new set of rules. • Not only were scantlings relaxed, but the restrictions on tank size were just about

eliminated. • The other classification Societies quickly followed suit. This has led to the shipping

industry losing confidence in the classification societies, and also to similar concerns by the European Commission.

• To counteract class hopping, the IACS has established TOCA (Transfer Of Class Agreement).

• In 1978, a number of European countries agreed in The Hague on memorandum that agreed to audit whether the labour conditions on board vessels were according the rules of the ILO.

• After the Amoco Cadiz sank that year, it was decided to also audit on safety and pollution.

• To this end, in 1982 the Paris Memorandum of Understanding (Paris MoU) was agreed upon, establishing Port State Control, nowadays 24 European countries and Canada.

• In practice, this was a reaction on the failure of the flag states - especially flags of convenience that have delegated their task to classification societies - to comply with their inspection duties.

Today• Today there are a number of classification societies, the largest of which are

Bureau Veritas, the American Bureau of Shipping and Det Norske Veritas. • Classification societies employ ship surveyors,material engineers, piping

engineers, mechanical engineers, chemical engineers and electrical engineers, often located at ports and office buildings around the world.

• Marine vessels and structures are classified according to the soundness of their structure and design for the purpose of the vessel.

• The classification rules are designed to ensure an acceptable degree of stability, safety, environmental impact, etc.

• In particular, classification societies may be authorised to inspect ships, oil rigs, submarines, and other marine structures and issue certificates on behalf of the state under whose flag the ships are registered.

• As well as providing classification and certification services, the larger societies also conduct research at their own research facilities in order to improve the effectiveness of their rules and to investigate the safety of new innovations in shipbuilding.

• There are more than 50 marine classification organizations worldwide, some of which are listed below.

Name Abbreviation Date Head office IACS member?

Lloyd's Register LR 1760 London Yes

Bureau Veritas BV 1828 Paris Yes

Registro Italiano Navale

RINA 1861 Genoa Yes

American Bureau of Shipping

ABS 1862 Houston Yes

DNV GL DNV GL 1864 Oslo Yes

Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK) NK 1899 Tokyo Yes

Russian Maritime Register of Shipping(Российский морской регистр судоходства)

RS 1913 Saint Petersburg Yes

Hellenic Register of Shipping HR 1919 Piraeus No

Polish Register of Shipping

(Polski Rejestr Statków)

PRS 1936 Gdańsk Yes

Phoenix Register of Shipping PHRS 2000 Piraeus No

Croatian Register of Shipping

(Hrvatski Registar Brodova)

CRS 1949 Split Yes

Bulgarian Register of Shipping

(Български Корабен Регистър)

BRS (БКР) 1950 Varna No

CR Classification Society CR 1951 No

China Classification Society

CCS 1956 Beijing Yes

Korean Register of Shipping KR 1960 Busan Yes

Turk Loydu TL 1962 Istanbul No

Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia BKI 1964 Jakarta No

Vietnam Register VR 1964 Hanoi, Vietnam No

Register of Shipping Albania

(Regjistri Detar Shqiptar)

ARS 1970 Durres No

Union Marine Classification Society

UMCS 1970 Union of Comoros

No

Registro Internacional Naval

RINAVE 1973 Lisbon No

Indian Register of Shipping

IRS 1975 Mumbai Yes

International Naval Surveys Bureau

INSB 1977 Piraeus No

Asia Classification Society

ACS 1980 Tehran No

Brazilian Register of Shipping

(Registro Brasileiro de Navios)

RBNA 1982 Rio de Janeiro No

Registro Cubano de Buques

(RCB Sociedad Classificadora)

RCB 1982 La Habana No

International Register of Shipping

IROS 1993 Miami No

Ships Classification Malaysia

SCM 1994 Shah Alam No

Isthmus Bureau of Shipping

IBS 1995 Panama No

Guardian Bureau of Shipping

GBS 1996 Syria No

Shipping Register of Ukraine

(Регістр судноплавства України)

RU (РУ) 1998 Kyiv No

Orient Register of Shipping

ORIENT Class 2000 Philippines No

Overseas Marine Certification Services

OMCS 2004 Panama No

Intermaritime Certification Services

ICS Class 2005 Panama No

Iranian Classification Society

ICS 2007 Tehran No

Venezuelan Register of Shipping

VRS 2008 London No

Tasneef-Emirates Classification society

TASNEEF 2012 Dubai No

Mediterranean Shipping Register

MSR 2012 Great Britain No

International Classification of Ship Malaysia

ICSM 2008 Kuala Lumpur No

See also• International Association of Classification Societies• Category: Classification societies• Prestige oil spill, an incident and following lawsuit that could have

radically changed the role of class societies.• European Maritime Safety Agency

External links• IACS document explaining Classification societies• ABS American Bureau of Shipping• ACS Asia Classification Society• ARS Register of Shipping Albania (Regjistri Detar Shqiptar)• BKI Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia• BRS Bulgarian Register of Shipping (Български Корабен Регистър)• BV Bureau Veritas• CCS China Classification Society• CR CR Classification Society (former name: China Corporation Register of Shipping)• CRS Croatian Register of Shipping (Hrvatski Registar Brodova)• DBS Dromon Bureau of Shipping• DNV Det Norske Veritas

• GBS Guardian Bureau of Shipping

• GL Germanischer Lloyd

• HRS Hellenic Register of Shipping

• IBS Isthmus Bureau of Shipping

• ICS Iranian Classification Society

• ICS Class Intermaritime Certification Services

• IRS Indian Register of Shipping

• IROS International Register of Shipping

• KR Korean Register of Shipping

• LR Lloyd's Register

• NK Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK)

• OMCS Overseas Marine Certification Services (ClassOMCS)

• PRS Polish Register of Shipping (Polski Rejestr Statków)

• RBNA Brazilian Register of Shipping (Registro Brasileiro de Navios)

• RCB Registro Cubano de Buques (RCB Sociedad Clasificadora)

• RINA Registro Italiano Navale

• RINAVE Registro Internacional Naval

• RS Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (Российский морской регистр судоходства)

• RU Shipping Register of Ukraine (Регістр судноплавства України)

• SCM Ships Classification Malaysia

• TL Turk Loydu

• VRS Venezuelan Register of Shipping

• VR Vietnam Register

• ICSM International Classification of Ship Malaysia

Pipeline Threat Assessments:• Monitoring pipeline networks for threats is an ongoing challenge for

operators. • Synodon’s Pipeline Threat Assessment service assists operators by taking a

snapshot in time and identifying potential hazards to a pipeline’s integrity. • Construction activity in the area, equipment (i.e. backhoes) over top the

line, or new buildings near the Right-of-Way are examples of potential hazards.

• High-resolution visual images of the entire surveyed area are captured and analyzed by Synodon and provide a record of exactly what challenges are faced throughout time.

• Erosion is another common problem that can lead to exposed pipelines, which cause a high risk to the operator and citizens in the area.

• Erosion can happen naturally or be caused by large storms, flash floods, heavy equipment traffic, etc.

• High-resolution images of entire network• Specific concerns pinpointed with precise GPS coordinates• Snapshots in time can be overlaid to show changes as time progresses• Operators often have high consequence areas flown frequently by fixed wing

aircraft but that relies upon the pilot to notice and identify problems; Synodon’s service done quarterly or semi-annually give indisputable compliance coverage.

• Additionally, Synodon is able to deliver the visual images in formats that integrate with common GIS systems allowing operators to share visual images of their entire network throughout the organization.

• This can assist with future planning of construction projects, clarity on challenging terrain, and proper assessment of tools & transportation required for maintenance jobs.

Example of pipeline threat: construction equipment near the line.

Example of pipeline threat: washout or flash flood exposed this pipeline.

Pipeline Inspection Technologies

Pipeline Inspection• Aging pipelines and high replacement costs are major challenges

facing pipeline owners and engineers worldwide. • Pure's leading edge technologies for pipeline inspection and

assessment address this ongoing need and provide valuable information to maximize the life of these assets.

• All around the world, we all rely on the millions of kilometers of installed pipelines that are responsible for transporting fluids such as water, sewage, oil and liquid natural gas.

• While these pipelines are well constructed using high-strength materials such as steel, iron and concrete, they are also vulnerable to various environmental and operating conditions such as internal and external corrosion, cracking, construction damage and manufacturing flaws.

• All around the world, we all rely on the millions of kilometers of installed pipelines that are responsible for transporting fluids such as water, sewage, oil and liquid natural gas.

• While these pipelines are well constructed using high-strength materials such as steel, iron and concrete, they are also vulnerable to various environmental and operating conditions such as internal and external corrosion, cracking, construction damage and manufacturing flaws.

• To ensure reliable product delivery and to maintain pipeline integrity, asset managers should consider routine pipeline inspection and holistic management programs to extend pipeline life and prevent risk.

• As a global leader in pipeline inspection and management, Pure Technologies provides clients with actionable information to fully understand the condition of their infrastructure and make informed decisions.

• Based on these assessments, our clients can establish a meaningful cost-savings plan for rehabilitation and long-term maintenance.

• Water Pipelines• With populations increasing and available freshwater resources

decreasing, inspection and management of water transmission pipelines is critical to prevent water loss and damage to the surrounding environment.

Water Pipeline Inspection• Maintaining aging pipeline infrastructure doesn’t always mean costly

complete pipeline replacement. • With pipeline inspection services from Pure, water utilities are provided with

all the information needed to fully understand the actual condition of their infrastructure.

• Aging infrastructure and replacement costs are major challenges for municipal and county water utilities.

• With populations increasing and available freshwater resources decreasing, water and wastewater distribution pipelines need to be maintained to prevent water loss and damage to the surrounding environment.

• Pure is in the business of inspecting pipes used in municipal water and sewage distribution systems.

• As the acknowledged global leader in the evaluation of water pipelines, Pure provides clients with the information needed to fully understand the actual condition of their infrastructure.

• Based on these assessments, water supply system managers can establish a meaningful cost-savings plan for the rehabilitation and long-term maintenance of their lines.

• Proactive pipeline condition assessment programs such as Assess & Address™ are now at the heart of many municipalities long-term maintenance programs – for new and existing lines.

• Utility personnel and others working to preserve their infrastructure are understanding and utilizing the benefits of modern technologies to assess the condition of pipelines and take the proper precautions in repairing any flaws.

Pipeline Condition Assessment• Even though existing piping infrastructure may appear to be

structurally sound, proactive condition assessment at an early stage can avoid costly future problems resulting in production downtime, damage to infrastructure, and potential danger to citizens.

Leak Detection• Our inspections have found an average of 2.2 leaks per mile in large

diameter water transmission lines. • By focusing leak prevention programs on large diameter vs. small

diameter lines, municipalities can conserve more water while minimizing the risk of major pipeline ruptures.

Pipeline Integrity Monitoring• We have developed cost-effective continuous monitoring systems that

detects wire breaks, illegal tapping and environmental damage for pipelines.

Pipeline Video Inspection (CCTV)• Video inspection technologies from Pure allow you to visually inspect

the interiors of your pipeline assets. • This is a cost effective internal method of inspection for transmission

mains, sewer force mains, gravity mains and storm pipeline.

Oil & Gas Pipelines• From leak detection to condition assessment services - a complete

package for inspection of oil, gas & product pipelines.

Pipeline Inspection Services For Oil & Gas• From leak detection to condition assessment ILI services - a complete

package for inspection of of oil, gas & product pipelines.• Through our combined entity, PureHM Inc., we have a direct presence

in key markets including Alberta, California and Texas, and we are poised to provide unparalleled services and value to our oil and gas pipeline customers.

• Why use PureHM's Pipeline Inspection Services?

• Non-destructive ILI pipeline inspection programs help to extend the useful life of oil and gas pipelines.

• Pipeline safety regulations governing the operation of oil and gas pipelines are becoming more visible; as a result, requirements for inspecting and managing the integrity of pipelines are becoming more stringent.

• In North America alone, the corrosion-related cost to the transmission pipeline industry is approximately USD$5.4 - $8.6 billion annually.

ILI Services• Free-swimming confirmation of containment tool for long inspections

and accurate location of product losses in Oil & Gas pipelines

Pig Tracking• Armadillo incorporates an Above Ground Marker (AGM) for Inline

Inspection (ILI or smart pigging) and uses a web page to display the pig position, velocity and estimated time of arrival in real time.

Surveys & Inspections• The Spectrum XLI system is a unique survey instrument designed to

meet the needs of industry for the indirect inspection of pipelines, as part of External Corrosion Direct Assessment (ECDA) programs.

• Integrity & Engineering• PureHM provides pipeline operators with the necessary tools to make

informed decisions about the fitness for service of a given pipeline.

Featured Pipeline Inspection Projects• Petrobras - Natal, Brazil• We completed two inspections of a 12-inch multi-phase product

pipeline in eastern Brazil, owned by Petrobras. • A 10” Polyurethane coated SmartBall ILI leak detection tool was used

to detect a total of three simulated leaks during two separate runs on this pipeline.

TransCanada Pipelines - Alberta, Canada• Pure Technologies completed a demonstration inspection of a portion

of the Grande Prairie Mainline gas transmission pipeline for TransCanada Pipelines.

• The inspection was conducted as a trial of the capabilities of the SmartBall leak detection tool in gas pipelines.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fFGWH7QTLEE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPB3ktl_Uqw

Bombax Pipeline Development, Trinidad and Tobago• BP's Bombax and Kapok pipeline development is part of an integrated initiative

to develop BP's gas resources from the East coast of Trinidad and Tobago.• BP's existing pipeline infrastructure consists of a 101km, 40 in pipeline from

the Mahogany platform to Beachfield. • The gas is then delivered by the NGC pipeline system to the ALNG plant at

Point Fortin by means of a 36 in onshore pipeline. The line is designed for a maximum pressure of 1,440psig.

