inside vmnh research 2008

Touchstones of Life

For the Birds

Clues to Our Past

1

4

7

InsideVirginia Museum of NATUR AL HISTORY RESEARCH

Number 3 • 2008TWO DOLLArS

Allovertheworld,millionsofpeopleenjoyvisitingmuseumswhichdisplayandexplainthediversityandbeautyofthenaturalworld.Butofthatnumber,onlyatinyfractionrealizethattheexhibitshavebeenmadepossiblelargelybyresearchconducted“behindthescenes”inpartsofthebuild-ingsdevotedtothecareanduseofextensivecollectionsofanimal,plant,andmineralspecimens.Whetheramuseumissupportedbypublicorprivatefunding,amajorpartofitsmissionislikelytocombinethecomplementaryrolesofresearch,bywhichknowledgeisincreased,andeducation,bywhichknowledgeisdispersedormadeaccessible.VMNHisnoexceptiontothisgenerality. AsexplainedbyDr.NancyMoncriefintheleadarticleofthisissue,mostresearchconductedinnaturalhistorymuseumsisdescriptiveinthesenseofdistinguishingnaturalobjects,definingtheircharacteristicsandrelationships,andprovidingtheframeworkforsynthesizinginformationaboutthem.Suchknowledgeprovidesthefoundationuponwhichotherkindsofresearcharebased,justasallformsofcommunicationultimatelydependonalphabets.Descriptiveworkisalsocomparative,bywhichthenatureandextentofnaturalvariabilityisdefinedbothwithinandbetweenspecies,andtheabilitytomakesuchdistinctionsrequiresnotjustasinglespecimen,butenoughtoshowtherangeofdiversity.Thus,theaccumulationofreferencecollectionsbecomesessential. Inaveryrealsense,museumcollectionsaresimilartolibraries–individualspecimens,likebooks,are:classifiedbysubjectmatter(relationships),storedpermanentlyinawaythatallowsaccessatneed,andalwaysavailableforfuturereference.Humanknowledgeoftheworldanditsphenomenanotonlyincreasesexponentially,butexistingperceptionsalsoconstantlychangeasresearchprovidesnewinsightsandnewinterpretationsofexistinginformation.Eachmuseumspecimenembodiesnotonlywhatispresentlyknown,butisapackageofstoreddataawaitingnewtechniquesandnewapproachesbywhichstillmoreusefulknowledgecanbeobtained. Farfromsimplybeinglockedawayfrompublicview,museumcollectionsareaccessiblenotjusttoprofessionalscientistsbuttoanymemberofsocietyhavingademonstratedinterestinmuseumresearchorpersonalexpertiseinsomebranchofknowledge.Collectionsareakindofnationaltrust,maintainedbynationalandlocalgovernmentsworldwide,andtheirimportanceaswindowsintotheall-encompassingworldaboutusdeservesunderstandingandappreciationbycitizenryatlarge.

Dr. Richard Hoffman

ThisisourthirdissueofInside VMNH ResearchandIbelievethatitemphasizestheimportantrolesthatwomenplayinscienceattheVirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistory,asallofthearticlesinthisissuearewrittenbywomenscientistsontheVMNHstaff. TheAssociationforWomeninScience(AWIS)envisionsthattherewillbeadaywhenwomenwillparticipatefullyinscience,technology,engineering,andmathematicsasmani-festedthroughequalopportunity,payequity,andrecognitioncommensuratewiththeiraccomplishments.AtVMNH,thatdayishere. OurResearchandCollectionsdepartmentnowtotals14staffincludingninewomen:Dr.NancyMoncrief,curatorof

mammalogy;Dr.ElizabethMoore,curatorofarchaeology;Dr.JudithWinston,curatorofmarinebiology;JulieHoskin,collectionsmanager;JillHarris,registrar;MaryCatherineSantoro,librarian;HaleyCartmell,researchassistant;SusanKirby,labassistantandourneweststaffmember,MaryCarman,SEMlabtechnician.WomenplayanimportantroleinvirtuallyallaspectsoftheVirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistorybutIamespeciallyproudofthewomenscientistsonourstaff.Itismybeliefthatourwomenscientistsserveasrolemodelstothethousandsofyounggirlswhovisitourmuseumandwhooneday,maybethescientistsoftomorrow.


From the Director of Research and Collections

From the Executive Director

Published by the Virginia Museum of NaturalHistory, 21 Starling Avenue, Martinsville, VA24112,forVMNHmembers,scholars,educators,libraries,journalistsandsupporters.Formember-ship information, call (276) 634-4141 or visitwww.vmnh.net.

Production StaffRyanL.Barber,EditorMelodyCartwright,Art DirectorJessicaDavenport, Managing Editor

Executive StaffTimothyJ.Gette,Executive DirectorGloriaW.Niblett,Director of Administration and ServicesDr.RichardL.Hoffman,Director of Research and CollectionsDr.DennisA.Casey,Director of Education and Public ProgramsRyanL.Barber,Director of Marketing and External AffairsDebraJ.Lewis,Director of Development

Research and Collections Board CommitteeDr.J.JamesMurray,Jr.,Chair Dr.OliverS.Flint,Jr.,Vice ChairBriggsW.AndrewsDr.BruceD.SmithLisaL.Wu

Scientific Advisory BoardDr.WilliamShear,Chair Dr.JohnHolsingerDr.MichaelKosztarabDr.DuncanPorterDr.JanetReidDr.MarySchweitzer

