Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (1991) 7,178 - 186

Information technology in art and design: visual sensitivity, learning and assessment

T. Genin Northumberland Park Community School, Haringey

Abstract Current changes in the structure of British Art Education provide new opportunities for Information Technology to support the difficult task of teaching and evaluating. In the light of the 1988 Education Reform Act, this paper considers the use of micro- computers to develop visual sensitivity and skills. A test model is discussed which examines an experiential approach towards the teaching, evaluation and interpretation of colour theory.

This is an interim report, the work is ongoing and no overriding conclusions have yet been made.

Keywords: IT; Visual sensitivity; Colour understanding; Assessment techniques.

Current Developments in British Art Education. Pupils aged 11-16 years

In 1988 The Education Reform Act (ERA) was introduced in order to provide a broad, balanced curriculum which according to the act;

‘(1) promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of

(2) prepares such pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences pupils at the school and of society; and

of adult life.’ (DES, 1989a).

In order to ensure balance within the curriculum a group of 10 foundation subjects are to be taught to all pupils. Three of those subjects, English, Mathematics and Science, are seen as core. That principle is to be enshrined in law.

Amongst the foundation subjects are Technology, including design, which passed into law during the spring of 1990 and Art for which a working party was set up in 1990 to advise on attainment targets and programmes of study for the subject.

The effect appears to be that every pupil in the British state education system

Accepted: 2 August 1990 Correspondence: Dr. T. Genin, Northumberland Park Community School, Trulock Road, Haringey, London N17 OPG.

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from the age of 5 to 16 will have, established in statute, the right to a structured Art and Design Education.

In terms of the subject Technology under the profile component ‘Design and Technology capability’ four attainment targets have been defined; they are:

AT 1-Identifying needs and opportunities, AT 2-Generating a design proposal, AT 3-Planning and making, AT 4-Evaluating.

These targets are expanded upon (NCC, 1989). AT 4 interestingly was originally entitled appraising, (DES, 1988,1989b).

Programmes of Study specify four areas of essential teaching towards those targets and set out the matters, skills and processes which the act believes should be covered by the pupils at four key stages of their education.

Key stage I-Years 5-7 Key stage 11-Years 7-11 Key stage 111-Years 11-14 Key stage IV-Years 14-16

At the end of each key stage, development against the attainment targets will be monitored and measured against an index scale of 1-10, a constant, covering the years 5 to 16. The results will be assessed, recorded and reported on.

It seems likely that, at the time of this paper’s writing, the subject Art which has already been defined a s one of four special subjects through which ‘Design and technology capability’ might be taught will become the subject of a separate statutory instrument known as ‘orders’, backed up by non-statutory guidance from two bodies set up under the educational reform act, the NCC, and the SEAC.

The National Curriculum Council has been set up to give ‘independent’ advice on the school curriculum while the School Examinations and Assessment Council will advise on all aspects of Examinations and Assessment (and evaluation?).

Inevitable doubling up on aspects of profile components, attainment targets and programmes of work not only with Technology but possibly other areas of the curriculum may well result in the subject Art (being well down the list of subjects queuing for institutionalization) having quite a narrowly defined statutory profile.

In a statement from the NCC and SEAC it was suggested that they were ‘not wholly clear’ about the place of assessment in Technology (NCC, 1989).

It is almost inevitable that somewhere in the eventual attainment targets for Art AestheticIArtistic evaluation will be mentioned.

As the fourth attainment target for Technology is entitled Evaluation which, surely in the field of design, must encompass an aesthetic sensibility; then:

‘1.22 aspects) is in the area of aesthetics. In design and technology the fluency of pupils in the design ‘language’ of form, pattern, colour, texture, shape

Another example (of how the document refers to design in all of its

180 T. Genin

and spatial relationships is of crucial importance. Their command of this ‘language’ and judgement of how to apply such considerations could clearly be developed further in Art.’ (Design & Technology for ages 5-16 DES and NCC, 1989b)

It becomes clear that the evaluation of the development of an art and design sensibility in key stages 3 and 4 (11 to 16 years) assumes new importance.

Significant further research will need to be undertaken if that evaluation is to be effective. This will entail a review of techniques which involve the assessment of aesthetic development and will (it would appear when considering their proximity in the curriculum) make use of IT. It is in that area that this author has been engaged for some years.

Personal observations on those developments

Since 1983 the author has been working in the broad area of ArtistidAesthetic evaluation in the secondary (11-16) phase of education, details of which are outlined below. More recently, ways have been examined in which information technology might monitor the development of Art and design sensitivity at key stage 4 (14-16 years). Use has been made of the grading system (levels of achievement) and criterion (attainment targets) set out by the National standardizing body for the recently introduced General Certificate in Secondary Education (GCSE), the two axes of which provide a metaphor for the assessment of development at key stages 3 and 4 (11-16) described in The National Curriculum.