• The liquids, which condense in the offshore line, are recovered through normal operation and pigging at Beachfield for processing at BP's Galeota Point facilities.

The Bombax pipeline project consists of 63km of offshore pipeline.

• The Bombax pipeline forms the initial link of a long-term expansion plan and is essentially a loop of the existing 40 in pipeline system.

• The project consists of 63km of offshore pipeline. With a diameter of 48in, this is BP's biggest diameter pipeline in the world.

• The line will double production and transportation of gas from 1.5 bscfd to 3.0 bscfd

The MSV Q4000 used on the Bombax project.

CASSIA 'B' PLATFORM HUB• As part of the development, the designers also specified a new 2.6

bscfd production platform hub, Cassia 'B', that is bridge connected to the existing Cassia 'A' platform.

• This pipeline runs from Cassia B to a landfall at Rustville on the East Coast of Trinidad.

• The plans also envisage a new drilling platform on Kapok. • There is also a new 26in, multi-phase pipeline linking Kapok to the

Cassia 'B' production hub.

• The Kapok platform was to be ready for production before the Cassia 'B' hub topsides were commissioned.

• In order to maximise profits and allow Kapok to produce early gas the designers specified separation equipment on Kapok, exporting the liquids by a tie-in of 6 in line to the existing 12in line from the Mahogany platform to shore.

• This tie-in required a subsea hot-tap tee.

VALVING AND PIPING MANIFOLD• To meet safety requirements the 48in pipeline exporting gas from

Cassia 'B' would require a check valve. • The designers also suggested a subsea isolation valve from the

incoming 26 in line from Kapok as well as a crossover to loop the 48in from the existing 40 in pipelines.

Bombax barge below the MSV Q4000.

• For ease of use it was decided to accommodate the valving and piping within a single 400t manifold structure.

• To perform the connections the designers used 48in, 26in and 20in tie-in spools of up to 300ft long and 270t.

• The 400t subsea manifold is BP's largest offshore marine structure in Trinidad and Tobago and was fabricated by local contractors.

• Mustang and JP Kenny carried out the project engineering. • The offshore pipeline installation went to Allseas and the onshore

pipeline installation to ARB.• The subsea manifold was fabricated by Damus, who also made the

Beachfield modifications. • The manifold was installed by Cal Dive International who also carried

out the tie-ins. • The dynamic flow simulation was carried out by Scandpower and

Sumitomo manufactured the pipe.

X65 GAS EXPORT PIPELINE• The X65 Gas Export Pipeline was divided into seven sections. • All sections had an FBE anti-corrosion coating with either a 0.4mm or

0.7mm thickness, depending on the method of concrete weight coating application that was used.

• As the outside diameter over wall thickness ratio for most sections was greater than 45, this pipeline was rated very buckle-sensitive.

The valving and piping is contained within a single 400t subsea manifold.

• The pipeline was installed by Allseas' Solitaire. • The 48in concrete weight coated pipeline had to be pulled in at the landfall

site at Rustville and laid down near the future Casia B platform at a water depth of approximately 67m.

• Allseas used two 500t linear winches.• The winches had a total length of approx. 12m with a width of approx. 2.2m

and a height of approx. 1.6m. • Each winch weighed approx. 32t. • ADRA provided two 102mm pulling wires. • Both wires had a minimum breaking load of 800t and an actual breaking load

of approximately 859t.

The subsea manifold being lowered.

Bombax arrival at landfall.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wodvxh6WEs4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81R72Cywc0c

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oUSV3ci5m4

Southern Gas Corridor

• The Southern Gas Corridor (SGC) project is a mega gas pipeline project that aims to transport Caspian natural gas to Europe. 4 components

1) Shah Deniz II

• Offshore Field Development (Drilling-Subsea)

Shah Deniz II

• Project Description• Shah Deniz II is the second stage of the Shah Deniz Full Field Development as

well as the expansion of the South Caucasus Pipeline. It will deliver an additional 16 bcma of gas and up to 100,000 barrels of condensate, tripling overall production from the field.

• The Shah Deniz II Project development includes new offshore platforms constructed in Azerbaijan, up to 30 subsea wells, over 500 km of subsea pipelines, laid by a fleet of local vessels, a major expansion of Sangachal Terminal and the expansion of the 700 km South Caucasus Pipeline to Georgia and Turkey to over 20 bcma per year.

• The new Shah Deniz gas volumes will be exported to Europe as well as to the existing markets in Georgia and Turkey.

2) South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP) South Caucasus Pipeline (also known as: Baku–Tbilisi–Erzurum Pipeline, BTE pipeline, or Shah Deniz Pipeline) is a natural gas pipeline from the Shah Deniz gas field in the Azerbaijan sector of the Caspian Sea to Turkey. It runs parallel to the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline.

3) Trans Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP)The Trans Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) is a natural gas pipeline from Azerbaijan through Turkey

 to Europe. It would transport gas from the second phase of the Shah Deniz gas field.

4) Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP)Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP; Albanian: Gazsjellësi Trans-Adriatik, Azerbaijani: Trans Adriatik Boru Xətti Greek: Αδριατικός Αγωγός Φυσικού Αερίου, Italian: Gasdotto Trans-Adriatico) is a pipeline project to transport natural gas from the Caspian sea (Azerbaijan), starting from Greece via Albania and the Adriatic Sea to Italy and further to Western Europe.

Shah Deniz natural gas field

• The Shah Deniz natural gas field is one of the world’s largest natural gas fields, and the largest in Azerbaijan.

• It is located 55 km from Baku in the offshore section of the Caspian Sea. • It holds almost 1.4 trillion cubic meters of natural gas. • Shah Deniz I, the first stage of the Shah Deniz field, has been operational since 2006 and produces 9 billion

cubic meters of natural gas per year, of which almost 6.6 bcm is delivered to Turkey. • Shah Deniz II, the second stage of the Shah Deniz field, is a major source base and the upstream part of the

Southern Gas Corridor. • It is expected that the Shah Deniz II field will be operational by 2018. • The project will supply natural gas to the European market directly from Azerbaijan for the first time,

opening the Southern Gas Corridor. • As part of the project, 25-year sales agreements were reached on September 19, 2013 for over 10 billion

cubic meters of natural gas per year from the Shah Deniz II field. • Nine companies will buy this gas from Italy, Greece and Bulgaria. The Final Investment Decision (FID) was

signed on December 17, 2013 for the Shah Deniz II project.

Bear vs. Dragon: Beyond the Russia – China gas deal

• On 21st of May 2014 Russian Gazprom and Chinese CNPC signed a treaty for 30 years that includes annual export of 38 Bcm of Russian gas to China.

• Total price for Russian gas according to treaty will make 400 billion USD. • Different experts argue that according to such benchmarks the approximate

price for Russian gas exported to China will make about 350 USD per thousand cubic meters.

• Though some suppose that the price will be seriously reduced. • For example, why China shall pay much more than the gas price for

Turkmenistan that makes a bit more 200 USD per thousand cubic meters?

• One of the most sensitive moments of the new gas deal for Russia is the financing for the construction of new pipeline from Siberia.

• Considering current soft international isolation of Russia and Western sanctions for Gazprom it will be extremely hard to find any western loans for the Russian – Chinese gas project.

• So the biggest and the only hope of Russia are on Chinese money. But Beijing promised to help with finances for the project in unclear perspective.

• Chinese 25 billion dollars are supposed to come to Russia in next coming years but no one knows when. Without this loan Gazprom is incapable of real start of gas pipeline construction called “Power of Siberia”.

China and Russia Sign Second Mega Gas Deal

Monday, 10 November 2014

President Vladimir Putin and Chinese leader Xi Jinping have signed a memorandum of understanding on the so-called “western” gas supplies route to China. The agreement paves the way for a contract that would make China the biggest consumer of Russian gas. Russia’s so-called “western” or "Altay" route would supply 30 billion cubic meters (bcm) of gas a year to China.The new supply line comes in addition to the “eastern” route, through the “Power of Siberia” pipeline, which will annually deliver 38 bcm of gas to China. Work on that pipeline route has already begun after a $400 billion deal was clinched in May.

Russia and China Just Signed A $400 Billion Gas Deal. What Does It Mean For Global Affairs?

• Both moves will hugely boost Russia’s energy industry (which has been suffering from low gas prices), and inject some life into an economy that has been struggling under sanctions imposed by the U.S. and other members of NATO as a result of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine.

• These recent deals are sure to have widespread consequences on global politics and economics.

Russian and European Pipelines

Asian Pipeline Network Now and in the Future

Middle East Pipelines and Proposed Pipelines

Internal Failure Mechanism

FAILURE MODES IN PRESSURISED PIPELINE SYSTEMS • The following tables summarise field failure modes in water supply

mains and pressure sewers and associated fittings and appurtenances.

• The table has been developed specifically for Australian pipes, environments and operating conditions and is designed standardise the reporting of field data for entry into Water Agency failure databases.

• Day 3:• Introduction to offshore structures• Different types of offshore structures• Basics design of offshore platforms• Age-related structural degradation• Risk based inspection

Rig Types/ Classifications/ Functions

Jack up

• Retractable legs that can be lowered to the sea bed.

• The legs support the drilling rig and keep the rig in position.

Jack up

• Unaffected by the weather during the drilling phase

• The safety valve is located on deck

• It does not need anchoring system

• It does not need heave compensator 

• (permanent installation in the drilling phase)

• It has removable drill tower

• Depth limit is 150 meters

• It is unstable under the relocation

• It depends on the tug for moving

Semi submersible

• Portable device that consists of a deck placed on columns attached to two or more pontoons. 

• During operation tubes are filled with water and lowered beneath the sea surface. 

Semi submersible

• The vessel normally kept in position by anchors, but may also have dynamic positioning equipment (DP). 

• Usually have their own propulsion machinery (max. depth approx.  600 to 800 meters). 

• The most common type is the "semi-submersible drilling rig".

Drilling ship

• In very deep water (2300m) drill ships are used for drilling the well.

• A drillship is easy to move and is therefore well suited for drilling in deep waters, since it is well suited for dynamic positioning. 

• It requires relatively  little force to remain in position.

Condeep platform

• Condeep platform is the denomination of a series of oil platforms that were developed in Norway to drill for oil and gas in the North Sea. 

• The name comes from the English“concrete deep water structure", or deep structure of concrete.

• The platforms rest on thick concrete tanks that are on the ocean floor and acts as an oil stock. 

• From these sticks it as one, three or four slender hollow columns, which is about 30 feet above the surface.

Condeep platform

• It was Stavanger company Norwegian Contractors who developed the concept of Condeep platforms in 1973, after the success of the concrete tank at the Ekofisk field.

• Condeep platforms are not produced anymore. 

• The large concrete platforms are out competed by new, cheaper floating rigs and remote-controlled underwater installations.

Jacket platform

• The most widely used platform in the North Sea bearing structure is built as framed in steel

• Platform are poles fixed to the bottom

• The construction is susceptible to corrosionHas no storage tank, but must be associated pipeline network.

• Edvard Grieg Project Update - May 2015

Tension leg platform

• A tension leg platform is a floating and vertically anchored platform or buoy which is normally used for offshore production of oil or natural gas, and is especially suitable for water depths exceeding 300 meters. We usually use rods or chains to keep the platform in place.

Tension leg platform

• Affordable solution

• Quick to install

• Can be equipped entirely by countries

• Can be used on very deep

• Can be moved when a field is empty

• Because of movement of water requiredcompensation equipment

Well head plattform

• Can be an alternative to production facilities on the seabed, especially where water depth is small, as in the southern part of the north sea.

• The wellhead platform is an unmanned small platform, which we can remotely control from a “mother platform".Valve tree is dry.

FPSO

• What is FPSO (Floating Production Storage and Offloading) System?• The FPSO (Floating Production Storage and Offloading) system is used

extensively by oil companies for the purpose of storing oil from the oil rigs in the middle of the ocean and in the high seas.

• It is one of the best devised systems to have developed in the oil exploration industry in the marine areas.

• The FPSO, as its name suggests, is a floating contraption that allows oil rigs the freedom not just to store oil but also to produce or refine it before finally offloading it to the desired industrial sectors, either by way of cargo containers or with the help of pipelines built underwater.

• The use of this system ensures that shipping companies do not have to invest even more money by ferrying the raw and crude oil to an onshore refinery before transferring it to the required industrial areas.

• In simple terms, the FPSO saves time and money effectively.

• Understanding FPSO• The following steps will elaborate on the different functions

performed by the FPSO as a system:

• Production: The ‘P’ in the FPSO stands for production. • Production means evolving the crude oil obtained from the deeper

parts of the ocean. • The FPSO is enabled and fitted with equipments that would act as a

refinery of sort to distil the oil obtained from the ocean along with the gases that are emitted.

• This is the main feature of a FPSO as only with the help of this feature can a FPSO attain the reliability that it enjoys in today’s times.

• Storage: This is the second most important feature and the ‘S’ in the acronym FPSO.

• Second-most important because just as it is important to filter the excavated oil from its oceanic reservoirs, it is equally important to store it well.

• For this purpose, the FPSO is built in such a way that the tubes and the pipes and the tanks are perfect for storing the distilled product from the crude raw-material.

• They are safe and sturdy so as to resist any chances of unwanted oil spillage and thus contamination of the marine life-forms.

• Offloading: This is ‘O’ in the concept of FPSO. • The offloading aspect is important when the FPSO has

to transfer its contents into ships designed as oil carriers or to pipelines that act as transfer agents.