Research and Collections StaffDr.RichardL.Hoffman,Director of Research and Collections, Curator of Recent Invertebrates Dr.JamesS.Beard,Assistant Director of Research and Collections for Earth Sciences,Curator of Earth SciencesDr.NancyD.Moncrief,Assistant Director of Research and Collections for Life Sciences, Curator of MammalogyDr.AltonC.Dooley,Jr.,Assistant Curator of PaleontologyDr.ElizabethA.Moore,Curator of Archaeology Dr.LauckW.Ward,Curator of Invertebrate PaleontologyDr.JudithE.Winston, Curator of Marine Biology

JulieHoskin,Collections ManagerJillK.Harris,RegistrarMaryCatherineSantoro, LibrarianMaryCarman, SEM Lab TechnicianHaleyE.Cartmell,Research Assistant, Biology SusanC.Kirby,Lab Assistant, Earth SciencesJasonLunze, Collections Technician

About the cover: Domesticated dog mandible from the zooarchaeology comparative collection. This modern specimen, as well as the others in the collection, are used to help identify bones and bone fragments found at archaeological sites.Photo by Jessica Davenport.

Number 3 • 2008

The Virginia Museum of Natural History is accredited by the American Association of Museums, and is a member of the Association of Science-Technology Centers, Heritage Preservation, Southeastern Museums

Conference, NSC Alliance, Virginia Association of Museums, andMuseum Store Association. VMNH is an agency of the

Secretary of Natural Resources for the Commonwealth of Virginia.The VMNH Foundation is a 501 (c) 3 nonprofit organization.

Timothy J. Gette

Collections

Touchstones of LifeBy Dr. Nancy D. Moncrief,VMNH Curator of Mammalogy

harlesElton,thefoundingeditoroftheJournal of Animal Ecology,onceremarked,“thereislittleuse

inmakingobservationsaboutananimalifyoudon’tknowitsname.”1Theprimaryfunctionofbiologyandpaleontologycol-lectionsistodocumentpastandpresentorganismsintheirnaturalenvironments.Thespecimensinthesecollectionsarethephysicalbasisfornamingandidentifyingplants,animals,andotherlivingthings. Humanshaveidentifiedandnamedplants,animals,andotherorganismsforthousandsofyears.Knowingwhichplantsdo(anddonot)easepainwasandisvalu-ableinformation.Infact,theorganizedscientificstudyofnatureinBritaintracesitsrootstonaturalistsocietiesthatmettocollectandidentifyplantswithmedicinalproperties.2

Today,namingorganismsispartofthescienceoftaxonomy.Throughaformalprocedure,oftencalled“describinganewspecies,”auniquetwo-partname(usuallyinLatin)isgiventoaspecimeninanaturalhistorycollection.Thedescriptionistypicallypublishedinatechnicaljournalasanarrativephysicaldescriptionofthespecimenaccompaniedbyphotographsanddrawings.Theparticularspecimendescribedinthepublicationisthenthephysicalstandard(typespecimen)forthatuniquename.Other,sufficientlysimilarspecimensarethenlabeledwiththesamename,andthatnameissubsequentlyusedtorefertoalllikespecimens.

Collectionsprovideinformationaboutwhichorganismsoccurredwhereandwhen.Inthisway,collectionsareusedtodeter-minethegeographicdistributionsandabun-danceoforganisms.Mapsinfieldguidesandotherscientificliteratureareultimatelybasedonphysicalevidence:specimensinnaturalhistorycollections.

C

(continued)

Above: VMNH collections are resources for research by scientists in Virginia, other states, and the entire world. This publication is the formal description of a new kind of stonefly. The type specimen pictured here, Acroneuria yuchi, is housed in VMNH’s collections of recent invertebrates.

INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008 1

“The primary function of

biology and paleontology

collections is to

document past

and present

organisms in their

natural environments.”

Specimensinnaturalhistorycollectionsalsoprovidethemate-rialthatisessentialforstudiesofevolutionaryandecologicalrela-tionships.Collectionsoffossilsallowthedirectstudyofancestralorganisms.Theyalsoallowscientiststocompiletransitionalseriesforunderstandingevolutionaryhistories.Ecologicalrelationshipsofextinctspeciescanbeinvestigatedusingfossilassemblages.Recenttechnologicaladvancesalsoallowscientiststodeterminewhatani-malsateusingchemicalanalysisoffossils. Themuskoxfossilshownabovealsoillustratesanotherfacetoftheuseofnaturalhistorycollections.Often,specimensarecollectedforonepurpose–toanswerquestionslike“whatkindsofanimalslivedinSaltville,Virginia14,000yearsago?”Iftheyareproperlyhousedandmaintained,newtechnologiescanbeusedtore-analyzethesamespecimensandansweranentirelydifferentquestion,inthiscase“whatdidtheyeat?”Inasimilarway,specimensthatwerecollectedbeforethestructureofDNAwasdiscoveredcannowbeusedtoexaminehistoricalchangesingenefrequencies,whichareamongthemostimportantdatainevolutionarybiology.3

Naturalhistorycollectionsprovidethematerialnecessaryforcomparativestudiesoforganismsacrossspaceandtime.Manyareasofappliedresearch–diseasevectors,environmentalcontaminants,biologicalinvasions,climatechange–relyentirely,orinlargepart,onphysicalevidenceandinformationthatcanonlybeprovidedbythesecollections.