The framework of the National Curriculum as it addressed Design and Technology (and possibly Art) promotes the idea of incremental learning through sustained teaching, with the continuity and sequence that that implies if enhanced understanding in terms of interpretation and criticism should be had. (Inter- pretation and criticism being seen as a key to the better understanding of how diagnostic techniques might monitor a developing aesthetic or artistic sensibility).

Ways are illustrated below in which a sustained provision of increments towards a prescribed programme can build towards a network of under- standings resulting in an holistic comprehension of specific curriculum subjects which are, or can be identified as having an artisticlaesthetic component.

Microcomputers and one aspect of Design ‘Language’, that of colour

During the period of time that a child spends in school, development might be observed in 5 categories designated as:

Intellectual-Cognitive Aesthetic-Artistic Affective-Emotional Physical-Manual Personal-Social.

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The most easily tested is the Intellectual-Cognitive category. This is also the area wherein most software has been generated. The value of computer assisted learning is here most easily examined.

The author has been working in a field somewhat removed from this main- stream of activity in computer education. In 1983 he set about exploring the possibility of using the (then) wide range of colours available in the ‘Research Machine 3802’ Micro Computer, creating graphic software which would enable the young user to explore the theory of colour and develop a colour sense by making judgements and comparisons.

The aim was to develop certain qualities in the user. These qualities differed from those usually associated with Computer Assisted learning, being Aesthetic- Artistic rather than Intellectual-Cognitive.

Rough drafts and experiments led to the conclusion that a range of programs could be developed which would aid colour aesthetic growth in the 11-18 age range.

A general theory of colour was scripted. This was to be largely instructive although some user interaction could take place. An historical examination of colour followed outlining major contribution to our present understanding of colour in the Arts. Much more interaction and exploration was built into this set. Finally a series of designer-games were devised where continuous interaction and exploration was supplemented by forms of rudimentary design pro- gramming. The degree of computer literacy or keyboarding skills needed to interact with these programs was negligible.

During the development of the last suite of programs some interesting aspects of computer assisted learning started to reveal themselves.

For some time the author had been working at the University of London, Institute of Education, researching into the general area of observation skills and how they might be more effectively taught and subsequently, how ways of testing that effectiveness might be developed.

It was proposed in the general thesis that an image comes about as a result of technological, historical, geographic and social forces, an understanding of which, it was suggested can contextualize the image and aid an understanding of its meaning.

While problems seem to occur when fostering visual/spatial understanding through a linguistic medium, visuallspatial memory is, it seems, capable of being trained, and through that training, enhanced. The thesis went on to argue that a taxonomy of visual images is both possible and educationally desirable. It could also be contained within a microcomputer framework.

A syllabus was suggested which consisted of an interwoven structure, made up of a database comprising a chronological grouping of image categories, a set of skills and a teaching strategy. The outcomes were evaluated.

It was found that the response of the pupils involved could be evaluated in terms of (1) a largely quantitative interpretation of meaning; and (2) a qualitative or critical, idiosyncratic understanding of meaning. It was observed that continuity and sequence were important factors in teaching the syllabus. Test

182 T. Genin

841

831

821

81:

Group A 80;

79:

78:

77'

76'

75

74:

73'

72

71

70

Croup B

nine week period - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - I

Fig. 1. A comparison between the control and experimental group's achievement before and after the practice based on overall marks. Two groups were chosen for their similarity in make up and size (20). They were tested on acuity, interpretation and critical ability. The tests were sat at the start and finish of a nine week period. Group A acted a s a control norm against which group B, the experimental group might be measured. A set syllabus was taught to the experimental group during that period and seen to result in growth.

results showed marked positive learning curves when the experimental group was tested against a control group. (see Fig. 1)

The a priori claim that significant growth could be shown to occur in a group's visual understanding of images if they were subjected to a period of sustained teaching was substantiated, with the caveat that continuity and sequence needed more attention. A framework for diagnostic evaluation was proposed which recognized the need for evaluating the pupil as critic as well as interpreter.

IT in ar t and design 183

It became clear that there were problems common to both of the areas described above. Problems which could be posed a s a question:

How does one go about evaluating the degree of artistic/aesthetic development that might occur during a period of controlled teaching and how does one verify that evaluation?

The exciting possibility was that the problems of evaluating the development of visual skills might, to some extent, be obviated using computer software.

If it could be shown that computers could be used a s a tool to support a technique for evaluating an aesthetic then the use of computers in education would be considerably enhanced in terms of dimension.

Developing a micro computer instrument which might provide for the monitoring of the development of Art and Design sensibility

Can the use of micro-computers provide a tool unique in its ability to encourage and enhance the development of an Art and Design pupil’s sensibility in terms of his or her ability to interpret and criticize?