• In simple terms, offloading refers to removing the cargo in a FPSO and transferring it to another cargo-carrying vessel or equipment.

• The offloading part is very tricky as the process is carried out in the middle of the sea and thus requires a lot of concentration and focus in order to avoid any sort of spillage.

• Important Information• It has to be noted that even while the entire working process of a

FPSO is very intriguing, the designing aspect is very amazing. • This is because the system has to be constructed in such a way that it

remains invulnerable to the constant changes that take place in the middle of the ocean or the seas.

• The various tubes and pipes have to be built in such a way that they do not affect the pureness of the oil obtained and the same time do not get broken because of heavy storms or tide-currents.

Conclusion• The FPSO as a system has been in use from the seventies when major-

scale oil exploration began in the oceans and seas. • In these past four decades, given the way oil exploration industry has

been on the rise, the use and relevance of a FPSO has increased even more.

• The system is fool proof, enables cost efficiency and thus becomes a very major asset when it comes to excavating oil in the marine areas.

Spar Platforms• For drilling wells beyond 10,000 feet, naval architects have designed a

type of drilling and production platform which has a hollow cylindrical hull that can descend up to a sea depth of 200 meters.

• This are called Spar Platforms. • It is secured to the ocean floor by a complex network of cables and

tendons.• The weight of the cylindrical hull stabilises thedrilling platform and caters for the drilling risers to descend up to the drilling well on the sea floor.

Subsea Production System

• As the name suggests, this system is based on the idea where wellheads are mounted on the sea floor after the wells have been drilled by one of the many deep sea drilling platforms.

• Shell Ormen Lange - a journey in energy

• The wellheads are remotely controlled and their automated system is so designed that it allows for transporting the oil or gas directly to the production facilities using a network of undersea pipelines and risers.

• Apart from those mentioned above, shuttle tankers are also used in offshore oil production systems.

• As technology advancements are progressively made, deep water exploration possess superior challenges for all the operating parties.

• These massive structures are home to some highly improved and advanced systems, machineries and equipments for carrying out the coveted job of offshore drilling.

The Guyed Tower

• ABSTRACT

The guyed tower is an offshore platform that rests on a spud can or bearing foundation and is held upright by multiple guylines.

• A simplified procedure for calculating the wave-induced dynamic response of this compliant tower is presented.

• Also, the dynamic characteristics that allow the structure to safely resist large ocean waves is discussed.

• A large scale test model of the tower has been installed in 300 feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico to verify the validity of the conclusions drawn.

• INTRODUCTION

A new compliant offshore structure, the guyed tower, has been proposed as a deep water production and drilling platform.

• The concept as proposed has two major advantages over other proposed schemes; first, the structure can be fabricated and installed using presently available equipment and technology; second, this production platform is anticipated to be less expensive to build, and maintain than present alternatives proposed for water depths from 600 to 2000 feet.

• This paper describes the basic guyed tower concept and illustrates the design procedures used to insure that the compliant structure will safely withstand severe environmental forces and yet be slender, lightweight and economical.

• Prototype Guyed Tower

The guyed tower is a trussed structure that rests on the ocean floor, extends upward to a deck supported above the waves, and is held upright by multiple guylines.

• The base of the tower is supported on a truss reinforced shell foundation called a spud can.

• During installation the spud can is forced into the ocean bottom until the desired load carrying capability is attained.

• The amount of design penetration is of course dependent on the load to be carried and the site soil parameters.

• The main truss of the tower as currently proposed would have four equally spaced legs connected primarily with x-bracing.

• However, other geometric configurations could be used. • For a structure supporting 24 wells in 1500 feet of water, the legs would be spaced

100 feet apart and range in size from 5 to 8 feet in diameter. • Ideally the deck would be designed to support all the equipment to drill and

produce a large number (20 to 40) of wells. • The deck for the 24 well 1500 ft structure would have two levels 150 feet on a side

and would support 7500 tons deck payload, which is adequate for many areas of the world.

• To carry larger payloads, the support capacity of the tower truss, spud can, and guying system would have to be increased proportionally.

Deep-water guyed tower concept

1, 2) Conventional fixed platforms; 3) Compliant tower; 4, 5) Vertically moored tension leg and mini-tension leg platform;6) Spar; 7,8) Semi-submersibles; 9) Floating production, storage, and offloading facility; 10) Sub-sea completion and tie-back to host facility.

Basics design of offshore platforms

Design of offshore fixed platforms

• The most commonly used offshore platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, Nigeria, California shorelines and the Persian Gulf are template type platforms made of steel, and used for oil/gas exploration and production (Sadeghi 1989, 2001).

• The design and analyses of these offshore structures must be made in accordance with recommendations published by the American Petroleum Institute (API).

• The design and analysis of offshore platforms must be done taking into consideration many factors, including the following important parameters:

• Environmental (initial transportation, and in-place 100-year storm conditions)

• Soil characteristics • Code requirements (e.g. American Institute of Steel Construction “AISC”

codes) • Intensity level of consequences of failure • The entire design, installation, and operation must be approved by the

client.

Different analyses needed for template platforms• Different main analyses required for design of a template (jacket) type

platform are as follows (Sadeghi 2001): • In-place analysis • Earthquake analysis • Fatigue analysis • Impact analysis • Temporary analysis • Loadout analysis • Transportation analysis • Transportation analysis

• Appurtenances analysis • Lift/Launch analysis • Upending analysis • Uprighting analysis • Unpiled stability analysis • Pile and conductor pipe drivability analysis• Cathodic protection analysis • Installation analysis

Software used in the platforms design• To perform a structural analysis of platforms, the following software

may be used (Sadeghi 2001): Structural analysis:• SACS• FASTRUDL• MARCS • OSCAR• StruCAD • SESAM

Pile analysis:• Maxsurf Hydromax • Seamoor for hydrodynamics calculations• GRLWEAP • PDA• CAPWAP

Age-related structural degradation

Statistical information on aging of hull structures • Structural damage is known to be a major contributing factor to

marine incidents. As shown in a recent study (Fig. 1.1) on total vessel losses during 1997-2006, the hull damage ranks the top five causes leading to total vessel loss for vessels greater than 500 GT.

Figure 1.1: Total losses by causes for all vessel types greater than 500 GT (Sources: International Union of Marine Insurance IUMI).

• Aging has been perceived to be an important factor in hull damages. Statistical analyses of total losses of tankers and bulk carriers (Fig. 1.2) reveal the increasing trend of vessel losses tied to the age of the vessels.

• Statistical analyses of past incidents have been utilized to uncover evidence regarding the effects of aging. However, interpreting the results of statistical analyses remains a challenge.

• Care needs to be taken when one attempts to predict the future based on past experiences. For example, Fig. 1.2 shows that the increasing trend of vessel loss with vessel age is reversed in the age group of 25+ years old.

• This reverse trend is difficult to explain if one does not take into account the fact that many vessels are removed from service before reaching the end of their design life, normally 20 to 25 years.

• Statistical evidence from various sources does not always show the same trends. • The previous ISSC Committee mentioned that the average age of vessels lost was

only slightly more than the average age of the existing fleet. • This implies a weak aging effect, which is contrary to the trend shown in Fig. 1.2.

Another source of information about the aging effect is the detention of vessels by the port state control (PSC).

• A ship can be detained if found not complying with PSC requirements. While such noncompliance is usually not severe (i.e., would not potentially lead to loss of the vessel), it may indicate less favorable hull conditions.

• The detention rate is higher in older vessels, which also partially reveals the aging influences.

Figure 1.2: Total losses of tankers and bulk carriers greater than 500 GT (Sources: International Union of Marine Insurance IUMI).

Various forms of structural degradation and damageAging of ship structures may be defined as the progressive deterioration of structures as a result of normal operational use and environmental influences. The structural deterioration comes in the following forms:• Coating damage • Corrosion • Cracking • Deformations (dents)• Changes in material properties.

Coating damage • Coating degradation can take the form of coating cracking, blistering, rust and

flaking. • Coating cracking takes place when structural deformation exceeds the

elongation of the paint film. • Blisters appear where an adhesion of the paint is locally lost. • Blisters contain liquid, but there is no corrosion under the blister. • Flaking refers to the lifting of paint from the underlying surface. • The loss of paint adhesion is often a result of unsatisfactory surface

preparation, incompatibility with under-layer and contamination between layers.

Corrosion wastage • Corrosion is the result of a chemical reaction between metal and the environment

(water, cargo or consumables). • Corrosion takes the form of general corrosion, pitting corrosion, stress corrosion

cracking, corrosion fatigue, microbiological corrosion, galvanic corrosion, erosion corrosion, etc. (Boon et al 1997).

• General corrosion, which is the most common form of corrosion, spreads evenly over the surface of the metal.

• Pitting corrosion, which is localized corrosion, is often seen on the bottom of cargo oil tanks or in the hold structures of bulk carriers carrying coal and iron ore.

• The shape of the pits depends on the surrounding environment (Yamamoto 2008a).

• Microbes (bacteria) can cause corrosion, even on stainless steel, due to their corrosive waste products.

• The most common bacteria are sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acidproducing bacteria (APB).

• SRB cause corrosion under anaerobic conditions. Specific combinations of alloy and environment can lead to stress corrosion cracking when the metal is mechanically stressed while being exposed to the corrosive environment.

• Galvanic corrosion occurs when two electrochemically dissimilar metals are physically connected and exposed to a corrosive environment.

• The less noble metal (anode) suffers accelerated corrosion attack. • Erosion corrosion is usually caused by flowing fluid (water, cargo oil,

etc) impinging at an existing corrosion cell. • This kind of attack is dependent on the degree of liquid turbulence

and velocity. • In addition, corrosion may be aggravated in local areas of high

stresses. • Rust is a corrosion product of an oxide and hydroxide generated to

the surface of metal.

• Since the initial rust is porous and hygroscopic, the range of rusting expands and the paint film is destroyed.

• Rust is generated from the part where an adhesion of paint film is insufficient and a paint film is broken.

• Many factors contribute to the degradation of coatings and corrosion. • These contributing factors are: type of cargoes (acidity of the cargo),

frequency of ballasting, frequency and method of tank cleaning, trapped water or oil, oxygen concentration, sulphur concentration, salinity of ballast water, temperature, humidity, pollution, trade route, structural flexibility, corrosion protection effectiveness, marine fouling, corrosion films, speed of flow, stray-current, cargo residues and mechanical abrasion, maintenance and repair, material of construction, microbial attack, sludge/scale accumulation, etc. (Gardiner et al 2003, Hu et al 2004, Panayotova et al 2004, 2007, RINA 2004).

• Theses factors act individually or in combination, and their influences are difficult to quantify.

• As a result, corrosion wastage of structural members is dependent on the location of the member (IACS 2005, Wang et al 2003a, 2003b, Yamamoto 2005, Paik and Melchers 2008).

Cracking • Cracks often originate from defect of welds. • Impact from a dropped object or accidental overload may also

potentially lead to initiation of cracks. • If such initial cracking is left undetected and / or not repaired

immediately, it can grow into a crack that continues to propagate under repeated loads, hence enter the aging regime.

• In addition, brittle fractures have contributed to some marine incidents.

Mechanical damage, wear and tear • Ship structures may be damaged by external forces such as falling

cargo, impact with the quay, repeated roll-over by wheels of vehicles (RoRo vessels), impact of ice and floating objects, etc.

• Generally, these actions will result in dents. • With repeated loadings, dents may gradually continue to increase in

size.

• Some recent research was focused on ultimate strength of dented plates (e.g., Paik et al 2003, Nakai et al 2006, 2007).

• Simple design formulations were derived based on regression of calculated ultimate strength using nonlinear FEM.

• Often, a dent is idealized as a conical shape in the analysis. • The reduced strength is expressed as a function of geometrical

parameters representing the dent.

• If deformations are found during inspection, the severity of the deformations is assessed against set criteria.

• Deformations measuring up to 50 mm may be considered as not detrimental to the structural safety, depending on the conditions of the structures surrounding the deformed structure.

• At present, there are no formalized acceptance criteria regarding allowable permanent deformation.

• In some limited cases, the shipbuilding industry has certain provisions for allowable permanent deformations; but for most cases the allowable permanent deformations are the result of balancing between safety needs and commercial demands (Wang et al 2006).

• Wear and tear can be in the form of sliding wear and friction, low and high-stress abrasion, dry particle erosion, slurry erosion, etc.

• Wear and tear is usually described as thickness loss, and recorded accordingly in some survey reports.

• There are some studies related to the wear characters of low-carbon steel, stainless steel, metal alloys and weld joints.

• Modeling of wear mechanisms needs to consider the material’s hardness, the shape and size of abrasive grit or roughness, attack angle, normal applied load, sliding speed and the fracture toughness of material.

Changes of material properties • In general, the material properties of metals do not change with timeInteraction of different degradation mechanisms • Corrosion and crack propagation can take place simultaneously. • Crack propagation in corroded structures can be accelerated because

the stresses in the structure increase as a result of corrosion wastage.

• Hydrogen cracking in anaerobic conditions may be strongly influenced by SRB.

• This cracking proves onerous for high-strength steels such as those used in the legs and spudcans of jack-ups.

• Mud and sludge in cargo oil tanks may provide the right circumstances for microbially influenced corrosion and resulting crack initiation (Rauta 2004).

• Local dents are often the area initiating cracks. • Removal of corrosion may be accomplished by scraping it off with the

use of track-mounted cranes on a work deck. • This scraping off process may significantly increase the loss of

thickness initially caused by corrosion. • Increased strains due to higher stresses as a result of thickness

diminution or crack forming in combination with unaltered loads may stimulate corrosion.