2 INSIDE VMNH RESEARCH • 2008

Researchers at the University of Maryland drilled a small hole in this fossil bone to

obtain material for a chemical analysis of this muskox’s diet.4

1MarstonBates.The Nature of Natural History.(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1905)9. 2DavidEllistonAllen.The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History.(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1994)8. 3JaredM.Diamond.“Olddeadratsarevaluable,”Nature.347(1990):334-335. 4ChristineA.M.France,PaulaM.Zelanko,AlanJ.Kaufman,andThomasR.Holtz.“CarbonandnitrogenisotopicanalysisofPleistocenemammalsfromtheSaltvilleQuarry(Virginia,USA):Implicationsfortrophicrelationships,”Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.249(2007):271-282.

What is a specimen?

Theobjectsheldbynaturalhistorymuseumsarecalledspecimens.Abiologicalorpaleontologicalspecimen

isanindividualorganism,partofanorganism,oranaturally-occurringmaterialrelatedtoanorganism.Forexample,birdsaretraditionallypreservedasskinswiththefeathersstillattached.Thebirdskinisusuallypositionedonitsbackwiththewingstuckedandthelegsinlinewiththebody.Thistypeofpreservation(asopposedtoalife-likeposewiththewingsspread)isspaceefficient,allowingmorebirdskinstobestoredinagivenamountofspace.Nests,eggs,andfossiltrackwaysareexamplesofnaturally-occurringmaterialsthatarenotorganisms,buttheyarenaturalhistoryspecimens.Aspecimenmayexistinitsoriginalstate,inanalteredform,orsomecombinationofthetwo.Forexample,afossilmaybeleftinitsrockmatrix,oriftime,money,andtechniquespermit,itmayberemovedfromthematrix.Aspecimenmayconsistofonepieceormanyrelatedpieces.Forexample,anindividualmammalistypicallypreservedasaskinwithhairattachedandaskeleton.Theskin,togetherwithalltheindividualbonesandtheskull,areconsideredtobeasinglespecimenbecausetheyallrepresentthesameindividualanimal.Bonesandteetharetheconnectionbetweenlivingmammalsandextinctformsrepresentedonlybyfossilmaterial.

Q & A


Why do you have so many specimens?

Itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,topredictwhichspecimenswillbeusedinthefuturebywhomandforwhat

purpose.KeithThomsonobserves,“Itisanoldsayinginbusinessthathalfofallmoneyspentonadvertisingiswasted,butnobodycantellwhichhalf.Similarlyinmuseums,atanyonetimeitmaybeurgentorfashionabletostudyaparticulargroupoforganismsoraparticularphenomenon.Therestofthecollectionsareunused.But25yearsinthefuture,adifferentsubsetofthecollectionswillbeinconstantuse.Whowouldhavethoughtitimportantin1950tosavebrokenbitsofperegrinefalconeggshellcollectedoverthelastcentury?Orthat,afterRachelCarson’sbook‘SilentSpring,’suchfragmentswouldbeessentialfordocumentingthelethaleffectofDDToneggshellthicknessworldwide?”1

Holdingsofaninstitution’snaturalhistorycollectionstypicallyreflecttheresearchinterestsofthescientistswhohaveworkedthere.Forexample,VMNHhasunusuallylargecollectionsoftreesquirrelsandmillipedsbecauseofDr.Moncrief ’sandDr.Hoffman’sefforts.

Why are most specimens never seen by the general public?

Specimensinnaturalhistorycollectionsarestoredinspecialconditionstoreducedamagecausedbyfluctuationsandextremesintemperatureandhumidity.Mostspecimensaresusceptibletodeteriorationduetoexposuretolight.Insectsand

rodentscanalsocauseirreparablephysicaldamagetospecimenssuchasmammalandbirdskins. Properstorageisextremelyimportant,butsoisproperdocumentation.Acommonsayinginmuseumcollectionsis“Alabelwithoutaspecimenismoreusefulthanaspecimenwithoutalabel.”Labelstypicallyincludeinformationaboutwhere,when,andhowaspeci-menwasobtained.Allthisinformationisnecessarytoplacethatspecimenintothecorrectgeographic,ecological,andevolutionarycontext. Withalabel,thespecimenisawealthofinformation;withoutalabel,thesamespeci-menisoflittleornovaluetoscience,althoughitmaybeusefulforexhibitsoreducationalprogramming. Specimensthataredisplayedinexhibitsorusedineducationprogramsaresubjectedtoconditions(excessivelightandhandling)thatdamageanddestroythemovertime.Becauseoftheamountsoftime,money,andeffortrequiredtocollect,preserve,anddocumentaspecimen,mostmuseumsdonotuseproperlydocumentedspecimensintheirexhibitsandprogramming.Forthisreason,thevastmajorityofspecimensinnaturalhistorycollectionsareneverputonpublicdisplay.

Collections storage area for specimens preserved in alcohol.

Q & A

(continued on back cover)

1KeithS.Thomson.“NaturalHistoryMuseumCollec-tionsinthe21stCentury,”ActionBioscience.org.April2005<http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/thomson.html>.Photos pages 1–3 by Melody Cartwright.