This question, formulated by the experiences outlined above, led to a request to the Gulbenkian foundation for research funding. The request was successful and during the early part of 1988 a model was devised which addressed the question. I t consisted of two related axes consisting of (1) an evaluation criterion and (2) an index of development.

The evaluation criterion clearly influenced by the work of Elliot Eisner might be set out so:

(11 Evaluation should facilitate self evaluation through continuous helical

(2) Evaluation should encompass objectives which are informed and consensus

(3) Evaluation should promote an enthusiasm for better learning and teaching. (4) A record should be kept which is agreed to be essential in tracing

(5) Evaluation should continue to feed back into the larger questions of

communication leading to holistic growth.

held.

development.

curriculum development and educational policy.

The index of development

In order to obviate translation difficulties a t the computerhser interface, it was decided to provide an index of development that was immediate and unequivocal in its symbolic form.

An important task of educational evaluation is to monitor, encourage and enhance growth. It was decided to provide an index which reflected that development in terms of radial expansion and an increase in chromatic warmth. It was to be hoped that by paring to the minimum linguistic-numeric dissonance

184 T. Genin

Pupil exchange seen a s a c t i o n and/or response

Cornput e r exchange a s response

Fig. 2. Dance’s helical model, showing the dynamic nature of the communication process (after Dance, 19671. This model suggests that development might come about as the result of communication not only between teacher and pupil but also at the computer interface.

at the interface the kind of enlightenment implicit in the Dance model of helical communication might come about. (see Fig. 2)

Dance does not provide a tool for detailed analysis but points to the dynamic nature of communication. The model poses situations where the teaching and learning that goes on in, say, Art & Design assumes cognitive growth which in turn allows the teacher structuring the situation to take this for granted and move forward accordingly.

An example

Preliminary paper studies with pupils within the age range encouraged the author to commission a test package using firstly BBC Model B micros and subsequently ‘Acorn Archimedes’.

It was decided to tailor the model to the marking scheme and evaluation criterion of the recently introduced British ‘General Certificate of Secondary Education’ (GCSE) a n examination whose main innovation could be identified a s a marked increase in the importance of self evaluation reflecting on the hoped for growth which might occur a t successive stages of unit constructed coursework. In this the structure points towards the National Curriculum.

First the marking scheme was reduced to the coldlwarm spectrum index. Then the evaluation criterion was reduced to seven fields of perceived

importance summed up as contributing to ‘Evidence of understanding to be had from the experience of process and outcome’ an index of which was to be symbolized by a seven pointed star.

It might be useful at this stage to talk through the evaluation process from the initial work on the unit of GCSE coursework to the conclusion of the interaction with the micro-computer instrument.

The student, Maria, investigates and compiles preliminary material on a project. On completion she goes to the computer, selects her subject, her name and reviews previous evaluations. She then entitles and makes a new evaluation

IT in art and design 185

Fig. 3. The Model Evaluator displayed on screen.

Fig. 4. A pupil at work on evaluation.

based on her understanding of index and criterion. Some supervision by a teacher might be required. At the end of the communication an overall colour ascription is made from the values within the index. Maria makes a comment, a statement or draws a conclusion. Information relevant to the needs of the

186 T. Genin

examining board or a more personal record of achievement can then be printed out.

Further development of this aspect of the package should allow for concrete examples of work to be recorded and reviewed at near photographic resolution on computer disc.

Early evidence seems to indicate that the evaluation mechanism can lead to a degree of autonomy in a pupil’s ability to make evaluations on his or her own work and, (it would appear to folow). on the work of others.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge the support and technical assistance of his colleague Richard Dean, Head of Information Technology at Northumberland Park School.

References

Dance, F. E. X. (1967) A helix model of communication. In (ed. F. E. X. Dance) Human

Department of Education and Science (1988) National Curriculum Design and Technology.

Department of Education and Science (1989a) National Curriculum: from Policy to

Department of Education and Science (1989b) Design and Technology for ages 5-36.

National Curriculum Council (1989) Technology 5-36 in the National Curriculum. NCC,

Communication Theory. Holt, Reinhart and Winston, New York.

Interim Report. DES, London.

Practice. HMSO, London.

HMSO, London.

York.

Short Bibliography

Assessment of Performance Unit (1983) Aesthetic Development. DES, London. Hourihane, C. (1988) A Selective Survey of Systems of Subject Classification. Computers

Gulbenkian Report (1982) Art in Schools. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, London. Moloney, K. M. (1981) Index to Assessment Techniques in Aesthetics. Leicester Polytech-

and the History of Art Newsletter, 8. 15-26.

nic, Leicester, p. 23-30.