Mechanical damage to cargo hold structures of bulk carriers • Deformations are often observed in the lower portion of cargo holds of bulk

carriers, including inner bottom, lower bracket of hold frames, sloping bulkheads, and lower portion of transverse bulkheads.

• Plating and stiffeners are set in between supporting members of floors and girders. • Hold frames undergo sideways tripping. • Mostly, these damages take place during the loading and unloading process as a

result of cargo handling grab and dropped cargos. • Since the mid-1990s, bulk carrier design rules specify that additional thickness

allowance be provided to the inner bottom and structures in the lower portion of cargo holds.

Ice damage • Ice damage to ship structures can be identified as dents (local

deformation), fractures, scratch, loss of painting, deformed bilge, and/or small gashes.

• A recent statistical study (Hänninen 2005) showed that among the hull damages to ships sailing in winter Baltic Sea, 30% of the damage was to hull structures, 35% was to propellers, and 25% was because of ship collisions when navigating in ice.

• Often, such information of ice damage is used to determine the design ice loads.

• For example, the ice loads specified by the Finnish-Swedish Ice Class Rules (FSICR) were based on statistics of historical ice damages.

• The recent updates on FSICR (FMA 2003a, 2003b, 2004) were also partly triggered by the improved knowledge of ice damage.

Contact damage • During berthing operations as a ship comes alongside a pier, the ship

may come into contact with the other structures exposing the side structure to very large local loads, thus resulting in local contact damage.

• Contact damage to side structures takes place in the form of local denting of plating between stiffeners, permanent deformation or local buckling in side longitudinals or frames, and local buckling in web frames and decks, or fractures.

• The latest IACS Common Structural Rules (CSR) introduced a requirement of side shell thickness based on consideration of contact damage (IACS 2005, Wang et al 2006).

• In general, however, the mechanism of a contact event is less understood, and contact damage receives only limited attention in design rules and research studies.

Accidental damage due to collision and grounding • Accidental damage is typically caused by collision and grounding,

which results in structural damage in a larger extent compared with contact damage.

• Collision and grounding and the residual strength of damaged structures can be found in ISSC 2006 V.1 (ISSC 2006c).

Measures for mitigating structural degradation • Design and operational measures have been in place to mitigate the

impact of agerelated degradations. • The focus of the design and shipbuilding stage is placed on reducing the

likelihood of aging effects while considering production cost (Lee et al 2004).

• These measures include: explicitly implementing corrosion additions to structural design, improving fatigue detail designs, applying coatings and installing anodes to corrosion-prone areas (Hansen et al 2004), and using wear-resistant steel or anti-corrosion steel in some cases (Satoshi et al 2005).

• Once the ship is delivered, the focus is switched towards the following: inspection and maintenance, timely and adequate repairs, crew training, imposing limits to cargo loading/unloading procedures with an aim to minimize unfavorable impacts on structures (e.g., Brooking et al 2004).

• Options for mitigating the mechanical damages to bulk carriers include using less invasive cargo-handling grabs and proper operation of cargo handing equipment.

In the case of an offshore supply vessel (OSV), preventing or mitigating contact damage risks can be achieved through: • 1) reducing the likelihood of an unwanted contact from occurring; • 2) mitigating and minimizing damage to hulls if an unintended contact

takes place, or both (Wang et al 2006).

• Reducing the likelihood of an unwanted severe contact can be achieved through these practices: better manning the OSV through training and education of crew, establishing operation procedures and guidance, installing advanced vessel maneuvering and control systems (e.g., dynamic positioning systems, controllable pitch propellers, azimuth thrusters, bow / side thrusters).

• In addition to the above remedies, structural reinforcement against the anticipated impact load is aimed at providing strength reserve against a certain level of impact energy that is usually expected during a routine operation.

• Normally, half-split steel pipes are installed as fixed structures at the deck levels of the OSV so that impact loads are distributed to a wider extent, and/or the main hull structures are not directly exposed to the impacts load.

• These half-split steel pipes, sometimes called “fenders”, can also absorb impact energy.

• As a rule, this reinforcement applies to some specified location, as OSVs generally come alongside and berth at designated locations.

Recommendations

• Statistical investigations of marine incidents and structural damage should focus more attention on the consequences of ageing.

• In addition to collecting data, care should be taken in properly interpreting the trends revealed in such analyses.

• Aging ship structures in particular are likely to suffer from wide-scale damage including corrosion wall thinning, pitting and multiple fatigue cracks.

• It is recommended that research and development efforts be employed to consider the interaction of such wide-scale damage and that maintenance schemes be developed for addressing the cumulative effects of wide-scale damage.

• There is little understanding of the residual strength of damaged components, particularly in structures exhibiting appreciable amounts of redundancy.

• In order for risk-based methods to develop, criteria for assessing the residual strength and accidental limit states of aged structures need to be understood.

• As the number of aging ships and offshore structures increase, it will become increasingly important to develop cost-effective repair and mitigation techniques.

• It is recommended that more effort be focused on developing and proving repair solutions, particularly for life extension.

• This report has not considered ultra-high-cycle fatigue, a problem often associated with high speed aluminum vessels.

• It is recommended that the next committee deal with this topic in some detail.

• The Committee recommended more attention be paid to the following issues, which remain less studied: cause and growth of groove corrosion, dent and the associated permanent deformation criteria, brittle fracture, and interaction between various aging mechanisms.

Risk-based inspection

Risk-based inspection• Risk Based Inspection (RBI) is an Optimal maintenance business process

used to examine equipment such as pressure vessels, heat exchangers and piping in industrial plants.

• It examines the Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) and business risk of ‘active’ and ‘potential’ Damage Mechanisms (DMs) to assess and rank failure probability and consequence.

• This ranking is used to optimize inspection intervals based on site-acceptable risk levels and operating limits, while mitigating risks as appropriate.

• RBI analysis can be qualitative, quantitative or semi-quantitative in nature.

• Accuracy is a function of analysis methodology, data quality and consistency of execution.

• Precision is a function of the selected metrics and computational methods.

• Risk presented as a single numeric value (as in a quantitative analysis) does not guarantee greater accuracy compared to a risk matrix (as in a qualitative analysis), because of uncertainty that is inherent with probabilities and consequences.

• RBI is most often used in engineering industries and is predominant in the oil and gas industry.

• Assessed risk levels are used to develop a prioritised inspection plan. It is related to (or sometimes a part of) Risk Based Asset Management (RBAM), Risk Based Integrity Management (RBIM) and Risk Based Management (RBM). Generally, RBI is part of Risk and Reliability Management (RRM).

• Inspections typically employ non-destructive testing (NDT).

Prioritization• Items with high probability and high consequence (i.e. high risk) are

given a higher priority for inspection than items that are high probability but for which failure has low consequences.

• This strategy allows for a rational investment of inspection resources.

Objectives• RBI assists a company to select cost effective and appropriate

maintenance and inspection tasks and techniques, to minimize efforts and cost, to shift from a reactive to a proactive maintenance regime, to produce an auditable system, to give an agreed “operating window”, and to implement a risk management tool.

The purposes of RBI include:1. To improve risk management results2. To provide a holistic, interdependent approach for managing risks3. To apply a strategy of doing what is needed for safeguarding integrity and improving reliability

and availability of the asset by planning and executing those inspections that are needed4. To reduce inspections and shutdowns and provide longer run length without compromising

safety or reliability5. To safeguard integrity6. To reduce the risk of failures7. To increase plant availability and reduce unplanned outages8. To provide a flexible technique able to continuously improve and adopt to changing risks9. To ensure inspection techniques and methods consider potential failure modes

Standards• International engineering standards and recommended practices outline

requirements, methodologies and the implementation of RBI.• API 580 Risk-Based Inspection Recommended Practice• ASME PCC-3 Inspection Planning Using Risk-Based Methods• API 581 Risk Based Inspection Resource• DNV-RP G101Risk Based Inspection Of Offshore Topsides Static

Mechanical Equipment• API 571 Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment in the Refining

Industry

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• Day 4:• Structural integrity management• Hull Structures of FPSO• Topside structure• Fixed platform

Structural integrity management

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Asset integrity management systems• Asset Integrity Management Systems (AIMS) outline the ability of an

asset to perform its required function effectively and efficiently whilst protecting health, safety and the environment and the means of ensuring that the people, systems, processes, and resources that deliver integrity are in place, in use and will perform when required over the whole lifecycle of the asset.

• The AIMS should also endeavour to maintain the asset in a fit-for-service condition while extending its remaining life in the most reliable, safe, and cost-effective manner.

• The AIM programs (in the US) attempt to meet API-580, API-581, and PAS 55 requirements, as applicable. (However local legal requirements may differ, please refer to a competent, experienced local professional for advice).

• The AIMS document will stipulate the requirements for subsequent Integrity Management Plans.

• An Integrity Management System should address the quality at every stage of the asset life cycle, from the design of new facilities to maintenance management to decommissioning.

• Inspections, auditing/assurance and overall quality processes are just some of the tools designed to make an integrity management system effective.

• Asset Integrity management improves plant reliability and safety whilst reducing unplanned maintenance and repair costs.

• But an asset integrity management system does not exist in isolation. In order to successfully implement an asset integrity management system in a dynamic operating environment, it is essential that all stakeholders have a consistent and a unified understanding of what the essentials of asset integrity are and how they can be applied in their day-to-day operations, yet this is often cited as among the most significant challenges in achieving an integrity culture within an organisation.

• Structural integrity management

Structural integrity management (Case study)• Offshore structures are designed for a specific environment, defined

lifetime and type of operation. • As conditions change during their lifetime, modifying, maintaining and

upgrading of ageing structures is a continuous process.

Fields of expertise• By applying detailed knowledge and experience, our engineers

maintain the structural integrity and safety issues on the asset. • We combine a practical approach with analysis to find the best

solution.

• Our services cover linear and non-linear FE structural analyses for all relevant conditions, such as static, dynamic and hydrodynamic analysis.

• We design and calculate major and minor modifications and upgrades on hull and topside.

• We also offer solutions for lifetime extension and reliability-based inspection planning (SIMP™).

• We provide services on a project basis and under framework agreements, ensuring flexibility for our customers.

• Our specialist team has in-depth knowledge of prevailing offshore standards and regulations, and we employ leading industry-standard software packages when performing calculations and analyses.

Hull Structures of FPSO

Hull (watercraft)• A hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or

deckhouse, where present. The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline.

• The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type. In a typical modern steel ship, the structure consists of watertight and non-tight decks, major transverse and watertight (and also sometimes non-tight or longitudinal) members called bulkheads, intermediate members such as girders, stringers and webs, and minor members called ordinary transverse frames, frames, or longitudinals, depending on the structural arrangement.

• The uppermost continuous deck may be called the "upper deck", "weather deck", "spar deck", "main deck", or simply "deck". The particular name given depends on the context—the type of ship or boat, the arrangement, or even where it sails. Not all hulls are decked (for instance a dinghy).

• In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames (often referred to as ribs) and bulkheads, which are further tied together by longitudinal stringers or ceiling.

• Often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel.

• In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, or be of a monocoque arrangement. In many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material.

Half-hull of the 46-gun ship of the lineTigre, build from 1724 in Toulon after plans by Blaise Coulomb

"Hull Form"

General features• The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design. • Shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a

needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. • The shape is chosen to strike a balance between cost, hydrostatic

considerations (accommodation, load carrying and stability), hydrodynamics (speed, power requirements, and motion and behavior in a seaway) and special considerations for the ship's role, such as the rounded bow of an icebreaker or the flat bottom of a landing craft.

History• Rafts have a hull of sorts, however, hulls of the earliest design are

thought to have each consisted of a hollowed out tree bole: in effect the first canoes. Hull form then proceeded to the coracle shape and on to more sophisticated forms as the science of naval architecture advanced.

A 3D model of the basic hull structure of a Venetian "galley of Flanders", a large trading vessel of the 15th century. The reconstruction by archaeologist Courtney Higgins is based on measurements given in contemporary ship treatises

•Anti-fouling paint•Boat•Cathedral hull•Double hull•Draft•Froude number

•Hull classification symbol•Hull speed•Lift (force)•Monohull•Multihull•Naval architecture

•Ship measurements•Shipbuilding•Submarine•Submarine hull

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Topside structure

Topsides• On an offshore oil platform, topsides (cf., jacket structure, which constitutes the

lower half of the platform structure, partly submerged in sea) refers to the upper half of the structure, above the sea level, outside the splash zone, on which equipment is installed.

• This includes the oil production plant, the accommodation block and the drilling rig.

• They are often modular in design and so can be changed out if necessary allowing expensive platforms to be more readily updated with newer technology.

• On a boat or FPSO, it is the part of the hull between the waterline and the deck.

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Fixed platform

• A fixed platform is a type of offshore platform used for the production of oil or gas. • These platforms are built on concrete and/or steel legs anchored directly onto the seabed,

supporting a deck with space for drilling rigs, production facilities and crew quarters. • Such platforms are, by virtue of their immobility, designed for very long term use. Various types of

structure are used, steel jacket, concrete caisson, floating steel and even floating concrete. • Steel jackets are vertical sections made of tubular steel members, and are usually piled into the

seabed. • Concrete caisson structures, pioneered by the Condeep concept, often have in-built oil storage in

tanks below the sea surface and these tanks were often used as a flotation capability, allowing them to be built close to shore (Norwegian fjords and Scottish firths are popular because they are sheltered and deep enough) and then floated to their final position where they are sunk to the seabed.

• Fixed platforms are economically feasible for installation in water depths up to about 1,700 feet (520 m).