Quality,RayandIbeganalong-termstudyofraccoonbiologyontheseislands.First,wesurveyedmostoftheislandstodocu-mentwhichislandshaveraccoonsonthem.Thisinvolvedsystematicallylookingfortracksduringdifferentseasonsoftheyear.Wealsotrappedanimals,fittedthemwithradio-collarstomonitortheirmovements,

andclippedoffasmallpieceofearforgeneticanalysis. Fromoursystematictracksur-veys,wewereabletoidentifyislandsthatalwayshaveraccoonslivingonthem.Severalislandsnever,oralmostnever,hadraccoonsduringourstudy.Fromtheradiotelemetrystud-ies,welearnedthat

raccoonscantravelalmosttwokilometers(about1.2miles)inasingledayonanisland.Manyoftheislandsaremuchclosertogetherthanthat,andthechan-nelsseparatingsomeoftheislandsarefairlynar-rowand/orshallow.Weknewthattheraccoonscouldmovetoandamongtheislands,butwedidn’tknow

nthelate1990s,mygoodfriend,Dr.RaymondDueser,andIlearnedfromanotherfriend,BarryTruitt,whoworks

forTheNatureConservancy,thatpopula-tionsofnestingbirdsweredecliningonVirginia’sbarrierislands.Theseislandsareamongthemostimportantnestingareasforshorebirdsandcolonialwaterbirdsbecausetheycomprisetheonlyundevelopedbarriersystemontheeasternseaboard.Theseislandsserveasthebirds’lastsafehaven.Iftheycan’tnestandsuccessfullyrearyounghere,theyareinserioustroublefromabiologicalconservationperspective. ThosewhoknowmeascuratorofmammalogymaybewonderingwhyI’minvestigatingdecliningpopulationsofbirds.Well,itturnsoutthatraccoonsandredfoxesareoneofthemainreasonsforthosedeclines.Bothofthesepredatorsfeedonavarietyofplantandanimalmaterial,andtheyespeciallyliketoeatbirdeggs.Barryaskedustohelpevaluatethesituationandmakerecommendationsthatwouldresultinreducedpredationoneggs.Becauserac-coonsaremorewidespreadandabundantthanfoxes,andthushavethepotentialtoaffectthepopulationsofbirdsonmoreislands,wedecidedtofocusourtimeandenergyontheraccoons. So,withsupportfromtheVirginiaCoastalZoneManagementProgram,whichisadministeredbytheCommonwealthofVirginia’sDepartmentofEnvironmental

For the BirdsBy Dr. Nancy D. Moncrief,VMNH Curator of Mammalogy

Mammalogy


Ihowoftentheydidso.Thiswasacriticalquestiontoanswer.Ifalargenumberofanimalsareconstantlymovingtoandfromaparticularisland,therecouldbeaconstantstreamofeggpredatorsarrivingjustbeforethebird-nestingseasoneachspring. Overaseven-yearperiodoftrapping,marking,andreleasingseveralhundred

“Because raccoons are

more widespread and

abundant than

foxes ... we decided

to focus our time

and energy on

the raccoons.”


(continued)

animals,andradiotelemetryofseveraldozen,wedirectlyobservedonlyfourin-stancesofraccoonsmovingbetweenislands,orbetweenthemainlandandtheislands. Becausedirectobservationofinter-islandmovementsisdifficult,weturnedtoanindirectmeasureofmovement:geneticvariationwithinandamongpopulations.

Populationsthatfrequentlyexchangeindividualsaregeneticallyverysimilartoeachother.Thenumberofgeneticdifferencesbetweenpopulationsisameasureofhowoftenindividualsmovebetweenthosepopulations.Fortheraccoondata,iftheanimalsfrequentlymovedbetweenislands,wewouldexpecttoseeveryfewgeneticdifferencesbetweentheanimalsontheseislands. WhenRayandIdecidedtousegeneticanalysestolookatourislandraccoons,Iaskedacolleague,Dr.RonaldVanDenBusscheofOklahomaStateUniversity,toworkwithus.Ron,aninternationallyre-nownedgeneticist,hasaDNAsequencerinhislab,andoneofhisMaster’sstudentswasfocusingonraccoongeneticsashisthesis

project. WithRon’shelp,wehavesequencedandanalyzeddataforalmosttwohundredraccoons.Wedocumentedgeneticdiffer-encesamonganimalsfromnearbyislandsandconcludedthatmovementamongtheislandsisnotfrequent. Becausethereareonlyafewraccoonsonsomeislands,wewereabletoconsiderabehavioraltechniquecalledconditionedtasteaversiontomanagethoseanimals.Thistechnique“teaches”nestpredators,suchasraccoons,toavoidtheeggsofnestingshore-birdsandcolonialwaterbirds.Ifitworksaswehope,aversiveconditioningholdsthepromiseofbeinganeffectivelow-costmethodtoreducenestpredationbythosefewraccoons.

Above: The soft sand of the islands is an excellent medium for capturing data about an island’s inhabitants. We used systematic surveys of mammal tracks to document the occurrence of several species. These are raccoon tracks; the larger tracks on the right of the photo are the animal’s hind feet.

Top left: This animal is easily identified by the eartag colors and numbers. It is also wearing a radiotransmitting collar.

Opposite page: This untagged animal is handling a chicken egg during a test of methods for deploying the automatic cameras. Photos by Joel D. Martin.


Note:The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Depart-ment of Commerce, NOAA, or any of its subagencies.

Wearestillconductingexperimentstotestourmethods.Basically,beforetheonsetofthenestingseason,wescattersurrogateeggsthatareinjectedwithanaversive-conditioningcompound.Theaversivecompoundisundetectabletothepredator,andthecompoundproducesasevere,short-term,non-lethalillnessinthepredatorsoonafteriteatsthetreatedeggs.Ifthetechniqueworkscorrectly,predatorswilldevelopanaversiontotreatedeggs,willgeneralizethisaversiontountreatedeggs,andwillstopdepredatingalleggs.Thatis,byeatinganeggandgettingreallysick,theraccoonwill“learn”thatalleggsarenotgoodtoeatandwillavoidtheeggsofthebirdswe’retryingtohelp. RayandhisMaster’sstudent,JoelMartin,haveconductedseveralexperimentsusingJapanesequaileggs,whichareverysimilarinsizeandappearancetotheeggsofmanyshore-birdsandcolonialwaterbirds,assurrogates.Theseexperimentsincludedplacingartificialnestswithtreatedeggsatvariouslocationsononeoftheislands.Joelusedcameratrapstodocumentwhichislandinhabitantsvisitedwhichnests.Becausehehadtrappedandmarkedalltheraccoonsontheisland,hewasabletoidentify,inphotographs,theindividualrac-coonsthatvisitedeachnest. Wehavenotyetconductedafieldtrialofourconditionedtasteaversionmethods.Butourresultstodatehavebeenquitepromising.Duringthecourseofthisstudy,wehavegainedquiteabitofknowledgeabouttheecologyandgeneticsoftheraccoonsthatinhabittheVirginiabarrierislands.So,intheend,thisprojecthasn’tonlybeen“forthebirds.”

This anesthetized animal has been tagged with a unique eartag, marked with black hair dye, and fitted with a radio collar so that it can be identified and its movements can be monitored. Photo by Robert Alonso.

fyoulookthroughthewindowofthearchaeologylaboratoryattheVirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistoryyouarelikely

toseeawidevarietyofobjectslaidoutonthetablesandcounters.Onanygivendayyoucanseesomeofthenineteenarchaeologyvolunteerssortingandidentifyingprojectilepointsandpotsherdsfromthecollectionsorwashingarti-factsrecentlybroughtinfromtheexcavationsofanearlyAfrican-AmericanmedicalbuildinginMartinsville.Mostly,though,whatyouwillseeareanimalbonesandbonefragmentsthatdatetoca.A.D.900–1500. Archaeologyisthestudyofpeopleandtheircultures:howandwhypeoplelivedindifferentplacesandenvironmentsandwhatthatmighttellusabouthumancultureingeneral. Examiningtheanimalbonesfromarchaeo-logicaldepositscanbeusedtoinferhumanbe-haviorinthepast.Animalbonesprovidedirectevidenceofwhichspeciesofanimalswereeatenorhuntedforotheruses.Whencertainspecificbonesandteetharepresentyoucanalsodeduce

Clues to Our PastBy Dr. Elizabeth Moore,VMNH Curator of Archaeology

I

Archaeology


(continued)

whattimeofyearcertainanimalswerehunted.Iftherearecutmarksorburningonthebonesyoucandeterminehowtheanimalwasbutch-eredandhowitwascooked.Ifyouhaveenoughbonesfromaroundavillagetomatchelementsfromasingleanimal,sometimesyoucantellifpeoplesharedfoodfromtheanimalstheyhunted. CurrentlyunderstudyinthearchaeologylabaretheassemblagesfromseveralIndianvillagesthroughouttheMiddleAtlanticregionthatdatefromca.A.D.900toA.D.1500.Dur-ingthistime,manyIndiantribesintheEasternUnitedStatesbecamemoredependentontheplantfoodstheyweregrowing.Whileseveral

seedcropshadbeendomesticatedandexploitedforthousandsofyears,corn,beans,andsquashwerebecomingmorecriticaltosupportgrow-inghumanpopulations.Whenacultureshiftsfromnomadichuntingandgatheringtomoresettledfarming,manysocioeconomicfactorsotherthandietchangeaswell.Socialchangesmustoccurtoaccommodatethedifferenttypesofworkassociatedwithahorticulturaloragri-culturaleconomicsystem.Withmanyhuntingandgatheringgroups,theentiregrouptravelsthroughoutageographicareaexploitingnaturalresourcesastheybecomeseasonallyavailable.Whendomesticatedcropsareacriticalfoodresourcehowever,somesegmentofthegroupstaysinacentralareatotendandprotectthe

crops.Othersgooffperiodicallytohunt,togatherplants,togetclayforpottery,tocollectspecifictypesofstoneforstonetools,ortofighttheneighboringtribes,buttheyreturntothatmainvillagearea.Theseareverydifferentwaysofliving. ResearchIhaveconductedontheassemblagesfromseveralsitesrepresentingtwoperiodsalongthePotomacRiverindicatedthatthereisachangeinthehuntingstrate-giesbetweenthetwoperiods.Fortheearlieroftheseperiods,knownastheMontgomeryComplex,IselectedassemblagesthatdatetocircaA.D.1200.Assemblagesfromthelaterofthesetwoperiods,theLurayFocus,dateto

Top: Volunteers measure deer bones from archaeological sites. These measurements can be used to compare the size of deer at different points in time and from different geographic areas. Photo by Melody Cartwright.

Using the Scanning Electron Microscope to determine if cut marks on bones are made with stone or metal tools, I can help colleagues determine if an archaeological site was occupied before or after European contact. The photo on the left is a cut mark made on a deer bone with a metal knife; the other is a cut mark made on a deer bone with a stone tool. Photos by Dr. Elizabeth Moore.