• Brent spar• Hibernia (oil field)• Offshore concrete structure• Offshore geotechnical engineering• Oil platform• Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fix

ed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf

Unocal Platform B, a fixed platform constructed in 1968 in the Santa Barbara Channel, California. Water depth is 190 feet (58 m).

A fixed platform base under construction on a Louisiana river

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Day 5:• Structural reliability• Hull girder, fatigue and panel reliability• Failure probability and reliability• Inspection and maintenance planning • Corrosion wastage and coating degradation

Structure Reliability

Reliability engineering

• Reliability engineering is engineering that emphasizes dependability in the lifecycle management of a product.

• Dependability, or reliability, describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time.

• Reliability engineering represents a sub-discipline within systems engineering. • Reliability is theoretically defined as the probability of success (Reliability=1-

Probability of Failure), as the frequency of failures, or in terms of availability, as a probability derived from reliability and maintainability.

• Maintainability and maintenance is often defined as a part of "reliability engineering" in Reliability Programs.

• Reliability plays a key role in the cost-effectiveness of systems.

• Reliability engineering deals with the estimation and management of high levels of "lifetime" engineering uncertainty and risks of failure.

• Although stochastic parameters define and affect reliability, according to some expert authors on Reliability Engineering, e.g. P. O'Conner, J. Moubray and A. Barnard, reliability is not (solely) achieved by mathematics and statistics.

• "Nearly all teaching and literature on the subject emphasize these aspects, and ignore the reality that the ranges of uncertainty involved largely invalidate quantitative methods for prediction and measurement"

• Reliability engineering relates closely to safety engineering and to system safety, in that they use common methods for their analysis and may require input from each other.

• Reliability engineering focuses on costs of failure caused by system downtime, cost of spares, repair equipment, personnel and cost of warranty claims.

• Safety engineering normally emphasizes not cost, but preserving life and nature, and therefore deals only with particular dangerous system-failure modes.

• High reliability (safety factor) levels also result from good engineering, from attention to detail and almost never from only re-active failure management (reliability accounting / statistics).

Scope and techniques to be used within Reliability Engineering• Reliability engineering for complex systems requires a different, more

elaborate systems approach than for non-complex systems. Reliability engineering may in that case involve:• System availability and mission readiness analysis and related

reliability and maintenance requirement allocation• Functional System Failure analysis and derived requirements

specification• Inherent (system) Design Reliability Analysis and derived

requirements specification: for both Hardware- and Software design• System Diagnostics design• Predictive and Preventive maintenance (e.g. Reliability Centered

Maintenance)• Human Factors / Human Interaction / Human Errors

• Manufacturing and Assembly induced failures (non 0-hour Quality)• Maintenance induced failures• Transport induced failures• Storage induced failures• Use (load) studies, component stress analysis and derived requirements specification• Software(systematic) failures• Failure / reliability testing• Field failure monitoring and corrective actions• Spare-parts stocking (Availability control)• Technical documentation, caution and warning analysis• Data and information acquisition/organisation (Creation of a general reliability development

Hazard Log and FRACAS system)

Effective reliability engineering requires understanding of the basics of failure mechanisms for which experience, broad engineering skills and good knowledge from many different special fields of engineering, like:• Tribology• Stress (mechanics)• Fracture mechanics / Fatigue (material)• Thermal engineering• Fluid mechanics / shock loading engineering• Electrical engineering• Chemical engineering (e.g. Corrosion)• Material science

DefinitionsReliability may be defined in the following ways:• The idea that an item is fit for a purpose with respect to time• The capacity of a designed, produced or maintained item to perform as required

over time• The capacity of a population of designed, produced or maintained items to

perform as required over specified time• The resistance to failure of an item over time• The probability of an item to perform a required function under stated conditions

for a specified period of time• The durability of an object.

Basics of a Reliability AssessmentMany engineering techniques are used in reliability risk assessments, such as reliability hazard analysis, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), fault tree analysis (FTA), Reliability Centered Maintenance, material stress and wear calculations, fatigue and creep analysis, human error analysis, reliability testing, etc. Because of the large number of reliability techniques, their expense, and the varying degrees of reliability required for different situations, most projects develop a reliability program plan to specify the reliability tasks that will be performed for that specific system.

Consistent with the creation of a safety cases, for example ARP4761, the goal of reliability assessments is to provide a robust set of qualitative and quantitative evidence that use of a component or system will not be associated with unacceptable risk. The basic steps to take are to:• First thoroughly identify relevant unreliability "hazards", e.g. potential conditions,

events, human errors, failure modes, interactions, failure mechanisms and root causes, by specific analysis or tests

• Assess the associated system risk, by specific analysis or testing• Propose mitigation, e.g. requirements, design changes, detection logic, maintenance,

training, by which the risks may be lowered and controlled for at an acceptable level.• Determine the best mitigation and get agreement on final, acceptable risk levels,

possibly based on cost-benefit analysis

• Risk is here the combination of probability and severity of the failure incident (scenario) occurring.

• In a deminimus definition, severity of failures include the cost of spare parts, man hours, logistics, damage (secondary failures) and downtime of machines which may cause production loss.

• A more complete definition of failure also can mean injury, dismemberment and death of people within the system (witness mine accidents, industrial accidents, space shuttle failures) and the same to innocent bystanders (witness the citizenry of cities like Bhopal, Love Canal, Chernobyl or Sendai and other victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami) - in this case, Reliability Engineering becomes System Safety.

• What is acceptable is determined by the managing authority or customers or the effected communities.

• Residual risk is the risk that is left over after all reliability activities have finished and includes the un-identified risk and is therefore not completely quantifiable.

Reliability and availability program plan• A reliability program plan is used to document exactly what "best practices"

(tasks, methods, tools, analysis and tests) are required for a particular (sub)system, as well as clarify customer requirements for reliability assessment.

• For large scale, complex systems, the reliability program plan should be a separate document.

• Resource determination for manpower and budgets for testing and other tasks is critical for a successful program.

• In general, the amount of work required for an effective program for complex systems is large.

• A reliability program plan is essential for achieving high levels of reliability, testability, maintainability and the resulting system Availability and is developed early during system development and refined over the systems life-cycle.

• It specifies not only what the reliability engineer does, but also the tasks performed by other stakeholders.

• A reliability program plan is approved by top program management, which is responsible for allocation of sufficient resources for its implementation.

• A reliability program plan may also be used to evaluate and improve availability of a system by the strategy on focusing on increasing testability & maintainability and not on reliability.

• Improving maintainability is generally easier than reliability. • Maintainability estimates (Repair rates) are also generally more accurate. • However, because the uncertainties in the reliability estimates are in most cases

very large, it is likely to dominate the availability (prediction uncertainty) problem; even in the case maintainability levels are very high.

• When reliability is not under control more complicated issues may arise, like manpower (maintainers / customer service capability) shortage, spare part availability, logistic delays, lack of repair facilities, extensive retro-fit and complex configuration management costs and others.

• The problem of unreliability may be increased also due to the "domino effect" of maintenance induced failures after repairs.

• Only focusing on maintainability is therefore not enough. • If failures are prevented, none of the others are of any importance and therefore reliability

is generally regarded as the most important part of availability. • Reliability needs to be evaluated and improved related to both availability and the cost of

ownership (due to cost of spare parts, maintenance man-hours, transport costs, storage cost, part obsolete risks, etc.).

• But, as GM and Toyota have belatedly discovered, TCO also includes the down-stream liability costs when reliability calculations do not sufficiently or accurately address customers' personal bodily risks.

• Often a trade-off is needed between the two. • There might be a maximum ratio between availability and cost of ownership.

• Testability of a system should also be addressed in the plan as this is the link between reliability and maintainability.

• The maintenance strategy can influence the reliability of a system (e.g. by preventive and/or predictive maintenance), although it can never bring it above the inherent reliability.

• The reliability plan should clearly provide a strategy for availability control.

• Whether only availability or also cost of ownership is more important depends on the use of the system.

• For example, a system that is a critical link in a production system – e.g. a big oil platform – is normally allowed to have a very high cost of ownership if this translates to even a minor increase in availability, as the unavailability of the platform results in a massive loss of revenue which can easily exceed the high cost of ownership.

• A proper reliability plan should always address RAMT analysis in its total context.

• RAMT stands in this case for reliability, availability, maintainability/maintenance and testability in context to the customer needs.

Reliability requirements• For any system, one of the first tasks of reliability engineering is to adequately specify the reliability

and maintainability requirements derived from the overall availability needs and more importantly, from proper design failure analysis or preliminary prototype test results.

• Clear (able to design to) Requirements should constrain the designers from designing particular unreliable items / constructions / interfaces / systems.

• Setting only availability (reliability, testability and maintainability) allocated targets (e.g. max. Failure rates) is not appropriate.

• This is a broad misunderstanding about Reliability Requirements Engineering. • Reliability requirements address the system itself, including test and assessment requirements, and

associated tasks and documentation. • Reliability requirements are included in the appropriate system or subsystem requirements

specifications, test plans and contract statements. • Creation of proper lower level requirements is critical.

• Provision of only quantitative minimum targets (e.g. MTBF values/ Failure rates) is not sufficient for different reasons.

• One reason is that a full validation (related to correctness and verifiability in time) of an quantitative reliability allocation (requirement spec) on lower levels for complex systems can (often) not be made as a consequence of

• 1) The fact that the requirements are probabalistic • 2) The extremely high level of uncertainties involved for showing compliance with all these

probabalistic requirements • 3) Reliability is a function of time and accurate estimates of a (probabalistic) reliability number

per item are available only very late in the project, sometimes even only many years after in-service use.

• Compare this problem with the continues (re-)balancing of for example lower level system mass requirements in the development of an aircraft, which is already often a big undertaking.

• Notice that in this case masses do only differ in terms of only some %, are not a function of time, the data is non-probabalistic and available already in CAD models.

• In case of reliability, the levels of unreliability (failure rates) may change with factors of decades (1000's of %) as result of very minor deviations in design, process or anything else.

• The information is often not available without huge uncertainties within the development phase. • This makes this allocation problem almost impossible to do in a useful, practical, valid manner,

which does not result in massive over- or under specification. • A pragmatic approach is therefore needed. • For example; the use of general levels/ classes of quantitative requirements only depending on

severity of failure effects. • Also the validation of results is a far more subjective task than for any other type of requirement. • (Quantitative) Reliability parameters -in terms of MTBF - are by far the most uncertain design

parameters in any design.

• Furthermore, reliability design requirements should drive a (system or part) design to incorporate features that prevent failures from occurring or limit consequences from failure in the first place!

• Not only to make some predictions, this could potentially distract the engineering effort to a kind of accounting work.

• A design requirement should be so precise enough so that a designer can "design to" it and can also prove -through analysis or testing- that the requirement has been achieved, and if possible within some a stated confidence.

• Any type of reliability requirement should be detailed and could be derived from failure analysis (Finite Element Stress and Fatigue analysis, Reliability Hazard Analysis, FTA, FMEA, Human Factor analysis, Functional Hazard Analysis, etc.) or any type of reliability testing.

• Also, requirements are needed for verification tests e.g. required overload loads (or stresses) and test time needed.

• To derive these requirements in an effective manner, a systems engineering based risk assessment and mitigation logic should be used.

• Robust hazard log systems are to be created that contain detailed information on why and how systems could or have failed.

• Requirements are to be derived and tracked in this way. • These practical design requirements shall drive the design and not only be used for verification

purposes. • These requirements (often design constraints) are in this way derived from failure analysis or

preliminary tests. • Understanding of this difference with only pure quantitative (logistic) requirement specification

(e.g. Failure Rate/ MTBF setting) is paramount in the development of successful (complex) systems.

• The maintainability requirements address the costs of repairs as well as repair time.

• Testability (not to be confused with test requirements) requirements provide the link between reliability and maintainability and should address detectability of failure modes (on a particular system level), isolation levels and the creation of diagnostics (procedures).

• As indicated above, reliability engineers should also address requirements for various reliability tasks and documentation during system development, test, production, and operation.

• These requirements are generally specified in the contract statement of work and depend on how much leeway the customer wishes to provide to the contractor.

• Reliability tasks include various analyses, planning, and failure reporting.

• Task selection depends on the criticality of the system as well as cost. • A safety critical system may require a formal failure reporting and

review process throughout development, whereas a non-critical system may rely on final test reports.

• The most common reliability program tasks are documented in reliability program standards, such as MIL-STD-785 and IEEE 1332.

• Failure reporting analysis and corrective action systems are a common approach for product/process reliability monitoring.

Reliability culture / Human Errors / Human FactorsPractically, most failures can in the end be traced back to a root causes of the type of human error of any kind. For example, human errors in:• Management decisions on for example budgeting, timing and required tasks• Systems Engineering: Use studies (load cases)• Systems Engineering: Requirement analysis / setting• Systems Engineering: Configuration control• Assumptions• Calculations / simulations / FEM analysis• Design

• However, humans are also very good in detection of (the same) failures, correction of failures and improvising when abnormal situations occur.

• The policy that human actions should be completely ruled out of any design and production process to improve reliability may not be effective therefore.

• Some tasks are better performed by humans and some are better performed by machines.• Furthermore, human errors in management and the organization of data and information or

the misuse or abuse of items may also contribute to unreliability. • This is the core reason why high levels of reliability for complex systems can only be

achieved by following a robust systems engineering process with proper planning and execution of the validation and verification tasks.

• This also includes careful organization of data and information sharing and creating a "reliability culture" in the same sense as having a "safety culture" is paramount in the development of safety critical systems.