A.D.1400-1500. DuringtheMontgomeryFocus,alargevarietyofanimalswerehuntedfrommanyhabitats.White-taileddeer,themostimportantanimalinthediet,werehuntedwithaspecificstrategythatmaximizedmeatreturn.Theindividualspresentwereprimarilythoseofprimemeat-bearingageandsize.Finally,seasonallyavailableresourcessuchasfishandmigratingbirdsweretargetedastheybecameavailable.Asanoverallpattern,thehumanoccupantsofthesesitesappeartohavebeenmaximizingtheexploitationofmanyoftheanimalresourcesfoundinthearea. Incontrast,duringtheLurayFocusonlyalimitednumberoftaxawerebeinghunted.Manyofthoseanimalsweretheonesthatwereprob-ablyfoundfeedinginthefields.FewaquaticspecieswereutilizedalthoughthesitesareadjacenttothePotomacRiverandidealforfishing.OneLu-rayFocussite,theHughesSite,islocatedneartheFallLine.Itislikelythatseveralspeciesoflargeanadromousfishwouldhavebeenavailableatleastonaseasonalbasisduringspawningrunsbutdonotappearinthefaunalassemblage.Overall,seasonallylimitedresourcesappeartohavebeenhuntedorcollectedmuchlessthanduringtheMontgomeryFocus. WecanconcludethatbetweenthetwoperiodsrepresentedbytheMontgomeryFocusandtheLurayFocus,therewasaconcentrationintheuseofveryproductivespeciessuchasdeerandturkey.(Seetheaccompanyinglistofanimalspresentineachperiod.Notethatthistabledoesnotgivefrequency,justsimplepresence.)Thespeciesbeingfocusedonnotonlyhavearelativelyhighbodyweightrelativetotheotheravailableanimalsintheirclass,butcanalsobefoundingardensorgardenborders. IamcurrentlyanalyzingofthefaunalassemblagesfromthreevillageslocatedinthemountainsofWesternPennsylvaniaandtwoadditionalassemblagesfromtheMarylandCoastalPlaintoexaminewhetherthistrendindecreaseddiversityisseeninotherareasbeyondthePotomacValleyorifitisageographicallyspecificadaptation.OverthepasttwentyyearsIhaveanalyzedoverhalfofamillionanimalbonesorbonefragmentsfromarchaeologicalsitesinVirginia,Maryland,the

DistrictofColumbiaandPennsylvania.Whiletherearesomeanimalsthatareimportantthroughoutthatgeo-graphicareaovertime(almosteveryonereliedheavilyondeerandtosomedegree,turkeyandsquirrel)thereareclearregionaldifferencesthatmaynotbedirectlytiedtoenvironmentalavailability.Closeexaminationofsuchdifferencesmayindicatewhenanimalswerebeinghuntedsimplybecausetheywerepresentinanarea(forexample,elkarefoundinassemblagesfromthemoun-tainsofPennsylvaniabutnotintheVirginiaCoastal

Plain)orbecausethereweremoresubtleculturalreasonsthatguidedthosehuntingdecisions. Someinterestingques-tionswereraisedbywhatIhavenotfoundinthearchaeologicalrecord.Inspiteofhearingfrommanypeople,readingonmanyWebsites,andhearinginmanypresenta-tionsthatbisonwerehuntedforthousandsofyearsinVirginia,Ihaveneveridentifiedabisonbonefromaprehistoricarchaeologicalsite.NorhavetheotherzooarchaeologiststhatIhavecontacted.North

Carolinaresearchersconductedastudythatgatheredinformationonalloftheplantandanimalremainsrecoveredfromallarchaeologicalsitesinthestate;thereisnotasinglebisonbonelisted.IfbisonwerepresentinVirginia,theirbonesshouldbeinthearchaeologi-calrecord.Thesebonesarelarge,dense,andnoteasilybrokenintosmallunidentifiablefragments.DidtheoccasionalbisonmakeitswayintoVirginiathroughamountainpassandprovideagoodenoughhuntingstorytolastforgenerations?CouldEuropeanexplorershaveseenoneoftheseinfrequentbisonandexaggeratedtheirpresencetoencouragecoloniststocomewherethefoodwasplentiful?OrweretherebisoninVirginiaandwejusthaven’texcavatedtherightsitestofindtheirre-mains?Astatewidesurveyofanimalremains,similartotheonedoneinNorthCarolina,wouldprovideamoreaccuratelistingoftheanimalsidentifiedinarchaeologi-calassemblages.Itwouldalsoprovidedatatomakemorein-depthregionalcomparisonsofanimaluseovertime.Thistypeofsurvey,aswellascontinuedanalysisofmoreassemblagescanbeusedtoanswerthisandotherquestionsabouthowpeoplehaveusedVirginia’snaturalresourcesovertime.

“Archaeology is the

study of people and

their cultures: how and

why people lived in

different places and

environments and what

that might tell us about

human culture in general.”

Montgomery Focusfrogs/toadsbullfrogsnappingturtlecommonmuskturtleeasternpaintedturtleeasternspinysoftshelleasternboxturtleboxandpondturtleslizardscoralsnakesnon-poisonoussnakesindeterminatesnakecommonloonwhistlingswangeesemergansersruffedgrousecommonbobwhitewildturkeypassengerpigeonpileatedwoodpeckerred-belliedwoodpeckerwoodpeckersnorthernhogsuckershortheadredhorsegoldenredhorsesilverredhorsebrownbullheadstripedbasssunfishesminnowsperch-likefishtroutandalliescatfishessnowshoehareeasterncottontailwoodchuckeasternchipmunkeasterngraysquirreleasternfoxsquirrelsquirrelbeavermuskratporcupineopossummountainlionbobcatdogredfoxgrayfoxfoxlongtailweaselminkriverotterstripedskunkblackbearraccoonwhite-taileddeerelk

Luray Focusfrogs/toadssnappingturtleeasternspinysoftshelleasternboxturtlewhistlingswanred-tailedhawkwildturkeycommonshinereasterncottontailwoodchuckeasterngraysquirrelsquirrelbeavermuskratbobcatdogredfoxgrayfoxfoxlongtailweaselblackbearraccoonwhite-taileddeerelk

VMNH Books and Publications

Special Publications:ProceedingsoftheSecondSymposiumonSoutheasternFoxSquirrels,Sciurus niger.N.D.Moncrief,J.W.Edwards,andP.A.Tappe,eds.Pp.1-84.1993.