Reliability prediction and improvement• Reliability prediction is the combination of the creation of a proper

reliability model (see further on this page) together with estimating (and justifying) the input parameters for this model (like failure rates for a particular failure mode or event and the mean time to repair the system for a particular failure) and finally to provide a system (or part) level estimate for the output reliability parameters (system availability or a particular functional failure frequency).

• Some recognized reliability engineering specialists – e.g. Patrick O'Connor, R. Barnard – have argued that too much emphasis is often given to the prediction of reliability parameters and more effort should be devoted to the prevention of failure (reliability improvement).

• Failures can and should be prevented in the first place for most cases. • The emphasis on quantification and target setting in terms of (e.g.) MTBF might provide the

idea that there is a limit to the amount of reliability that can be achieved. • In theory there is no inherent limit and higher reliability does not need to be more costly in

development. • Another of their arguments is that prediction of reliability based on historic data can be very

misleading, as a comparison is only valid for exactly the same designs, products, manufacturing processes and maintenance under exactly the same loads and environmental context.

• Even a minor change in detail in any of these could have major effects on reliability.

• Furthermore, normally the most unreliable and important items (most interesting candidates for a reliability investigation) are most often subjected to many modifications and changes.

• Engineering designs are in most industries updated frequently. • This is the reason why the standard (re-active or pro-active) statistical methods and

processes as used in the medical industry or insurance branch are not as effective for engineering.

• Another surprising but logical argument is that to be able to accurately predict reliability by testing, the exact mechanisms of failure must have been known in most cases and therefore – in most cases – can be prevented!

• Following the incorrect route by trying to quantify and solving a complex reliability engineering problem in terms of MTBF or Probability and using the re-active approach is referred to by Barnard as "Playing the Numbers Game" and is regarded as bad practise.

• For existing systems, it is arguable that responsible programs would directly analyse and try to correct the root cause of discovered failures and thereby may render the initial MTBF estimate fully invalid as new assumptions (subject to high error levels) of the effect of the patch/redesign must be made.

• Another practical issue concerns a general lack of availability of detailed failure data and not consistent filtering of failure (feedback) data or ignoring statistical errors, which are very high for rare events (like reliability related failures).

• Very clear guidelines must be present to be able to count and compare failures, related to different type of root-causes (e.g. manufacturing-, maintenance-, transport-, system-induced or inherent design failures).

• Comparing different type of causes may lead to incorrect estimations and incorrect business decisions about the focus of improvement.

• To perform a proper quantitative reliability prediction for systems may be difficult and may be very expensive if done by testing.

• On part level, results can be obtained often with higher confidence as many samples might be used for the available testing financial budget, however unfortunately these tests might lack validity on system level due to the assumptions that had to be made for part level testing.

• These authors argue that it can not be emphasized enough that testing for reliability should be done to create failures in the first place, learn from them and to improve the system / part.

• The general conclusion is drawn that an accurate and an absolute prediction – by field data comparison or testing – of reliability is in most cases not possible.

• An exception might be failures due to wear-out problems like fatigue failures. • In the introduction of MIL-STD-785 it is written that reliability prediction should be used with

great caution if not only used for comparison in trade-off studies.• See also: Risk Assessment#Quantitative risk assessment – Critics paragraph

Design for reliability• Reliability design begins with the development of a (system) model. • Reliability and availability models use block diagrams and Fault Tree Analysis

to provide a graphical means of evaluating the relationships between different parts of the system.

• These models may incorporate predictions based on failure rates taken from historical data.

• While the (input data) predictions are often not accurate in an absolute sense, they are valuable to assess relative differences in design alternatives.

• Maintainability parameters, for example MTTR, are other inputs for these models.

• The most important fundamental initiating causes and failure mechanisms are to be identified and analyzed with engineering tools.

• A diverse set of practical guidance and practical performance and reliability requirements should be provided to designers so they can generate low-stressed designs and products that protect or are protected against damage and excessive wear.

• Proper Validation of input loads (requirements) may be needed and verification for reliability "performance" by testing may be needed.

• One of the most important design techniques is redundancy. • This means that if one part of the system fails, there is an alternate

success path, such as a backup system. • The reason why this is the ultimate design choice is related to the fact

that high confidence reliability evidence for new parts / items is often not available or extremely expensive to obtain.

• By creating redundancy, together with a high level of failure monitoring and the avoidance of common cause failures, even a system with relative bad single channel (part) reliability, can be made highly reliable (mission reliability) on system level.

A Fault Tree Diagram

• No testing of reliability has to be required for this. • Furthermore, by using redundancy and the use of dissimilar design

and manufacturing processes (different suppliers) for the single independent channels, less sensitivity for quality issues (early childhood failures) is created and very high levels of reliability can be achieved at all moments of the development cycles (early life times and long term).

• Redundancy can also be applied in systems engineering by double checking requirements, data, designs, calculations, software and tests to overcome systematic failures.

• Another design technique to prevent failures is called physics of failure. • This technique relies on understanding the physical static and dynamic failure

mechanisms. • It accounts for variation in load, strength and stress leading to failure at high level of

detail, possible with use of modern finite element method (FEM) software programs that may handle complex geometries and mechanisms like creep, stress relaxation, fatigue and probabilistic design (Monte Carlo simulations / DOE).

• The material or component can be re-designed to reduce the probability of failure and to make it more robust against variation.

Another common design technique is component derating: • Selecting components whose tolerance significantly exceeds the expected stress, as

using a heavier gauge wire that exceeds the normal specification for the expected electrical current.

• Another effective way to deal with unreliability issues is to perform analysis to be able to predict degradation and being able to prevent unscheduled down events / failures from occurring.

• RCM (Reliability Centered Maintenance) programs can be used for this.

• Many tasks, techniques and analyses are specific to particular industries and applications.

Commonly these include:• Built-in test (BIT) (testability analysis)• Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)• Reliability hazard analysis• Reliability block-diagram analysis• Dynamic Reliability block-diagram analysis• Fault tree analysis• Root cause analysis• Statistical Engineering, Design of Experiments - e.g. on Simulations / FEM models or with

testing• Sneak circuit analysis• Accelerated testing

• Reliability growth analysis (re-active reliability)• Weibull analysis (for testing or mainly "re-active" reliability)• Thermal analysis by finite element analysis (FEA) and / or measurement• Thermal induced, shock and vibration fatigue analysis by FEA and / or measurement• Electromagnetic analysis• Avoidance of single point of failure• Functional analysis and functional failure analysis (e.g., function FMEA, FHA or FFA)• Predictive and preventive maintenance: reliability centered maintenance (RCM) analysis• Testability analysis• Failure diagnostics analysis (normally also incorporated in FMEA)• Human error analysis• Operational hazard analysis• Manual screening• Integrated logistics support

• Results are presented during the system design reviews and logistics reviews.

• Reliability is just one requirement among many system requirements. • Engineering trade studies are used to determine the optimum

balance between reliability and other requirements and constraints.

Quantitative and Qualitative approaches and the importance of language in reliability engineering• Reliability engineers could concentrate more on "why and how" items

/ systems may fail or have failed, instead of mostly trying to predict "when" or at what (changing) rate (failure rate (t)).

• Answers to the first questions will drive improvement in design and processes.

• When failure mechanisms are really understood then solutions to prevent failure are easily found.

• Only required Numbers (e.g. MTBF) will not drive good designs.

• The huge amount of (un)reliability hazards that are generally part of complex systems need first to be classified and ordered (based on qualitative and quantitative logic if possible) to get to efficient assessment and improvement.

• This is partly done in pure language and proposition logic, but also based on experience with similar items.

• This can for example be seen in descriptions of events in Fault Tree Analysis, FMEA analysis and a hazard (tracking) log.

• In this sense language and proper grammar (part of qualitative analysis) plays an important role in reliability engineering, just like it does in safety engineering or in general within systems engineering.

• Engineers are likely to question why?• Well, it is precisely needed because systems engineering is very much about finding the

correct words to describe the problem (and related risks) to be solved by the engineering solutions we intend to create.

• In the words of Jack Ring, the systems engineer’s job is to “language the project.” [Ring et al. 2000].

• Language in itself is about putting an order in a description of the reality of a (failure of a) complex function/item/system in a complex surrounding.

• Reliability engineers use both quantitative and qualitative methods, which extensively use language to pinpoint the risks to be solved.

• The importance of language also relates to the risks of human error, which can be seen as the ultimate root cause of almost all failures - see further on this site.

• As an example, proper instructions (often written by technical authors in so called simplified English) in maintenance manuals, operation manuals, emergency procedures and others are needed to prevent systematic human errors in any maintenance or operational task that may result in system failures.

Reliability modelling• Reliability modelling is the process of predicting or understanding the reliability of a

component or system prior to its implementation. • Two types of analysis that are often used to model a complete system availability

(including effects from logistics issues like spare part provisioning, transport and manpower) behavior are Fault Tree Analysis and reliability block diagrams.

• On component level the same type of analysis can be used together with others. • The input for the models can come from many sources: Testing, Earlier operational

experience field data or data handbooks from the same or mixed industries can be used. • In all cases, the data must be used with great caution as predictions are only valid in

case the same product in the same context is used. • Often predictions are only made to compare alternatives.

For part level predictions, two separate fields of investigation are common:• The physics of failure approach uses an understanding of physical

failure mechanisms involved, such as mechanical crack propagation or chemical corrosion degradation or failure.

• The parts stress modelling approach is an empirical method for prediction based on counting the number and type of components of the system, and the stress they undergo during operation.

• Software reliability is a more challenging area that must be considered when it is a considerable component to system functionality.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

Reliability theory• Main articles: Reliability theory, Failure rate and Survival analysis• Reliability is defined as the probability that a device will perform its

intended function during a specified period of time under stated conditions. Mathematically, this may be expressed as,

Where is the failure probability density function and is the length of the period of time (which is assumed to start from time zero).

There are a few key elements of this definition:1. Reliability is predicated on "intended function:" • Generally, this is taken to mean operation without failure. • However, even if no individual part of the system fails, but the system

as a whole does not do what was intended, then it is still charged against the system reliability.

• The system requirements specification is the criterion against which reliability is measured.

• 2. Reliability applies to a specified period of time. In practical terms, this means that a system has a specified chance that it will operate without failure before time Reliability engineering ensures that components and materials will meet the requirements during the specified time. Units other than time may sometimes be used.

• 3. Reliability is restricted to operation under stated (or explicitly defined) conditions. This constraint is necessary because it is impossible to design a system for unlimited conditions. A Mars Rover will have different specified conditions than a family car. The operating environment must be addressed during design and testing. That same rover may be required to operate in varying conditions requiring additional scrutiny.

Quantitative system reliability parameters – theory• Quantitative Requirements are specified using reliability parameters. • The most common reliability parameter is the mean time to failure (MTTF), which can

also be specified as the failure rate (this is expressed as a frequency or conditional probability density function (PDF)) or the number of failures during a given period.

• These parameters may be useful for higher system levels and systems that are operated frequently, such as most vehicles, machinery, and electronic equipment. Reliability increases as the MTTF increases.

• The MTTF is usually specified in hours, but can also be used with other units of measurement, such as miles or cycles.

• Using MTTF values on lower system levels can be very misleading, specially if the Failures Modes and Mechanisms it concerns (The F in MTTF) are not specified with it.

• In other cases, reliability is specified as the probability of mission success. • For example, reliability of a scheduled aircraft flight can be specified as a dimensionless

probability or a percentage, as in system safety engineering.• A special case of mission success is the single-shot device or system. These are devices or

systems that remain relatively dormant and only operate once. • Examples include automobile airbags, thermal batteries and missiles. Single-shot reliability

is specified as a probability of one-time success, or is subsumed into a related parameter. • Single-shot missile reliability may be specified as a requirement for the probability of a hit. • For such systems, the probability of failure on demand (PFD) is the reliability measure –

which actually is an unavailability number. This PFD is derived from failure rate (a frequency of occurrence) and mission time for non-repairable systems.

• For repairable systems, it is obtained from failure rate and mean-time-to-repair (MTTR) and test interval.

• This measure may not be unique for a given system as this measure depends on the kind of demand.

• In addition to system level requirements, reliability requirements may be specified for critical subsystems.

• In most cases, reliability parameters are specified with appropriate statistical confidence intervals.

Reliability testing• The purpose of reliability testing is to discover potential problems

with the design as early as possible and, ultimately, provide confidence that the system meets its reliability requirements.

• Reliability testing may be performed at several levels and there are different types of testing.

• Complex systems may be tested at component, circuit board, unit, assembly, subsystem and system levels [1]

• (The test level nomenclature varies among applications.) For example, performing environmental stress screening tests at lower levels, such as piece parts or small assemblies, catches problems before they cause failures at higher levels.

• Testing proceeds during each level of integration through full-up system testing, developmental testing, and operational testing, thereby reducing program risk.

• However, testing does not mitigate unreliability risk.• With each test both a statistical type 1 and type 2 error could be made and

depends on sample size, test time, assumptions and the needed discrimination ratio.

• There is risk of incorrectly accepting a bad design (type 1 error) and the risk of incorrectly rejecting a good design (type 2 error).

• It is not always feasible to test all system requirements. • Some systems are prohibitively expensive to test; some failure modes

may take years to observe; some complex interactions result in a huge number of possible test cases; and some tests require the use of limited test ranges or other resources.

• In such cases, different approaches to testing can be used, such as (highly) accelerated life testing, design of experiments, and simulations.

A reliability sequential test plan

• The desired level of statistical confidence also plays an role in reliability testing. • Statistical confidence is increased by increasing either the test time or the

number of items tested. • Reliability test plans are designed to achieve the specified reliability at the

specified confidence level with the minimum number of test units and test time. • Different test plans result in different levels of risk to the producer and

consumer. • The desired reliability, statistical confidence, and risk levels for each side

influence the ultimate test plan. • The customer and developer should agree in advance on how reliability

requirements will be tested.