AmphibiansandReptilesofAssateagueandChincoteagueIslands.J.C.MitchellandJ.M.Anderson.Pp.1-120.1994.

ScaleInsectsofNortheasternNorthAmerica:Identification,Biology,andDistribution.MichaelKosztarab.Pp.1-650.1996.

DevelopingStaffResourcesforManagingCollec-tions.P.S.Cato.Pp.1-71.1996.

TheBiologyofTigerBeetlesandaGuidetotheSpeciesoftheSouthAtlanticStates.C.B.KnisleyandT.D.Schultz.Pp.1-210.1997.

EcologyandEvolutionaryBiologyofTreeSquir-rels.M.A.Steele,J.F.Merritt,andD.A.Zegers,eds.Pp1-310.1998

ProceedingsoftheAppalachianBiogeographySymposium.R.P.Eckerlin,ed.Pp.1-258.1999.

ChecklistoftheMillipedsofNorthandMiddleAmerica.R.L.Hoffman.Pp.1-564.1999.

IdentificationofWaterfowlBreastbonesandAvianOsteology(Sterna)ofNorthAmericanAnseriformes.D.W.Oates,E.D.Boyd,andJ.S.Ramaekers.Pp.1-51.2003.

AClassificationandChecklistoftheGenusPseu-danophthalmusJeannel(Coleoptera:Carabidae:Trechinae).T.C.Barr,Jr.Pp.1-52.2004.

AFieldGuidetoMothsofEasternNorthAmerica.C.V.Covell,Jr.Pp.1-496.2005.

TheHispineBeetlesofAmericaNorthofMexico(Chrysomelidae:Cassidinae).C.L.Staines.Pp.1-178.2006

Memoirs:EvolutionofEnvironmentsandHominidaeintheAfricanWesternRiftValley.N.T.Boaz,ed.Pp.1-356.1990.

MolluscanBiostratigraphyoftheMiocene,MiddleAtlanticCoastalPlainofNorthAmerica.L.W.Ward.Pp.1-159.2001.

MolluscanAssemblagesoftheChowanRiverFormation,PartA.L.W.WardandN.L.Gilinsky.Pp.1-40.1993.

TheMegaflorafromtheQuanticoLocality(UpperAlbian),LowerCretaceousPotomacGroupofVirginia.G.R.Upchurch,P.R.Crone,andA.N.Drinnan.Pp.1-57.1994.

ASynopsisoftheNorthAmericanCentipedesoftheOrderScolopendromorpha(Chilopoda).R.M.Shelley.Pp.1-108.2002.

SystematicsofthefreshwateramphipodgenusCrangonyx(Crangonyctidae)inNorthAmerica.J.ZhangandJ.R.Holsinger.Pp.1-274.2003.

Re-descriptionandrevisionofSmitt’s“FloridanBryozoa”intheCollectionoftheMuseumofComparativeZoology,HarvardUniversity.J.E.Winston.Pp.1-160.2005.

ANewSpeciesofSqualodon(Mammalia,Cetacea)fromtheMiddleMioceneofVirginia.A.C.Dooley,Jr.Pp.1-17.2005.

GeologyandPaleontologyoftheLeeCreekMine,NorthCarolina,IV.C.E.Ray,D.J.Bohaska,I.A.Koretsky,L.W.Ward,andL.G.Barnes.Pp.1-517.2008.

Guidebooks:EarlytoMiddleCarnian(Triassic)FloraandFaunaoftheRichmondandTaylorsvilleBasins,VirginiaandMaryland,U.S.A.B.CornetandP.E.Olsen.Pp.1-83.1990.

GeologicEvolutionoftheEasternUnitedStates.A.SchultzandE.Compton-Gooding.Pp.1-304.1991.

StratfordHallPlantationandWestmorelandStatePark:PhysicalandCulturalGeology,andPaleon-tology.L.B.Rohr,M.E.Lewis,andL.W.Ward.Pp.1-93.2002.

EoceneandOligoceneStratigraphyofSoutheast-ernNorthCarolina.L.W.Ward.Pp.1-25.2003

GeologyandPaleontologyoftheStratfordHallPlantationandWestmorelandStatePark.L.W.WardandA.C.DooleyJr.,Pp.1-87.2005.

GeologyintheSouthsideVirginiaPiedmont.W.S.Henika,J.Hibbard,J.S.Beard.Pp.1-30.2006.LeeCreek,Aurora,NorthCarolina.L.W.WardandI.K.Gilmore.Pp.1-138,2007.

Insects of Virginia:SeedbugsofVirginiaHeteroptera:Lygaeoidea:Lygaeidae.R.L.HoffmanPp.i-vi,1-111.1996.

AssassinbugsofVirginia(Heteroptera:Reduvi-idae).R.L.Hoffman.Pp.1-73.2006.

Popular Publications:MountainLakeRegionanditsBirdLife.D.W.Johnston.Pp.1-90.2000.

Books listed may be ordered online at www.vmnh.net or by calling 276-634-4141. Other options include fax: 276-634-4199 or e-mail: [email protected].