• A key aspect of reliability testing is to define "failure". • Although this may seem obvious, there are many situations where it is not clear

whether a failure is really the fault of the system. • Variations in test conditions, operator differences, weather and unexpected

situations create differences between the customer and the system developer. • One strategy to address this issue is to use a scoring conference process. • A scoring conference includes representatives from the customer, the developer, the

test organization, the reliability organization, and sometimes independent observers. • The scoring conference process is defined in the statement of work. • Each test case is considered by the group and "scored" as a success or failure. • This scoring is the official result used by the reliability engineer.

• As part of the requirements phase, the reliability engineer develops a test strategy with the customer.

• The test strategy makes trade-offs between the needs of the reliability organization, which wants as much data as possible, and constraints such as cost, schedule and available resources.

• Test plans and procedures are developed for each reliability test, and results are documented.

• Reliability testing is common in the Photonics industry. • Examples of reliability tests of lasers are life test and burn-in. • These tests consist of the highly accelerated ageing, under controlled conditions, of a

group of lasers. • The data collected from these life tests are used to predict laser life expectancy under the

intended operating characteristics.

• Reliability test requirements• Reliability test requirements can follow from any analysis for which the first

estimate of failure probability, failure mode or effect needs to be justified. • Evidence can be generated with some level of confidence by testing. • With software-based systems, the probability is a mix of software and hardware-

based failures. • Testing reliability requirements is problematic for several reasons. • A single test is in most cases insufficient to generate enough statistical data. • Multiple tests or long-duration tests are usually very expensive. • Some tests are simply impractical, and environmental conditions can be hard to

predict over a systems life-cycle.

• Reliability engineering is used to design a realistic and affordable test program that provides empirical evidence that the system meets its reliability requirements.

• Statistical confidence levels are used to address some of these concerns. • A certain parameter is expressed along with a corresponding confidence

level: for example, an MTBF of 1000 hours at 90% confidence level. • From this specification, the reliability engineer can, for example, design

a test with explicit criteria for the number of hours and number of failures until the requirement is met or failed.

• Different sorts of tests are possible.

• The combination of required reliability level and required confidence level greatly affects the development cost and the risk to both the customer and producer.

• Care is needed to select the best combination of requirements – e.g. cost-effectiveness.

• Reliability testing may be performed at various levels, such as component, subsystem and system.

• Also, many factors must be addressed during testing and operation, such as extreme temperature and humidity, shock, vibration, or other environmental factors (like loss of signal, cooling or power; or other catastrophes such as fire, floods, excessive heat, physical or security violations or other myriad forms of damage or degradation).

• For systems that must last many years, accelerated life tests may be needed.

Accelerated testingThe purpose of accelerated life testing (ALT test) is to induce field failure in the laboratory at a much faster rate by providing a harsher, but nonetheless representative, environment. In such a test, the product is expected to fail in the lab just as it would have failed in the field—but in much less time. The main objective of an accelerated test is either of the following:• To discover failure modes• To predict the normal field life from the high stress lab life

An Accelerated testing program can be broken down into the following steps:• Define objective and scope of the test• Collect required information about the product• Identify the stress(es)• Determine level of stress(es)• Conduct the accelerated test and analyze the collected data.

Common way to determine a life stress relationship are• Arrhenius model• Eyring model• Inverse power law model• Temperature–humidity model• Temperature non-thermal model

Software reliabilityFurther information: Software reliability• Software reliability is a special aspect of reliability engineering. • System reliability, by definition, includes all parts of the system, including

hardware, software, supporting infrastructure (including critical external interfaces), operators and procedures.

• Traditionally, reliability engineering focuses on critical hardware parts of the system.

• Since the widespread use of digital integrated circuit technology, software has become an increasingly critical part of most electronics and, hence, nearly all present day systems.

• There are significant differences, however, in how software and hardware behave. • Most hardware unreliability is the result of a component or material failure that results in

the system not performing its intended function. • Repairing or replacing the hardware component restores the system to its original

operating state. • However, software does not fail in the same sense that hardware fails. • Instead, software unreliability is the result of unanticipated results of software operations. • Even relatively small software programs can have astronomically large combinations of

inputs and states that are infeasible to exhaustively test. • Restoring software to its original state only works until the same combination of inputs

and states results in the same unintended result. • Software reliability engineering must take this into account.

• Despite this difference in the source of failure between software and hardware, several software reliability models based on statistics have been proposed to quantify what we experience with software: the longer software is run, the higher the probability that it will eventually be used in an untested manner and exhibit a latent defect that results in a failure (Shooman 1987), (Musa 2005), (Denney 2005).

• As with hardware, software reliability depends on good requirements, design and implementation. • Software reliability engineering relies heavily on a disciplined software engineering process to

anticipate and design against unintended consequences. • There is more overlap between software quality engineering and software reliability engineering

than between hardware quality and reliability. • A good software development plan is a key aspect of the software reliability program. • The software development plan describes the design and coding standards, peer reviews, unit tests

, configuration management, software metrics and software models to be used during software development.

• A common reliability metric is the number of software faults, usually expressed as faults per thousand lines of code.

• This metric, along with software execution time, is key to most software reliability models and estimates.

• The theory is that the software reliability increases as the number of faults (or fault density) decreases or goes down.

• Establishing a direct connection between fault density and mean-time-between-failure is difficult, however, because of the way software faults are distributed in the code, their severity, and the probability of the combination of inputs necessary to encounter the fault.

• Nevertheless, fault density serves as a useful indicator for the reliability engineer. Other software metrics, such as complexity, are also used.

• This metric remains controversial, since changes in software development and verification practices can have dramatic impact on overall defect rates.

• Testing is even more important for software than hardware. • Even the best software development process results in some software

faults that are nearly undetectable until tested. • As with hardware, software is tested at several levels, starting with

individual units, through integration and full-up system testing. • Unlike hardware, it is inadvisable to skip levels of software testing. • During all phases of testing, software faults are discovered, corrected,

and re-tested. • Reliability estimates are updated based on the fault density and other

metrics.

• At a system level, mean-time-between-failure data can be collected and used to estimate reliability.

• Unlike hardware, performing exactly the same test on exactly the same software configuration does not provide increased statistical confidence.

• Instead, software reliability uses different metrics, such as code coverage.• Eventually, the software is integrated with the hardware in the top-level

system, and software reliability is subsumed by system reliability. • The Software Engineering Institute's capability maturity model is a

common means of assessing the overall software development process for reliability and quality purposes.

Reliability engineering vs safety engineering• Reliability engineering differs from safety engineering with respect to the

kind of hazards that are considered. • Reliability engineering is in the end only concerned with cost. • It relates to all Reliability hazards that could transform into incidents with a

particular level of loss of revenue for the company or the customer. • These can be cost due to loss of production due to system unavailability,

unexpected high or low demands for spares, repair costs, man hours, (multiple) re-designs, interruptions on normal production (e.g. due to high repair times or due to unexpected demands for non-stocked spares) and many other indirect costs

• Safety engineering, on the other hand, is more specific and regulated. • It relates to only very specific and system safety hazards that could potentially lead to

severe accidents and is primarily concerned with loss of life, loss of equipment, or environmental damage.

• The related system functional reliability requirements are sometimes extremely high. • It deals with unwanted dangerous events (for life, property, and environment) in the

same sense as reliability engineering, but does normally not directly look at cost and is not concerned with repair actions after failure / accidents (on system level).

• Another difference is the level of impact of failures on society and the control of governments.

• Safety engineering is often strictly controlled by governments (e.g. nuclear, aerospace, defense, rail and oil industries).

• Furthermore, safety engineering and reliability engineering may even have contradicting requirements.

• This relates to system level architecture choices. • For example, in train signal control systems it is common practice to use a fail-safe

system design concept. • In this concept the Wrong-side failure need to be fully controlled to an extreme low

failure rate. • These failures are related to possible severe effects, like frontal collisions (2* GREEN

lights). • Systems are designed in a way that the far majority of failures will simply result in a

temporary or total loss of signals or open contacts of relays and generate RED lights for all trains.

• This is the safe state. • All trains are stopped immediately. • This fail-safe logic might unfortunately lower the reliability of the

system. • The reason for this is the higher risk of false tripping as any full or

temporary, intermittent failure is quickly latched in a shut-down (safe)state.

• Different solutions are available for this issue. • See chapter Fault Tolerance below.

Fault tolerance• Reliability can be increased here by using a 2oo2 (2 out of 2) redundancy on part or

system level, but this does in turn lower the safety levels (more possibilities for Wrong Side and undetected dangerous Failures).

• Fault tolerant voting systems (e.g. 2oo3 voting logic) can increase both reliability and safety on a system level.

• In this case the so-called "operational" or "mission" reliability as well as the safety of a system can be increased.

• This is also common practice in Aerospace systems that need continued availability and do not have a fail safe mode (e.g. flight computers and related electrical and/ or mechanical and/ or hydraulic steering functions need always to be working.

• There are no safe fixed positions for rudder or other steering parts when the aircraft is flying).

Basic reliability and mission (operational) reliability• The above example of a 2oo3 fault tolerant system increases both mission reliability

as well as safety. • However, the "basic" reliability of the system will in this case still be lower than a non

redundant (1oo1) or 2oo2 system! • Basic reliability refers to all failures, including those that might not result in system

failure, but do result in maintenance repair actions, logistic cost, use of spares, etc. • For example, the replacement or repair of 1 channel in a 2oo3 voting system that is

still operating with one failed channel (which in this state actually has become a 1oo2 system) is contributing to basic unreliability but not mission unreliability.

• Also, for example, the failure of the taillight of an aircraft is not considered as a mission loss failure, but does contribute to the basic unreliability.

Detectability and common cause failures• When using fault tolerant (redundant architectures) systems or

systems that are equipped with protection functions, detectability of failures and avoidance of common cause failures becomes paramount for safe functioning and/or mission reliability.

Reliability versus Quality (Six Sigma)• Six-Sigma has its roots in manufacturing and Reliability engineering is more

related to systems engineering. • The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is quite unlike a

manufacturing process. • A manufacturing process is focused on repetitive activities that achieve high

quality outputs with minimum cost and time. • The systems engineering process must begin by discovering the real (potential)

problem that needs to be solved; the biggest failure that can be made in systems engineering is finding an elegant solution to the wrong problem (or in terms of reliability: "providing elegant solutions to the wrong root causes of system failures").

• The everyday usage term "quality of a product" is loosely taken to mean its inherent degree of excellence.

• In industry, this is made more precise by defining quality to be "conformance to requirements at the start of use".

• Assuming the product specifications adequately capture customer (or rest of system) needs, the quality level of these parts can now be precisely measured by the fraction of units shipped that meet the detailed product specifications.

• But are (derived, lower level) requirements and related product specifications validated?

• Will it later result in worn items and systems, by general wear, fatigue or corrosion mechanisms, debris accumulation or due to maintenance induced failures?

• Are there interactions on any system level (as investigated by for example Fault Tree Analysis)?

• How many of these systems still meet function and fulfill the needs after a week of operation?

• What performance losses occurred? • Did full system failure occur? • What happens after the end of a one-year warranty period? • And what happens after 50 years (a common lifetime for aircraft,

trains, nuclear systems, etc...)? • That is where "reliability" comes in.

• Quality is a snapshot at the start of life and mainly related to control of lower level product specifications and reliability is (as part of systems engineering) more of a system level motion picture of the day-by-day operation for many years.

• Time zero defects are manufacturing mistakes that escaped final test (Quality Control).

• The additional defects that appear over time are "reliability defects" or reliability fallout.

• These reliability issues may just as well occur due to Inherent design issues, which may have nothing to do with non-conformance product specifications.

• Items that are produced perfectly - according all product specifications - may fail over time due to any single or combined failure mechanism (e.g. mechanical-, electrical-, chemical- or human error related).

• All these parameters are also a function of all possible variances coming from initial production.

• Theoretically, all items will functionally fail over infinite time. • In theory the Quality level might be described by a single fraction defective. • To describe reliability fallout a probability model that describes the fraction

fallout over time is needed. This is known as the life distribution model.

• Quality is therefore related to Manufacturing and Reliability is more related to the validation of sub-system or lower item requirements, (System or Part) inherent Design and life cycle solutions.

• Items that do not conform to (any) product specification in general will do worse in terms of reliability (having a lower MTTF), but this does not always have to be the case.

• The full mathematical Quantification (in statistical models) of this combined relation is in general very difficult or even practical impossible.

• In case manufacturing variances can be effectively reduced, six sigma tools may be used to find optimal process solutions and may thereby also increase reliability.

• Six Sigma may also help to design more robust related to manufacturing induced failures.

• In contrast with Six Sigma, Reliability Engineering Solutions are generally found by having a focus into a (system) design and not on the manufacturing process.

• Solutions are found in different ways, for example by simplifying a system and therefore understanding more mechanisms of failure involved, detailed calculation of material stress levels and required safety factors, finding possible abnormal system load conditions and next to this also to increase design robustness against variation from the manufacturing variances and related failure mechanisms.

• Furthermore reliability engineering use system level solutions, like designing redundancy and fault tolerant systems in case of high availability needs (see chapter Reliability engineering vs Safety engineering above).

• Next to this and also in a major contrast with Reliability Engineering, Six-Sigma is much more measurement based (quantification).

• The core of Six-Sigma thrives on empirical research and statistics where it is possible to measure parameters (e.g. to find transfer functions).

• This can not be translated practically to most reliability issues, as reliability is not (easy) measurable due to the function of time (large times may be involved), specially during the requirements specification and design phase where reliability engineering is the most efficient.

• Full Quantification of reliability is in this phase extremely difficult or costly (testing).

• It also may foster re-active management (waiting for system failures to be measured).

• Furthermore, as explained on this page, Reliability problems are likely to come from many different (e.g. inherent failures, human error, systematic failures) causes besides manufacturing induced defects.

• Quality (manufacturing) Six Sigma and Reliability (design) departments should provide input to each other to cover the complete risks more efficiently.

Reliability operational assessment• After a system is produced, reliability engineering monitors, assesses

and corrects deficiencies. • Monitoring includes electronic and visual surveillance of critical

parameters identified during the fault tree analysis design stage. • Data collection is highly dependent on the nature of the system. • Most large organizations have quality control groups that collect

failure data on vehicles, equipment and machinery.

• Consumer product failures are often tracked by the number of returns. • For systems in dormant storage or on standby, it is necessary to establish a formal

surveillance program to inspect and test random samples. • Any changes to the system, such as field upgrades or recall repairs, require additional

reliability testing to ensure the reliability of the modification. • Since it is not possible to anticipate all the failure modes of a given system, especially

ones with a human element, failures will occur. • The reliability program also includes a systematic root cause analysis that identifies

the causal relationships involved in the failure such that effective corrective actions may be implemented.

• When possible, system failures and corrective actions are reported to the reliability engineering organization.

• One of the most common methods to apply to a reliability operational assessment are failure reporting, analysis, and corrective action systems (FRACAS).

• This systematic approach develops a reliability, safety and logistics assessment based on Failure / Incident reporting, management, analysis and corrective/preventive actions.

• Organizations today are adopting this method and utilize commercial systems such as a Web-based FRACAS application enabling an organization to create a failure/incident data repository from which statistics can be derived to view accurate and genuine reliability, safety and quality performances.

• It is extremely important to have one common source FRACAS system for all end items. • Also, test results should be able to be captured here in a practical way. • Failure to adopt one easy to handle (easy data entry for field engineers and repair shop

engineers) and maintain integrated system is likely to result in a FRACAS program failure.

Some of the common outputs from a FRACAS system includes: • Field MTBF, MTTR, Spares Consumption, Reliability Growth,

Failure/Incidents distribution by type, location, part no., serial no, symptom etc.

• The use of past data to predict the reliability of new comparable systems/items can be misleading as reliability is a function of the context of use and can be affected by small changes in the designs/manufacturing.

Reliability organizations

• Systems of any significant complexity are developed by organizations of people, such as a commercial company or a government agency.

• The reliability engineering organization must be consistent with the company's organizational structure.

• For small, non-critical systems, reliability engineering may be informal. As complexity grows, the need arises for a formal reliability function.

• Because reliability is important to the customer, the customer may even specify certain aspects of the reliability organization.

• There are several common types of reliability organizations. The project manager or chief engineer may employ one or more reliability engineers directly.

• In larger organizations, there is usually a product assurance or specialty engineering organization, which may include reliability, maintainability, quality, safety, human factors, logistics, etc. In such case, the reliability engineer reports to the product assurance manager or specialty engineering manager.

• In some cases, a company may wish to establish an independent reliability organization.

• This is desirable to ensure that the system reliability, which is often expensive and time consuming, is not unduly slighted due to budget and schedule pressures.

• In such cases, the reliability engineer works for the project day-to-day, but is actually employed and paid by a separate organization within the company.

• Because reliability engineering is critical to early system design, it has become common for reliability engineers, however the organization is structured, to work as part of an integrated product team.

Reliability engineering education• Some universities offer graduate degrees in reliability engineering. Other reliability

engineers typically have an engineering degree, which can be in any field of engineering, from an accredited university or college program.

• Many engineering programs offer reliability courses, and some universities have entire reliability engineering programs.

• A reliability engineer may be registered as a professional engineer by the state, but this is not required by most employers.

• There are many professional conferences and industry training programs available for reliability engineers.

• Several professional organizations exist for reliability engineers, including the IEEE Reliability Society, the American Society for Quality (ASQ), and the Society of Reliability Engineers (SRE)

See also• Brittle systems• Burn-in• Cauchy stress tensor• Factor of safety• Failing badly• FMEA• Fault-tolerant system• Fault tree analysis• Fracture mechanics• Solid mechanics• Highly accelerated life test• Highly accelerated stress test• Risk assessment• Safety engineering

• Human reliability• Industrial engineering• Integrated logistics support• Logistic engineering• Performance engineering• Product qualification• Professional engineer• Quality assurance• RAMS• Redundancy (engineering)• Redundancy (total quality management)• Reliability (disambiguation)• Reliability, availability and serviceability (computer hardware)• Reliability theory• Reliability theory of aging and longevity• Reliable system design

• Safety integrity level• Security engineering• Single point of failure (SPOF)• Software engineering• Software reliability testing• Spurious trip level• Structural fracture mechanics• Strength of materials• Systems engineering• Temperature cycling

Structure Reliability

Hull girder, fatigue and panel reliability

Hull girderThe theoretical box girder formed by the continuous longitudinal members of the hull of a ship, providing resistance to hogging and sagging.

• Hull girder strength is the most fundamental strength of a ship structure. • To assess the hull girder strength, estimations of both extreme load which

may act on the hull girder and the capacity of the hull girder are necessary, and many research works have been performed from this aspect.

• In the present review article, attention is focussed on the capacity of a ship hull girder.

• At the beginning, a short historical review is given in relation to the research works on hull girder strength, and some consideration is introduced on the ultimate hull girder strength from the design aspect.

• Then, state of the art and the future direction of the research works on hull girder strength are described.

Fatigue (material)• In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by

repeatedly applied loads. • It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when

a material is subjected to cyclic loading. • The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be

much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit.

• Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. • If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form

at the stress concentrators such as the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces.

• Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will fracture.

• The shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate.

• Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.

Reliability Panel• The Reliability Panel was established by the AEMC under the National Electricity Law. The

National Electricity Rules set out requirements regarding its composition.Its role is:• to monitor, review and report on the safety, security and reliability of the national electricity

system, in accordance with the NER• at the request of the AEMC, to provide advice in relation to the safety, security and

reliability of the national electricity system• to manage and execute any other functions or powers conferred on it under the Law and

the Rules.• The Panel determines standards and guidelines which help maintain a secure and reliable

power system. Its work program is set by requirements in the Rules. The AEMC also asks the Panel for advice on AEMC reviews.

• Every four years, the Panel reviews the reliability standard and recommends reliability settings which are expected to achieve this standard for the National Electricity Market.

• The market reliability settings are the market price cap, the cumulative price threshold, and the market floor price.

• These settings balance investment signals for new generation against the financial risks to participants in the National Electricity Market’s wholesale sector. The latest of these reviews was initiated in May 2013 for completion by April 2014.

• The Panel reviews and determines the power system security and reliability standards (including the reliability standard and frequency operating standards for the NEM mainland and for Tasmania).

• It determines the standard for system restart if a major blackout happens. It monitors and reports system standards and access standards for network users such as generators or large customers.

• It also develops and determines various guidelines to direct the market operator’s management of aspects of power system security and the reliability of supply. These include the guidelines for the management of electricity supply shortfall events.

• Each year the Panel prepares and publishes an annual market performance review which reports on overall power system reliability matters, including the power system’s operation against the security and reliability standards and various guidelines. In addition, it reports on any major power system incidents and may recommend measures to mitigate against similar incidents in the future.

• Information on open and completed Panel reviews is available on this website under Market Reviews & Advice.

Failure probability and reliability

• Probability and Statistics for Reliability: An Introduction• Failure Distribution: this is a representation of the occurrence failures

over time usually called the probability density function, PDF, or f(t).• Cumulative Failure Distribution: If you guessed that it’s the

cumulative version of the PDF, you’re correct. It’s called the CDF, or F(t)

• Reliability: If we can call the CDF the unreliability of a product, then 1-F(t) must be the reliability.

• With these basics, an important part of reliability is identifying, understanding, and optimizing the type of statistical distribution that represents the product. The following are a few common examples:

• Normal Distribution: the most common distribution usually representing wearout situations (2 parameter).

• Exponential Distribution: a one parameter distribution usually used for electronic products, or products where there are all sorts of distributions tending to combine to a constant hazard rate.

• Weibull Distribution: can be used to represent a number of other distributions such as the Normal, the Exponential, and others (usually 2 parameter but can be 3 parameter). The Weibull can be used to represent the three regions of the classic reliability “Bathtub” curve: (Region 1) the decreasing failure rate associated with infant mortality, (Region 2) the constant failure rate of useful life, and (Region 3) the wearout period of increasing failure rate. The Weibull parameters β, called the Weibull Shape Parameters, for the three Bathtub regions are respectively <1.0, =1.0, and >1.0.

• Binomial Distribution: used to represent situations where there are two possible outcomes, success or failure and the probability of one of the types of outcomes is known.

• Poisson Distribution: used to determine the likelihood of a number of events occurring in a set of trials if the likelihood of an individual event is known.

• Hypergeometric: used to determine the likelihood of exactly “x” events in a sample of “y” given that there “m” of the events in the total population of “n.” This distribution is similar to the Binomial.

• Geometric: used to determine the likelihood of success at the “xth” trial when the probability of an individual event is known.

If a particular type of resistor’s resistance is normally distributed with a mean of 100 ohms and a standard deviation of 5 ohms, what’s the probability of getting a resistor with a resistance less than 85 ohms? Enter the data in QuART PRO to arrive at a probability of 0.13%, or 0.0013.

If the required reliability for a mission of 100 hours is 99.9%, what must the failure rate (assumed constant) be for the electronic product to meet the requirement? Enter the number of hours and iterate the failure rate until the Reliability equals 99.9%. The failure rate will be 0.00001 failures/hour, or in more common terms 10 failures/106 hours.

What’s the reliability of a shaft at 1,000 hours if its Weibull Shape Parameter is 1.7 and its Weibull Characteristic Life (point at which 63.2% of population has failed) is 700 hours? Read a reliability of only 15.98%.

In a bin of parts, where 10% are known to be bad, what’s the probability of selecting 8 out of 10 that are good? Read the result for 10 minus 8, or 2 bad parts as 19.37%.

What’s a developer’s risk of having his product with a true Mean-Time-Between-Failure (MTBF) of 500 hours rejected in a test of 1000 hours where the acceptable number of failures in the test is 3 or less? Trick question? Not really. Let’s make some adjustments before we go to the QuART PRO Poisson calculator. First, if the time is 1000 hours, and the MTBF is 500 hours, we’d expect 2 failures.

• Our first calculation shows that the probability of 3 failures is 18.04%. • Similarly, for 2 failures it’s 27.07%, for 1 failure it’s 27.07%, and for no

failures it’s 13.53%. • Therefore, the probability of 3 failures or less is the sum, which is

85.71%. • So, if the probability of 3 or fewer failures is 85.71%, then the

probability of 4 or more is 14.29%, which is the developer’s risk of having his product rejected.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

Inspection and maintenance planning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

• The problem complex

• Assessment of consequences

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DS8Hw0Ort4w

Corrosion wastage and coating degradation

Corrosion• Corrosion is a natural process, which converts refined metal to their more stable oxide. • It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical reaction with their

environment.• In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in

reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. • Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion. • This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal. • Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers,

although in this context, the term degradation is more common. • Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including strength,

appearance and permeability to liquids and gases.

• Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances.

• Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface.

• Because corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces.

• As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as passivation and chromate conversion, can increase a material's corrosion resistance.

• However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.

Rust, the most familiar example of corrosion.

Volcanic gases have accelerated the corrosion of this abandoned mining machinery.

Corrosion on exposed metal.

• Flow accelerated organic coating degradation• Applying organic coatings is a common and the most cost effective way to protect metallic

objects and structures from corrosion. • Water entry into coating-metal interface is usually the main cause for the deterioration of

organic coatings, which leads to coating delamination and underfilm corrosion. • Recently, flowing fluids over sample surface have received attention due to their capability

to accelerate material degradation. • A plethora of works has focused on the flow induced metal corrosion, while few studies

have investigated the flow accelerated organic coating degradation. • Flowing fluids above coating surface affect corrosion by enhancing the water transport and

abrading the surface due to fluid shear. • Hence, it is of great importance to understand the influence of flowing fluids on the

degradation of corrosion protective organic coatings.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gkDJenJGc_s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EAz2KKCGjVY

Questions

1. Describe pipeline network from supplier to buyer.2. What is the news about global gas and oil pipelines?3. What is meant by codes standards and regulations for pipelines?4. Describe basic design for offshore plattforms.5. How would you perform risk based inspection?

Multiple task

Question X Y Z

A What Do Pipelines Transport? Diesel Fuel Natural Gas Tar

B Where is there a pipeline network in USA? From Canada to Mexico

From Alaska to Houston

Pipelines exist almost everywhere

C What is ISO standard number? ISO 290176 ISO 9001 ISO 8504-3

D Classification Societies DNV CS Bureau Veritas

E Southern Gas Corridor Venezuelan oil Caspian natural gas Russian gas

F Russian-Chineese pipeline deal Gas Oil Oil and gas

X Y Z

G Jack up: Depth limit 100 m 150 m 200 m

H Condeep plattform was invented Stavanger Aberdeen Dubai

I RBI Routine Based Inspection Risk Based Intervention Risk Based Inspection

J FPSO Production ship Drilling ship Production plattform

K TLP Trivial Loss of Production Tree Level Plattform Tension Leg Platform

L AIMS Available Inspection Management System

Asset Integrity Management Systems

Asset IntegrityMonitoring System