VirginiaMuseumofNaturalHistoryAttention:PublicationsOrder21StarlingAvenueMartinsville,VA24112

VMNH Senior Fellows

Dr. Mitchell ByrdCollege of William & MaryWilliamsburg, Virginia

Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr.Smithsonian InstitutionWashington DC

Dr. William J. Hargis, Jr.Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceGloucester Point, Virginia

Dr. William A. ShearHampden Sydney CollegeHampden Sydney, Virginia

Dr. E-An ZenUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland

VMNH Research Associates

Dr. Brian J. AxsmithUniversity of South AlabamaMobile, AL

Dr. Michael B. BarberU. S. Forest Service-Jefferson and Washington ForestsSalem, Virginia

Dr. Donna Boyd Radford UniversityRadford, Virginia

Dr. R. P. Stephen Davis, Jr.Univ. of North Carolina-Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina

Dr. Raymond D. Dueser Utah State UniversityLogan, Utah

Dr. Ralph P. EckerlinNorthern Virginia Community CollegeAnnandale, Virginia

Dr. Arthur V. Evans Richmond Virginia

Dr. Nicholas C. FraserNational Museums ScotlandEdinburgh, Scotland

Dr. Steven J. Hageman Appalachian State UniversityBoone, North Carolina

Mr. William S. Henika Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Dr. Thomas J. HenrySystematic Entomology LaboratoryPlant Sciences Institute, USDA-- ARSWashington, DC

Dr. Richard HightonProfessor EmeritusUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland

Dr. John R. Holsinger Old Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia

Dr. Patricia H. Kelley University of North Carolina- WilmingtonWilmington, North Carolina

Dr. Michael John Klein Richmond, Virginia

Dr. Boris C. Kondratieff Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, Colorado

Ms. Marilyn R. LondonSmithsonian InstitutionNational Museum of Natural History

University of MarylandBethesda, Maryland

Dr. Jerry N. McDonaldGranville, Ohio

Dr. Frank K. McKinney Appalachian State UniversityBoone, North Carolina

Dr. Joseph C. Mitchell University of RichmondRichmond, Virginia

Dr. Andrew L. MooreKent State UniversityKent, OH

Dr. Karen MudarNational Park ServiceWashington, DC

Dr. Paul E. OlsenLamont-Doherty Geological ObservatoryPalisades, New York

Dr. John F. Pagels Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, Virginia

Dr. Charles R. ParkerUSGS Biological Resources Division- Great Smoky Field StationGatlinburg, Tennessee

Dr. John H. Porter University of VirginiaCharlottesville, Virginia

Dr. Janet ReidVirginia Museum of Natural HistoryMartinsville, Virginia

Dr. Edwin S. RobinsonEmeritus ProfessorDepartment of Geological SciencesVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Dr. Steven M. Roble Virginia Department of Conservation and RecreationDivision of Natural HeritageRichmond, Virginia

Dr. Christopher M. Stevenson Virginia Department of Historic ResourcesRichmond, Virginia

Dr. Hans-Dieter Sues Smithsonian InstitutionNational Museum of Natural HistoryWashington, DC

Dr. Richard P. Tollo George Washington UniversityWashington, DC

Dr. Robert J. Tracy Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg Virginia

Dr. Christopher TudgeAmerican UniversityWashington, DC

Dr. William David Webster University of North Carolina- WilmingtonWilmington, North Carolina

Dr. Robert M. WoollacottHarvard UniversityCambridge, MA

Affiliated Researchers

Ms. Carole L. NashJames Madison UniversityHarrisonburg, Virginia


10% TOTAL RECOVERED FIBERALL POST-CONSUMER FIBER

Bydefinition,museumsareinstitutionsthatcollect,document,preserve,display,andinterpretobjects(specimens)forthepublicbenefit.Itisthecollectionsofspecimensheldbymuseumsthatdistinguishthemfromothereducationalandscientificinstitutions.


Number 3 • 2008

Q & A

What is a museum?

Virginia Museum of Natural History21StarlingAvenueMartinsville,Virginia24112

www.vmnh.netADDRESSSERVICEREQUESTED

Non-ProfitOrganizationU.S. Postage

P A I DMartinsville, VAPermit No. 456

Naturalhistoryisthescientificstudyofnature,naturalobjects,andnaturalphenomena.Naturalhis-

toryresearchofteninvestigateshoworganismsevolve,wheretheylive,andhowtheyinteractwitheachother. VMNH’sofficialcharterpurposes,asstatedintheCodeofVirginiaare:toinves-tigate,preserve,andexhibitthevariousele-mentsofnaturalhistoryfoundinVirginiaandotherpartsoftheUnitedStatesandtheworld;tofosteranunderstandingandappreciationofhowmanandtheearthhaveevolved;toencourageandpromoteresearchinthevariednaturalheritageofVirginiaandotherpartsoftheworld;toencourageindividualsandscholarstostudyVirginia’snaturalhistoryandtoapplythisunderstandingofthepasttothechallengesofthefuture;toestablishastatemuseumofnaturalhistoryinVirginiawherespecimensofnaturalhistory,especiallythoseofVirginiaorigin,canbeproperlyhoused,caredfor,cataloged,andstudied,ensuringthatthereisapermanentrepositoryforthestate’snaturalheritage;and,tocoordinateanefficientnetworkinVirginiawhereresearch-ersandthepubliccanreadilyusenaturalhistorymaterialoftheMuseum,itsbranches,Virginia’sinstitutionsofhighereducation,andothermuseums.

What is natural history?

(continued from page 3)

Photo by Jay Rosenblatt.

inside vmnh research 2008

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